physical workload and labour productivity in timber harvesting in pakistan- ph. d thesis. mohammad...

7/28/2019 Physical Workload and Labour Productivity in Timber Harvesting in Pakistan- Ph. D Thesis. Mohammad Ayaz.pdf

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P H Y S IC A L W O R K L O A D A N D L A B O U RP R O D U C T IV IT Y IN T IM B E R H A R V E S T IN G

IN P A K IS T A N

MOHAMMAD AYAZ


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P H Y S I C A L WOR K L OA D A N D L A B OU RP R OD U C T I V I T Y I N T I MB E R H A R V E S T I N GI N P A K I S T A N

Di sser t at i onsubm t t ed t o t he Facul t y of For est r yLudwi g- Maxi m l i ans- Uni vers i t y of Muni ch

i n par t i al f ul f i l l ment of t he r equi r ement sf or t he awar d of a degr ee of

DOCTOR OF FOREST SCI ENCE( Dr . r er . si l v. )

byMohammad AYAZ

I nst i t ut e of Wor k Sci ence andOperat i onal Methods i n Forest r yFacul t y of For est r y, Uni ver si t y of Muni ch,Feder al Republ i c of Germany/Paki st an Forest I nst i t ut e,

Peshawar , Paki st an

May, 1986


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1. Ber i cht er st at t er : Pr of . Dr . H. Lof f 1er2. Ber i cht er st at t er : Pr of . Dr . J . Huss

Tag der m i nd1i chen Pr l i f ung: 27. 6. 1986


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PREFACEThe st udy i s a par t of t he act i vi t i es of a cooper at i on pr oj ectbetween the Federal Republ i c of Germany through the GTZ (GermanAgency f or Techni cal Cooper at i on) and t he I sl am c Republ i c ofPaki st an, f or t he pr omot i on of r esear ch and t eachi ng f aci l i t i esi n For est Engi neer i ng and For est Pr oduct s Engi neer i ng at t hePaki st an For est I nst i t ut e Peshawar , Paki st an. Thi s Pak~GermanCooper at i on Pr oj ect was st ar t ed i n 1981 and wi l l remai n cont i -nued upt o 1990.The ent i r e st udy cover ed a per i od of al most t hr ee year s f r omMay, 1983 t o Apr i l , 1986. Near l y a t i me of 8 mont hs f r om August ,1984 t o Mar ch, 1985 was devot ed t o t he or gani zat i on of f i el dst udi es and col l ect i on of dat a i n Paki st an. Dat a anal ysi s andwr i t e- up of t he wor k was compl et ed at t he I nst i t ut e of Wor kSci ence and Operat i onal Methods i n For est r y, Facul t y of For est r y,Uni ver si t y of Muni ch, Feder al Republ i c of Germany under thegui dance of Pr of essor Dr . H. Lof f l er .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe success of t hi s wor k owes t o t he gener ous and magnet i c per so-nal i t y of Pr of essor Dr . H. Lof f l er , I nst i t ut e of Wor k Sci ence andOper at i onal Met hods i n For est r y, Facul t y of For est r y, Uni ver si t yof Muni ch, Feder al Republ i c of Germany. The aut hor of f er s hi shear t i est gr at i t udes t o Pr of essor Lof f l er f or hi s schol i st i c andsel f l ess hel p, encour agement and gui dance, t hr ough al l t he phasesof st udy f r om i t s ear l y concept t o t he pr esent st age.Thanks ar e al so due to GTZ (German Agency f or Techni cal Cooper a-t i on) and DSE ( German Foundat i on f or I nternat i onal Devel opment )f or ext endi ng t hei r assi st ance i n t he f orm of f or ei gn exchange.The aut hor f eel s gr eat l y i ndebt ed t o Mr . M. I . Shei kh, Di r ect orGener al , Dr . K. M. Si ddi qui , Di r ect or For est Pr oduct s Resear chDi vi si on and Dr . W Gugl hor ( f ormer C. T. A. Pak- German Pr oj ect ) .Paki st an For est I nst i t ut e Peshawar , f or t hei r hel p i n t he or gani -zat i on of f i el d st udi es. Thi s wor k woul d have never been a successi f Mr . Shei kh and Dr . Si ddi qui woul d have not used t hei r per sonali nf l uences i n wi nni ng over t he cooper at i on of t he Punj ab For estDepartment .Speci al ment i on i s due t o Ch. Faqi r Ahmad DFO, Kasur For estDi vi si on and Mr . M. Raf i q SDFO, Changa Manga f or ext endi ng di f f e-r ent f aci l i t i es at t he pl ant at i on.Si ncer e appr eci at i ons ar e due t o Mr . R. Loi bl . f or hi s assi st ancei n comput er pr ogr ammng and anal ysi s of dat a and Mr s. I . Gl obi schand Mr s. S. Ni eder schei der f or t ypi ng t he manuscr i pt .The aut hor f eel s pl easur e i n ment i oni ng t he names of Messr sM. Akbar , A. Sal am M. Khal i d and A. Qayyum f or t hei r wor k i nf i el d st udi es.

