plants as human adornment in india

Plant s as H u m a n A d o r n m e n t in India 1

PETER FRANCIS, JR. 2

Plants have served for human adornment in India for millennia. Their use as ornaments and cosmetics is not only ancient but survives to the present time. In addition to decoration, adornment is often regarded as having amuletic powers or is used as social diacritical marks. Over 165 plant species used for human adornment in India have been identified from the literature and by personal observations. This study points out the importance of plants as human adornment both to aboriginal groups and modern urban and rural Indians. The widespread employment of vegetal materials for adornment indicates that in India they have traditionally been more important for this use than have mineral or animal substances.

Although humans exploit plants in many ways, perhaps the most evocatively personal is their use as human adornment. Recent archaeological work has dem- onstrated that personal ornaments precede other forms of artistic expression in India as well as elsewhere (Francis, 1981). Ornaments excavated from the remote past are nearly all made of shell, bone, stone or tooth; apparently plant ornaments do not survive the ravages of the agents of decomposition nearly as well.

However, ethnographic and ethnohistoric accounts in India indicate that plants have been used more often for human adornment than more durable substances. The use of plants for human adornment is not merely of antiquarian interest, for they continue to be so employed and to serve important roles in modern Indian society.

The term "adornment" here is taken in the widest possible sense of decoration and can be divided into 2 classes: ornament and cosmetics. Ornaments are attached to the body by being strung (beads and pendants), being wrapped al ound bodily constrictions (rings on fingers, bangles at wrists, girdles at waist and similar applications), or by being attached through apertures pierced through thin skin (at the nose, ears, or lips). Cosmetics are pigments or oils applied directly to the surface of hair, skin, teeth, or nails.

India's long literary tradition furnishes many examples of plants used for adornment. The Atharvaveda, a magico-religious text of c. 800 B.C. (abbreviated A 10, prescribed a number of plants to be worn. Many of these plants can no longer be identified, though Vedic scholars have succeeded in tracing some of them. Indian poets have often mentioned the use of flowers for adornment (Dymock, 1889a; Datta-Majumdar, 1956); Kalidasa (4th century A.D.) recorded several flowers used in this manner (Mehra et al., 1975).

The most frequently used plant ornament in India is a bead made of the fruit (commonly called "seed") of Coix lacryma-jobi or Job's tears. Beads of Job's tears have been excavated from levels dated to the last centuries B.C. (Dikshit, 1952a; Deraniyagala, 1972), and are still widely used for this purpose in India. Nor are beads of Job's tears confined to India; the author knows of their use in

Received 18 November 1982; accepted 29 May 1983. 2 Camelot, 50 Riverside Drive, Lake Placid, NY 12946.

Economic Botany, 38(2), 1984, pp. 194-209 �9 1984, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458

1984] FRANCIS: PLANT ADORNMENT 195

the United States, north and south Africa, Brazil (Harris, 1981), Iran, and Soviet Central Asia (Ronis-Raeburn, 1982).

Flowers are nearly universal as ornaments in India, worn in the hair or strung as garlands. Furer-Haimendorf (1943) observed that the aboriginal Chenchus decorated their bodies with any attractive bloom at hand. Urban Indians do the same thing, choosing whatever flowers are in season and available rather than selecting for particular species.

Plant fibers are commonly worn on human limbs and serve as strands to string beads. The Malars have been recorded as gathering 9 useful fiber-bearing plants for these purposes (Vidyarthi, 1975). A great many plant fibers are available in India, though they are often unexploited or unrecorded for ornamental uses (Royal Gardens, Kew, 1898).

Unfortunately, ethnographic reports rarely provide information on the techniques used to form human ornaments from plants. The account of the Chenchu women who gather seeds chosen for their variety of size, color, and texture, dry them in the sun, pierce them with thorns, and string them on creepers (Furer- Haimendorf, 1943) is probably typical of this activity among Indian aborigines. Other techniques used by modern ornament makers using plants have been studied by the author observing such workers (Francis, 1983).

