Planning Task-based Lessons

龚亚夫人民教育出版社

What are tasks? 意义的表达是第一位的（ meaning is primary ） 需要解决交际中的问题 (there is some

communication problem to solve) 与实际生活的活动相似 (there is some sort of

relationship to comparable real-world activities)

最 受 关 注 的 是 完 成 任 务 (task completion has some priority)

任 务 的 评 价 取 决 于 结 果 (the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome)

What are not tasks? 1 不让学习者只是鹦鹉学舌 (do not give other people’s meaning to regurgitate ）

2 不是为了显示语言的技能 (are not concerned with language display)

3 不 是 墨 守 成 规 与 人 雷 同 的 (are not conformity- oriented)

4 不是为了做机械性的操练 (are not practice- oriented)

5 不是为了学习某些句型结构硬把语言安排到材料之 中 (do not embed language into materials so that specific structures can be focused upon)

Criteria features of a task (Ellis, 2003:9)

A task is a work plan – a plan for learner activity.

A task involves a primary focus on meaning.

A task involves real-world processes of language use.

A task can involve any of the four language skills.

Criteria features of a task (Ellis, 2003:9)

A task engages cognitive processes such as selecting, classifying, ordering, and evaluating information in order to carry out the task.

A task has a clear defined communicative outcome.

广义任务的定义A task is an activity that

learners engage in further the process of learning a language.

Williams and Burden (1997)

1. Pre-communicative language practice( 交际前活动 ): practise language with some attention to Meaning.

E.g. With your partner, practise asking and answering questions about what Richard and Emy have to do and what they would like to do.

Students answer questions about a situation, picture or topic.

2. Communicative language practice( 交际性活动 ): practise language in a context. E.g. information gap activities or personalised questions.

Guessing-game: The students ‘hide’ an object somewhere in a picture. They take turns to find out where the subject has been hidden by asking questions like: Isit under the TV? Is it on the bookcase?

Fill in the chart about your classmates’ preferences.

3. Structured communication( 结构性交际 ): Using language to communicate in situations. E.g. in structured role-play and simple problem-solving.

1. The world tomorrow: students are asked to write down a list of changes they expect to see in the world by a date 50 years in the future.

2. Summarise you and your classmates Holiday Plans.

4. Authentic communication( 真实性交际 ): Using language to communicate in situations where the meanings are unpredictable. E.g. in creative role-play, more complex problem-solving and discussion.

I love music! – How do you feel when you listen to music? Why do you like music? Discuss with your partner and write down five reasons.

Three principal phases Pre-task phase During task phase Post-task phase

Pre-task phase On general cognitive demands of the

task 对任务要求的总体感知 An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素

Pre-task phase

Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the during-task phase of the lesson

让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备

工作

Pre-task phase

Non-task preparation activities --- brain storming 大脑风暴--- mind map 思维图 Addressing linguistic demands of a task--predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm

a list of words related to the task title or topic

Pre-task phase Providing a model 提供一个示范 Asking students to observe a model of

how to perform the task 让学生观察完成任务的模式

Performing a similar task 完成一些简单的任务

（ simply observing others perform a task can help reduce the cognitive load on the learner) Skehan

Language acquisition research

Lexico-semantic theory– a net work of associations, a web-like

structure of interconnected links (Aitchison, 1987)

Connect the word with already known words, the links is created, the learning takes place (Sŏkmen ) 当词汇增加到一定程度时，头脑就会建立一个系统，使词汇有机地组织起来，以便提取。

Promote a deep level of processing

--- When students are asked to manipulate

words, relate them to other words and to their own experiences, and then justify their choices, these words associations are reinforced. (Sŏkmen)

What is it? A stirrup is silver. A stirrup is strong. A stirrup is made of iron. A stirrup has a flat bottom. We can find a stirrup on a horse. A stirrup is used to put your foot into when you ride a horse. (Nation, 1990)

Multi-word units--“chunks of language” , “lexical chunks”

Collocations 习惯搭配 Phrasal verbs 常用短语 Sentence frames 句子结构 Social formulae 社交套话 Discourse markers 语段连接词

Pre-task phase Three purposes:---to serve to introduce new language that

learners can use while performing the task;