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2

I N D E X

I N T R OD U C T I O N1. 1 THE BACKGROUND OF THE I NVESTI GATI ON 11 . 2 FOREST AND FORESTRY I N PAKI STAN 2

1 . 2. 1 The Count r y i n gener al 21. 2. 2 For est and For est r y 51. 2. 3 For est Labour 12

1. 3 NEED FOR THE I MPROVEMENT OF FORESTWORK I N PAKI STAN 17

1. 4 AI MS OF THE I NVESTI GATI ON 21

P R OD U C T I V I T Y2. 12. 22. 3

KI NDS OF PRODUCTI VI TYPRODUCTI VI TY AND UNI T COSTFACTORS AFFECTI NG TECHNI CAL LABOURPRODUCTI VI TY I N TI MBER HARVESTI NGPOSSI BI LI TI ES TO I NCREASE TECHNI CAL LABOURPRODUCTI VI TY I N TI MBER HARVESTI NG2. 4. 1 Educat i on and Vocat i onal Tr ai ni ng2. 4. 2 I nst i t ut i ons2. 4. 3 I mpr oved Tool s2. 4. 4 Mechani zat i on2. 4. 5 Wor k Or gani zat i onCOMPARI SON OF TECHNI CAL LABOUR PRODUCTI VI TYI N TI MBER HARVESTI NG AMONG DI FFERENT REGI ONSAND COUNTRI ES

2. 4

2. 5

2. 5. 12. 5. 2

I mpor t anceTechni cal Labour Pr oduct i vi t y i n Ti mberHar vest i ng i n Paki st an i n Compar i son t oFeder al Republ i c of Germany

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23

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4343

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Page No.

3 WO R K L O A D 473. 1 11ENTAL AND EMOTI ONAL I ' / ORKLOAD 47

3. 1 . 1 Def i ni t i on 473. 1. 2 Measur ement of Ment al and

Emot i onal Workl oad 483. 1. 2. 1 Psychol ogi cal Met hods 483. 1. 2. 2 Physi ol ogi cal Met hods 49

3. 2 PHYSI CAL WORKLOAD 513. 2. 1 Def i ni t i on 513. 2. 2 Measurement of Physi cal Wor kl oad 53

3. 2. 2. 1 Bl ood Ci r cul at i on andOxygen Tr anspor t 55

3. 2. 2. 2 Hear t Rat e 553. 2. 2. 3 The Ket t l er Pul se + Ti me Met er 613. 2. 2. 4 Oxygen Consumpt i on 723. 2. 2. 5 Energy Expendi t ure 753. 2. 2. 6 Body Temper at ur e 81

3. 3 HEAT STRESS 833. 3. 1 Sour ces of Heat 833. 3. 2 Ef f ect s of Heat St r ess 843. 3. 3 I ndi ces of Heat St r ess 843. 3. 4 Li m t s of Heat St r ess 85

3. 4 WORK CAPACI TY 863. 4. 1 Def i ni t i on and I mpor t ance 863. 4. 2 Physi ol ogi cal Basi s of Wor k Capaci t y 873. 4. 3 Maxi mal Oxygen Uptake 883. 4. 4 Per f ormance Pul se I ndex 93

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4 MA T E R I A L A N D ME T H ODS 974. 1 MATERI AL 97

4. 1 . 1 Changa Manga For est Pl ant at i on 97

4. 1. 2 Exper i ment al Si t e and Choi ce of Wor ker s 1014. 2 STUDY LEVELS 104

4. 2. 1 St udy Pl an 1044. 2. 2 Tool s 1044. 2. 3 Wor k Met hods 1104. 2. 4 Tr ai ni ng of Wor ker s 1144. 2. 5 Payment s and I ncent i ves 116

4. 3 RECORDI NG OF TI ME AND WORK RESULTS 1174. 3. 1 I dent i f i cat i on of Wor k El ement s 1174. 3. 2 Ti me Studi es 1194. 3. 3 Measur ement of Wor k Resul t s 125