The use of plants for adornment in no way precludes their common parallel functions such as amulets or social diacritical markers. Many of the plant ornaments mentioned in the A V were used as amulets, and magical functions remain an important use for plant adornment in modern India. Plants are commonly worn to indicate an individual's religious affiliation: beads ofElaeocarpus ganitrus seeds are worn by the followers of Shiva, necklaces made from the woody parts of Ocimum sanctum are worn by Vishnu worshippers, and beads cut from the wood of Aegle marmelos are worn by Sudras to show they are Hindus.

Though other writers have recognized the widespread use of plants for human adornment in India, the present paper highlights 2 important aspects in this regard. One is that plants are by far the most commonly exploited materials for adorn- mental purposes among aboriginal groups. The other is that plants are used for the whole range of ornamental types known to students of adornment. Both of these findings suggest that ornaments made of plants are antecedent to all forms of jewelry.

A case in point is the problem of the origin of the typically Indian nose ornament (the hath). Several writers have assumed that since the nath is not found on older sculptures or in early literature, it was introduced to India in the Medieval period by Muslims (Mookerji, 1930; Gode, 1938; Dhamija, 1970). The fact that many aboriginal groups use plants for nose ornaments suggests an older and indigenous origin for the hath, as does mention of nose ornaments by a 7th century Chinese visitor to India (Tsiang, 1963).

CATALOGUE OF PLANTS USED FOR ADORNMENT IN INDIA

This catalogue was compiled during the 3 yr the author spent studying archae- ology at Deccan College, Poona, India, during which time he traveled widely to visit museums and modern ornament makers. Plants noted as identified by personal observation were collected and identified with the help of Dr. M. D. Kajale

196 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 38

of Deccan College and the staffofthe Botanical Survey of India, Poona. Vernacular names recorded in the literature or reported by ornament makers were traced through Chopra et al. (1956, 1969) and The Wealth of India. Specific names were checked with Hooker and Jackson (1895) and family names with Hutchinson (1959).

The term "India" here refers to the modern states of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, including islands outside the Indian floristic region. The A V is the Atharvaveda, an Aryan text of c. 800 B.C. Kalidasa was a Hindu poet of the 4th century A.D.

Abrus precatorius L. Papilionaceae

Seeds widely strung as beads (Balfour, 1871; Mehra et al., 1975); a use recorded as early as the 1 lth century (Chandra, 1960).

Acacia catechu Willd. Mimosaceae

Wood cut into the plowshare-shaped amulet of the A V (Shende, 1949).

A. pennata (L.) Willd.

Twigs and roots are cut into beads (Dastur, 1964).

Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

In Bastar district, roots are briefly worn by women during delivery (Jain, 1963), and on men's and women's arms as a fever amulet (Banerjee, 1974).

Adenanthera pavonina L. Caesalpiniaceae

Seeds strung for necklaces (Balfour, 1871) and rosaries (Dastur, 1964).

Adhatoda vasica Nees Acanthaceae

Wood cut into beads (Watt, 1889) and for rosaries (Mehra et al., 1975).

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. Rubiaceae

Leaves worn during Birhor friendship ceremonies (Roy, 1925).

Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco Aegicerataceae

Flowers worn by women on the west coast (Watt, 1889).

Aegle marmelos Corr. Rutaceae

Sudras wear beads cut from the wood, indicating they are not Muslims (Watt, 1889).

Aeschynomene aspera L. Papilionaceae

The soft stems used for wedding crowns (Hindus) and veils (Muslims) (Dastur, 1964) and for beads and other ornaments for idols (Watt, 1889; Mehra et al., 1975; Francis, 1983). Used for sola pith helmets ( Wealth, 1948).

A. indica L.

Cheaper substitute for A. aspera (Dastur, 1964; Datta and Banerjee, 1978).

Agave americana L. Amaryllidaceae

Fiber used to string beads of Aegle marmelos wood (Watt, 1889).


Ageratum conyzoides L. Compositae

Pollen added to saffron in women's forehead marks is supposed to insure luck in important meetings (Jain, 1963).

Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth. Mimosaceae

Kalidasa noted women wearing flowers, c. 400 A.D. (Mehra et al., 1975).

Allium cepa L. Liliaceae

Onion considered arka amulet of the A V (Shende, 1949).

A. sativum L.

Strands of garlic put on children as whooping cough amulets (Watt, 1889).

Amanita muscaria (Fr.) S. F. Gray Amanitaceae

Proposed as soma amulet of the A V(Wasson, 1971).

Anadendrum (Anadendron) paniculatum Araceae

Seeds made into necklaces on the Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Anisophyllea spp. Rhizophoraceae

Seeds of several species strung on Great Andaman (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich. Rubiaceae

Flower wearing noted by Kalidasa (Mehra et al., 1975). Gold beads are made to imitate flowers (Dymock, 1889a).

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. Aquilariaceae

Aloe wood (Schoff, 1922) cut into imitation rudraksha beads (Elaeocarpus spp.) (Watt, 1889). Beads for necklaces and rosaries (Dastur, 1964).

Areca catechu L. Palmae

Groom ties pierced seed on bride's wrist (Dymock, 1889b). Seeds are strung as beads (Dastur, 1964). Archaeologists call clay areca-nut-shaped objects (common 100 B.C.-500 A.D.) "beads" but were more likely whorls used for spinning thread (Francis, 1982).

Asclepias sp. L. Asclepiadaceae

Possibly the soma amulet of the A V (Dubreuil, 1926).

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae

Twigs worn in caps during festivals in Madhya Pradesh (Banerjee, 1974).

Azadirachta indica Juss., syn. Melia azadirachta L. Meliaceae

Possible arka amulet of the A V (Shende, 1949).

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Gramineae

Tunkll Nagas wear culm rings in ears (Watt, 1889; Mehra et al., 1975). "Bamboo" culms (not further identified) cut into rings to decorate undergarments by Hill Marias (Grigson, 1938), fashioned into combs by Oraons (Das and Raha, 1963), Maria Gonds (Nagar, 1980), and Hos, who also make bangles (Majumdar, 1950), wedding crowns in the north (Reddy, 1956), and beads on the Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).


Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae

Krishna put flowers in cowmaid's hair (Dymock, 1889a).

Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniaceae

Flower garlands worn by Chola kings (Chandra, 1973).

B. vahlii Wight & Am.

Dried tendril rings worn on fingers by Santals (Watt, 1889). Stems used for loincloth belts by male Reddis (Furer-Haimendorf, 1945).

Borassus flabellifer L. Palmae

Santals cut the leaves into bracelets (Watt, 1889).

Bougainvillaea sp. Comm. ex Juss. Nyctaginaceae

Flowers made into garlands in Bombay (pers. obs.).

Brassica campestris L. Cruciferae

Possibly abayu charm of the AV (Shende, 1949). Oil from seeds used in hair recorded in early Buddhist texts (Sastry, 1966).

Bryonopsis laciniosa (L.) Naud., syn. Bryonia laciniosa L. Cucurbitaceae

Necklaces of roots worn as eye amulets for children (Modi, 1893).

Butea frondosa Roxb., syn. B. monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Papilionaceae

Parna amulet of the A V(Shende, 1949). Flowers worn in hair and ears (Watt, 1889); flower garlands decorate Kali idols (Dymock et al., 1890).

Caesalpinia crista L. Caesalpiniaceae

Seeds are strung on red silk collars as abortion amulets (Watt, 1889).

C. bonduc (L.) Roxb., syn. C. jayabo Maza

Seeds strung on necklaces, bracelets, and rosaries (Mehra et al., 1975).

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Papilionaceae

Wood cut into beads for necklaces and rosaries (Watt, 1889).

Calamus sp. L. Palmae

Stems used for leggings by Nagas and Konyaks (Mills, 1926; Hutton, 1921 a), for collars by Reddis, Angami Nagas, and Tangkhuls (Furer-Haimendorf, 1945; Hutton, 1921a; Hodson, 1911), and fillets by Old Kiku men (Shakespear, 1912).