---to mobilize existing linguistic resources;---to ease processing load, and to push

learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways

During-task phase

Participatory structure 参与方式--individual or interaction 个人与互动--language learners or language users pair and group work are seen as central

to task-based teaching not all tasks are interactive

Traditional vs task-based

Traditional form-focus pedagogy

--Teacher controls topic development

-- turn taking is regulated by the teacher

Task-based pedagogy

-- students able to control topic development

-- speakers can self-select

questions that

questioner already knows the answer to

little need or opportunity to negotiate meaning

Scaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to produce correct sentences

questions that the questioner does not know the answer to

Opportunities to negotiate meaning when communication problems arise

Scaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to say what they want to say

Form-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the correctness of students’ utterances

The teacher repeats what a student has said for the benefit of the whole class

Content-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the message content of the students’ utterance

A student elects to repeat something another student or teacher has said as private speech or to establish intersubjectivity

Task types

1 拼图式任务（ jigsaw tasks ） 2 信息差型任务（ information gap tasks ） 3 解决问题型任务（ problem solving tasks ） 4 选择决定型任务（ decision making tasks ） 5 交换观点型任务（ opinion exchange tasks ）

Task types

1 编目（列单子 , Listing ） 2 排序与分类 (Ordering and sorting) 3 对比 (Comparing) 4 解决问题 (Problem solving) 5 个人经历 (Sharing personal

experiences) 6 创造性任务 (Creative tasks)

The post-task phase

Three major pedagogical goals:-- 提供再做任务的机会（ to provide an opportunity

for a repeat performance of the task ）

-- 反思任务是怎样完成的（ to encourage reflection on how the task was performed ）

-- 关注语言的形式（ to encourage attention to

form ）

Repeat performance

Carry out second performance publicly （全班，当众）

－ Complexity increases 复杂度提高了－ Express more clearly 表达更清楚了－ Become more fluent 语言更流利了

Reflecting on the task Present a report on how they did the task

and what they decided or discovered – oral or written

Summary the outcome of the task Reflect or evaluate of their own

performance (fluency, complicity or accuracy) Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略

(planning,monitoring and evaluating)

Focusing on forms 学习语法 direct focus on grammar-- focus on the features of the forms 讲

解重点语法-- address errors 纠正语言错误-- address gaps in the students’

knowledge 补充语言知识不足

The post-task phase 的四种主要活动

Reviewing of learner errors 反思错误 Consciousness-raising tasks 语法意识 Production-practice activities 操练活

动 Noticing activities 注意语言的准确

Reviewing of learner errors Teacher moves from group to group

to listen and note down the errors Address these errors with the whole

class - can be written on the board - students can be invited to correct it - listen again and edit their own performance - teacher comments on

Consciousness-raising tasks

There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention就某一语法现象单独讲解

The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述

Consciousness-raising tasks

The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过思考理解语法用法

Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达

To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足

Production-practice activities

Repetition 重复活动 Substitution 替换练习 Gapped sentences 填空练习 Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子 Transformation drills 变换句型 Dialogues 对话

Combinations of skills

listening with speaking and writing

reading with speaking and writing

sometimes all four skills speaking always before writing

Integrating SkillsReading and Writing

使学生能综合运用所学语法、词汇、功能等，并通过读、写活动达到有效的“输出”。

给学生提供不同的话题与书面表达的任务，培养学生逐步学会使用文段中的语言素材，活用固定的表达方法。在这些活动中，学生需要用所学的语言讨论自己感兴趣的话题，表达自己的思想，与同伴交流各自了解的信息。

Writing 体裁 : 叙述 , 描述 , 比较 , 从简单的描述、叙述

到较为复杂的比较、论述，从写便条、贺卡、通知、书信、故事到创作诗歌，既有实用性的写作也有发挥想象力的自由写作。

不同的形式的写作技能 : 信息转换，归纳、总结、比较、陈述观点等 .

还提供了有效的编辑加工指导及范例 : 如自改、互改和小组编辑等 .

Noticing activities Focusing on linguistic form Dictation Editing Writing and teacher comments

Thank you!

gongyf@pep.com.cn www.pep.com 010-64016633-6216