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. ex Ait. Asclepiadaceae

Flowers worn in hair (Watt, 1889); leaves in hair by Maria Gonds (Nagar, 1980).

Canna indica L., syn. C. orientalis Rosc. Cannaceae

Seeds are bored before ripe, then dried ( Wealth, 1950) to be used for necklaces and rosaries (Balfour, 1871; Mehra et al., 1975).

Cannabis sativa L. Cannabinaceae

Fiber prescribed for stringing beads in the A V (Shende, 1949).


Capparis aphylla Roth., syn. C. decidua Edgew. Capparidaceae

Juice used to prepare etched carnelian beads (Mackay, 1933).

Capsicum frutescens L. Solanaceae

Nagas wear fruit in ears (Hodson, 1911) and hair (Mills, 1926).

Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae

Flowers worn in hair (Watt, 1889) and on garlands (Mehra et al., 1975).

Caryota urens L. Palmae

Beads cut from nuts (Watt, 1889); plaited fiber collars worn by Hill Reddi men (Furer-Haimendorf, 1945).

Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. Ulmaceae

Men of Little Andaman wear girdles made from bark (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Cicer arietinum L. Papilionaceae

Powdered seeds used as a cosmetic (Dymock et al., 1890).

Citrus medica L. Rutaceae

Flowers worn in hair since the Medieval period (Dymock, 1889a); fruit strung as a charm (pers. obs.).

Clerodendrum ( Clerodendron) viscosum Vent. Verbenaceae

Flowers worn for worship in Bastar district (Jain, 1963).

Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston, syn. C. gossypium DC. Cochlospermaceae

Flowers worn in Bastar district for worship (Jain, 1963).

Cocos nucifera L. Palmae

Hair oil fron nuts mentioned in early Buddhist texts (Sastry, 1966). Nut shells cut into rings by Yanadi men (Raghaviah, 1962), bangles by Kunbis and Gadulias (Russell and Lal, 1916; Misra, 1977). Munda boys make belts from fiber (Roy, 1925); Nicobarese make leaf collars (Hutton, 1931).

Coix lacryma-jobi L. Gramineae

Fruit strung as beads by Nagas (Watt, 1889), Mundas (Roy, 1925), Bondos (Golish, 1954), Karans (Balfour, 1871), and Kadirs (Thurston and Rangachari, 1909).

Corypha umbraculifera L. Palmae

Vegetable ivory from nuts cut into beggars' beads (Balfour, 1871); beads dyed to imitate coral (Wealth, 1950).

Crataeva religiosa Forst., syn. Capparis trifoliata Roxb. Capparidaceae

Varana amulet of the A V cut from wood (Shende, 1949).

Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae

Pollen used for forehead spot and Muslim beards (Mookerji, 1930).

Crossandra undulaefolia Salisb., syn. C. infundibuliformis (L.) Nees Acanthaceae

Garlands of flowers used in Bombay (Namboothiry, 1980).


Curcurna longa L. Zingiberaceae

Groom ties root on bride (Dymock, 1889b); southern women dust bodies with powdered root (turmeric) (Mookerji, 1930).

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Gramineae

Darbha grass; women wear rings of culms for worship (Mookerji, 1930).

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Papilionaceae

Marriage amulet cut from wood in the A V (Shende, 1949). Santal women wear seeds in ears (Watt, 1889). Wood used by Benaras beadmakers (pers. obs.).

Daphne cannabina Wall., syn. D. bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don., syn. D. papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae

Flowers for garlands in the north (Watt, 1889).

Delonix regia Rafin., syn. Poinciana regia Boj. ex Hook. Caesalpiniaceae

Flowers worn in western India (pers. obs.).

Dendrobium sp. Sw. Orchidaceae

Stems used to ornament men's belts, Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf Gramineae

Kush grass; worn by couple at their wedding (Mookerji, 1930; Reddy, 1956).

Elaeagnus latifolia L. Elaeagnaceae

Gold pendants are made to imitate fruit (Birdwood, 1880).

Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb., syn. E. sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Schum. Tiliaceae

Nuts worn by Shiva worshippers (rudraksha bead) at least since the 1 l th century (Bhandarkar, 1913); also by widows (Howell, 1892) and "hippies" (Mehra et al., 1975). The only single-lobed nut known is worth a small fortune (Bushan, 1964).

E. lanceaefolius Roxb.

Small nuts exported to Europe for bracelets (Balfour, 1871). Yogis on pilgrimage given one by the guru of Dwarka temple (Russell and Lal, 1916).

E. tuberculatus Roxb.

Elongated rudraksha; worn as a bead (Watt, 1889).

Elettaria cardamomum Maton Zingiberaceae

Seeds strung on garlands at Thanjaver, Tamil Nadu (pers. obs.).

Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merrill Mimosaceae

Seed worn as a charm (Mehra et al., 1975).

Ervatamia coronaria Stapf, syn. Tabernaemontana coronaria R. Br. Apocynaceae

The flowers are worn (Watt, 1889).

E. heyneana T. Cooke, syn. Tabernaernontana heyeana Wall.

The flowers are worn in the hair (pers. obs.).


Erythrina variegata L., syn. E. indica I.am. Papilionaceae

The seeds are strung as beads (Mehra et al., 1975).

Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb., syn. Caryophyllus aromaticus L., syn. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry Myrtaceae

Flower buds strung on garlands in Thanjaver, Tamil Nadu (pers. obs.).

E. jambos L., syn. Syzygium jambos Alston.

Flowers are worn in northern India (Mehra et al., 1975).

Euonymus grandiflorus Wall. Celastraceae

The seeds are strung as beads (Watt, 1889).

E. fimbriatus Wall.

The seeds are worn as beads (Watt, 1889).

E. tingens Wall.

Red (from inner bark) and yellow (from arils) powder used for forehead spots for women (Dymock et al., 1890).

Ficus altissima Blume, syn. F. laccifera Roxb. Moraceae

Bark of aerial root for amulet; bark fiber used to string human bone necklaces in the Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

F. hispida L. f.

Bark tassels at waist, neck, and arms, Little Andaman (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

F. racemosa L.

Udumbara amulet of the A V (Chattopadhyaya, 1976). Women wear seeds on eighth day of con- finement (Watt, 1889), a Medieval practice (Auboyer, 1961).

F. religiosa L.

Harappan "winged beads" perhaps modeled on the leaves (Dikshit, 1952b). Leaves reported as only clothing of aboriginal women (Birdwood, 1880).

Flacourtia ramontchi L'Her., syn. F. indica Merr. Flacourtiaceae

The wood is cut into beads (Watt, 1889).

Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. Euphorbiaceae

The Chenchus wear the pullipusala seed (Furer-Haimendorf, 1943). Pulli is Telegu for this plant; pusala is Telegu for "bead."

Garcinia morella Desr. Clusiaceae

The wearing of flowers mentioned in poetry (Dymock, 1889a).

Gardenia turgida Roxb. Rubiaceae

The roots are worn as charms in Chota Nagpur (Mehra et al., 1975).

Gnetum scandens Roxb., syn. G. edule Blume Gnetaceae

Fiber used as amulet on the Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).


Gossypium arboreum L. Malvaceae

Wads of cotton worn in ears by Nagas (Hodson, 1911; Mills, 1926); chiefs stiffen the wads with bamboo splints (Hutton, 192 l b). Cotton fiber is plaited into collars by Angami Naga girls to give to their boy friends (Hutton, 1921a), spun into the sacred thread (Buchanan, 1899), and knotted and worn on the neck as amulets throughout India (Maloney, 1976).

Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. Hernandiaceae

Seeds are strung for rosaries and necklaces (Watt, 1889).

Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Periplocaceae

Root worn on neck as amulet for fever in Bastar district (Jain, 1963).

Hevea brasiliensis MueU.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae

Nagas wear bangles of hardened rubber (Furer-Haimendorf, 1933); they are possibly made from Ficus elastica Roxb. or other native rubbers.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae

Garlands of flowers put on Kali idols in Bengal (Watt, 1889).

H. tiliaceus L.

Fiber used for men's belts in the Andaman Islands (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Hordeum vulgate L. Gramineae

Talasa amulet of the A V(Shende, 1949). Birhor girls put plant behind each other's ears in friendship ceremony (Roy, 1925).

Indigofera tinctoria L. Papilionaceae

All 40 Indigofera species yield dyes, long used on hair and cloth (Martin-Leake, 1975). Export from Thane, Bombay by 30 B.C. (Dymock et al., 1890).

Ipomoea pes-caprae Sw., syn. L biloba Forsk. Convolvulaceae

Stem made into wristlet for marriage of Kumhhars of Poona (Ferreira, 1965).

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl Oleaceae

Small, fragrant flowers worn (Wealth, 1959).

J. flexile Vahl

Less fragrant flowers worn (Wealth, 1959).

o r. officinale L., syn. J. grandiflorum L.

Howers worn (Watt, 1889).

J. sambac (L.) Ait.

Finely-scented flowers worn (Watt, 1889); the double variety is holy to Vishnu devotees (Mehra et al., 1975).

Kaempferia angustifolia Rose. Zingiberaceae

Karen women wear seeds as necklaces (Mehra et al., 1975).

Lagenaria siceraria Standl., syn. L. vulgaris Ser. Cucurbitaeeae

Gujarati Bhil girls wear neck of gourd fruit in ears (pers. obs.).


Lawsonia inermis L., syn. L. alba Lam. Lythraceae

Kalidasa noted flowers worn (Mehra et al., 1975). Henna dye from leaves perhaps a Muslim intro- duction (Basu, 1889); dye on palms, feet, and nails of Muslim women (Mookerji, 1930). Lac-workers' caste substitutes henna for lac on feet during month of fasting (Russell and Lal, 1916). Daudi Bohoras of Poona use henna dye in hair (Campbell, 1880).

Leucaena lecocephala (Lam.) Wit. Mimosaceae

Seeds strung as beads (Mehra et al., 1975).

Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae

Stem sections are tied with string and worn as amulets (Watt, 1889).

Litsea sp. Lam., syn. Tetranthera sp. Jacq. Lauraceae

Wood shavings made into plumes and worn by homicides during their purification ceremony; plumes also worn on belts at dances (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel., syn. Bassia latifolia Roxb. Sapotaceae

Bride wears bead cut from wood in the A V (Shende, 1949). Ho girls wear the flowers in their hair (Majumdar, 1950).

Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae

Leaf is part of the kangan ornament tied to wrists of the wedding couple (Reddy, 1956). Gold pendants imitate the fruit (Birdwood, 1880).

Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae

Seeds strung for necklaces and rosaries (Wealth, 1962; Dastur, 1964).

Mesua ferrea L. Clusiaceae

Assam women wear leaves in hair; both sexes put leaves and flowers in their ears (Mehra et al., 1975).

Michelia champaca L Magnoliaceae

Gold pendants made to resemble buds (Birdwood, 1880). Flowers worn in hair and turbans (Mehra et al., 1975); wood cut into beads (Dastur, 1964).

Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae

Garlands of flowers and seeds worn (Watt, 1889).

M. littoralis Kurz.

Leaves are worn on Andamese women's belts (Radcliffe-Brown, 1922).

Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae

Seeds and flowers worn; root powdered for cosmetic (Mehra et al., 1975).

Murraya koenigii Spreng. Rutaceae

The Chenchus string seeds on necklaces (Furer-Haimendorf, 1943).

Musa sp. L. Musaceae

Nicobarese women make ornaments from leaves (Mann, 1975).


Musa paradisiaca L.

The seeds are worn as beads by the Kacha Nagas (Hutton, 1921a).

Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae

The arils (mace) are strung on garlands in Thanjaver, Tamil Nadu (pers. obs.).

Nannorhops ritchieana H. Wendl. Palmae

The seeds are strung for rosaries (Dastur, 1964).

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., syn. Nelumbium speciosum Willd. Nymphaeaceae

Seeds worn as beads; flowers used on garlands (Watt, 1889). Gold pendants imitate flowers (Bird- wood, 1880).

Nerium indicum Mill., syn. N. odorum Soland. Apocynaceae

Flower garlands worn (Watt, 1889), especially at religious ceremonies (Dymock et al., 1890).

Nyctanthes arbortristis L. Oleaceae

Flowers for garlands (Watt, 1889) and in hair (Mehra et al., 1975).

Ocimum basilicum L. Labiatae

Stem cut into beads (Watt, 1889), especially for Arabs (Dymock et al., 1890).

O. sanctum L.

Beads cut from stem and root for Vishnu devotees (Balfour, 1871), perhaps an aboriginal practice (Sen Gupta, 1980). Beads worn by messengers (Dymock et al., 1890); leaves used on garlands (Nam- boothiry, 1980).

Oroxylum indicum Vent. Bignoniaceae

Seeds are strung for garlands for idols (Watt, 1889).

Oryza sativa L. Gramineae

Unhusked grains are tied onto bamboo strips to be used as borders for garlands in Thanjaver, Tamil Nadu (pers. obs.).

Pandanus andamanensium Kurz. Pandanaceae

Andaman Island men wear the leaves at the knees, wrists, waist, and head; the women make girdles of the leaves (Man, 1882).

P. odoratissimus Roxb., syn. P. tectorius Sol.

Flowers have been worn in the hair since antiquity (Dymock, 1889a).

Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmae

Chenchus make bangles of the leaves (Thurston and Rangachari, 1909).

Phragmites sp. Trin. Gramineae

Culm sections worn by Assamese women in ears (Watt, 1889); short sections dyed yellow and violet are strung as beads in Puri, Orissa (pers. obs.).

Phyllanthus emblica L., syn. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae

The fruit is believed to be the model of the amalaka bead, worn by married women (Howell, 1892).


Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae

Roots are worn as amulets on the wrist and arm in Bastar (Jain, 1963).

Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. Labiatae

Leaves and flowers are used in garlands (Wealth, 1969).

Prosopis spicigera L., syn. P. cineraria Druce. Mimosaceae

The ashes are used as a dipilatory for body hair (Chopra et al., 1956).

Prunus cerasoides D. Don, syn. P. puddum Roxb. ex Wall. Rosaceae

Seeds are strung on rosaries and necklaces (Mehra et al., 1975).

P. mahaleb L.

The seeds are strung as beads (Mehra et al., 1975).

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Euphorbiaceae

The seeds are widely strung as amulets for children (Dymock et al., 1890) and as Brahman rosaries (Watt, 1889). The generic name is Sanskrit/Hindi for "life of the child." My experimental grinding to perforate a seed against a basalt block took 24 rain.

Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae

Oil from seeds used on hair mentioned in early Buddhist texts (Sastry, 1966). The seeds are strung as beads (pers. obs.).

Rosa spp. Tourn. ex L. Rosaceae

Garlands of flowers were a Medieval export item (Auboyer, 1961). Worn in hair and on garlands (pers. obs.).

Saccharum munja Roxb., syn. S. ciliare T. Anders. Gramineae

Girdles of munja grass are prescribed in the A V (Shende, 1949).

Samadera indica Gaertn., syn. Quassia indica Noot. Simarubaceae

Necklaces of seeds are used as amulets (Dymock et al., 1890) especially for asthmatic children (Watt, 1889).

Samecarpus anacardium L. Anacardiaceae

Seeds put on babies as amulets in Bastar (Elwin, 1941). The Gonds dye hair with oil from the seeds (Mukerjee, 1944).

Santalum album L. Santalaceae

Exotic to India, but powdered wood used for women's forehead spots by 5th century B.C. (Dymock et al., 1890) and oil for hair noted in early Buddhist texts (Sastry, 1966). Beads cut from wood are a major export; their first mention is Dastur (1964). Sawdust pressed into beads at Thanjaver, Tamil Nadu (pers. obs.).

Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae

Root on arm used as amulet for dreams and lactation in Orissa (Banerjee, 1974).

Sesamum indicum L., syn. S. orientale L. Pedaliaceae

Early Buddhist texts note use ofoi l in hair (Sastry, 1966).


Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Dipterocarpaceae

Birhors put leaf in septum (Roy, 1925); Hos wear flower in hair (Majumdar, 1950).

Sorghum sp. L. Gramineae

Hos wear culms in ears and noses (Majumdar, 1950).

Sphaeranthus indicus L. Compositae

Flower garlands worn as smallpox amulets in Bastar (Jain, 1963).

Stephania hernandifolia (Willd.) Walp. Menispermaceae

Pata amulet of the A II, worn on the arm (Shende, 1949).

Stereospermum suaveolens DC. Bignoniaceae

Seed necklaces worn as amulets in Bastar (Jain, 1963).

Strobilanthesflaccidfolius Nees Acanthaceae

Angami Nagas grow for blue dye for cane ornaments (Hutton, 1921a).

Symplocos laurina Wall., syn. S. spicata Roxb. Symplocaceae

Buris string seeds (Watt, 1889). Seeds strung as children's amulets (Mehra et al., 1975), and for rosaries ( Wealth, 1976).

S. racemosa Roxb.

Kalidasa noted pollen worn on women's cheeks (Mehra et al., 1975). Red dye from the bark is used for women's forehead spots (Dymock et al., 1890).

Tagetes erecta L. Compositae

Flowers are worn (Watt, 1889). Garlands are given to worshippers by Brahmans after religious ceremonies (Mehra et al., 1975).

Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Tamaricaceae

Wood cut into beads (Watt, 1889); flowers worn in hair (Mehra et al., 1975).

Taxus baccata L. Taxaceae

Seeds worn by Mundas (Roy, 1925). Nagas wear twigs as amulets against pregnancy (Mehra et al., 1975).

Tectona grandis L. f. Verbenaceae

Maria Gond women were said to wear only the leaf for clothing (Russell and Lal, 1916), a notion strongly refuted; the Gonds laughed at the idea of anyone so poor as to wear only leaves (Grigson, 1938).

Terminalia bialata Steud. Combretaceae

Garlands of leaves exported in the Medieval period (Auboyer, 1961).

T. chebula Retz.

Gonds use juice from fruit as hair dye (Mukerjee, 1944).

T. tomentosa Wight & Am.

The leaves were once the only clothing of the Juangs (Elwin, 1948).


Thevetia peruviana (Pets.) K. Schum. Apocynaceae

Nuts worn in western India (Mehra et al., 1975).

Trigonella corniculata L. Papilionaceae

Hair wreaths of flowers noted by Hindu poets (Dymock, 1889a).

Tuber aestivum Vitt. or T. melanosporum Vitt. Tuberaceae

A V amulet, either soma (Malandra, 1979) or pata (Shende, 1949).

Vanda roxburghii R. Br., syn. V. tessellata Lodd. Orchidaceae

The Santals split the leaves for anklets (Watt, 1889).

Vateria indica L. Dipterocarpaceae

The resin is made into beads (Watt, 1889).

Xeromphis spinosa (Thumb.) Keay. Rubiaceae

Fruits tied onto wedding couple's wrists (Mehra et al., 1975).

Zanthoxylum limonella (Dennst.) Alst. Rutaceae

Kacharis use wood for beads and other ornaments (Jain and Dam, 1979).

Zizyphusjujuba Lam. Rhamnaceae

The seeds are strung as necklaces (pers. obs.).

Z. xylopyrus Willd.

The Kols tie seeds onto children's wrists (Gritfiths, 1946).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author thanks M. D. Kajale of Deccan College, Poona, India, and the staff of the Botanical Survey of India, Poona, for their assistance.

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