4. 4 RECORDI NG OF HEART RATE 1294. 4. 1 Rest i ng Hear t Rat e 1294. 4. 2 Hear t Rat e Dur i ng Wor k 129

4. 5 SPECI AL I NVESTI GATI ONS 1314. 5. 1 St udi es under Maxi mum Wor k St r ess 1314. 5. 2 Compar i son of Cr osscut Saws 133

4. 6 ANALYSI S OF DATA 1344. 6. 1 Or gani zat i on of Dat a 1344. 6. 2 St at i st i cal Pr ocedur es 1344. 6. 3 Dat a on Ti me and Techni cal

Labour Pr oduct i vi t y 1374. 6. 4 Dat a on Hear t Rat e 142

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Page No.

5 R E S U L T S 1465. 1 TI ME STUDY RESULTS 146

5. 1. 1 St udy Level s and Wor k Ti mes 1465. 1. 2 St udy Level s and Tr ee Ti mes 1515. 1. 3 Wor k Par t y Si ze and Wor k Ti mes 1595.1.4 Tr ee Par amet er s and Wor k Ti mes 1665. 1. 5 Tr ee Par amet er s and Tr ee Ti mes 172

5. 2 TECHNI CAL LABOUR PRODUCTI VI TY 1765. 2. 1 St udy Level s and Techni cal

Labour Pr oduct i vi t y 1765. 2. 2 Tr ee Speci es and Techni cal

Labour Product i vi t y 1805. 2. 3 Wor k Par ty Si ze and Techni cal

Labour Pr oduct i vi t y 1895. 2. 3. 1 Wor k Par t y Si ze and

Convent i onal Tool s ( Level - I ) 1895. 2. 3. 2 Wor k Par t y Si ze andI mpr oved Tool s ( Level - I I ) 192

5. 2. 3. 3 Wor k Par t y Si ze andSt udy Level s 196

5. 2. 4 Tr ee Par ameter s and Techni calLabour Pr oduct i vi t y 1985. 2. 4. 1 Convent i onal Tool s ( Level - I ) 1995. 2. 4. 2 I mpr oved Tool s ( Level - I I ) 209

5. 2. 5 Techni cal Labour Pr oduct i vi t y atMaxi mum Wor k St r ess 214

5. 3 HEART RATE 2185. 3. 1 St udy Level s and Hear t Rat e 2185. 3. 2 Wor k El ement s and Hear t Rat e 2285. 3. 3 Wor k Par ty Si zes and Hear t Rat e 2395. 3. 4 I ndi vi dual Wor ker s and Hear t Rat e 244

VI


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6 D I S C U S S I ON S A N D C ON C L U S I ON S7 A B S T R A C T

7.1 Engl i sh7. 2 German

REFERENCESAPPENDI XES

Page No.

249258258260

262269

VI I


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I N T R ODU C T I ON1. 1 THE BACKGROUND OF THE I NVESTI GATI ONThe wor ki ng condi t i ons i n f or est r y di f f er gr eat l y i n compar i sont o t he ot her f i el ds of pr oduct i ve act i vi t y, because of di f f er entwor k and wor k pl ace condi t i ons. For est wor k i s t he most st er -nuous j ob and demands ver y hi gh of wor ker s bot h i n t hei r physi calst r engt h and f i t ness. The oper at i on of t r ee har vest i ng i s espe-ci al l y not or i ous f or havi ng a ver y hi gh physi cal wor kl oad on t hewor ker s i n r el at i on t o wor k per f ormance. Hi gh physi cal wor kl oadmeans i ncreased st r ess on cardi o- vascul ar system muscul o- skel etalsyst em and hi gh dr ai n of ener gy f r om t he wor ker s body, r esul t i ngi n t o r educed dai l y wor k hour s, poor l abour pr oduct i vi t y and ear l yi nval i di t y of t he wor ker s.Besi des per sonal capabi l i t i es of t he wor ker s, t her e ar e manysi t uat i onal and mat er i al f act or s i n f or est r y whi ch af f ect t hewor k out put . These ar e cl i mat e, t er r ai n, cr op and speci es, t ool s ,t r ai ni ng and nut r i t i on of wor ker s, whi ch pl ay an i mpor t ant r ol ei n deci di ng t he magni t ude of physi cal ef f ect s of wor k on t hehuman body and mat er i al advant ages.The pr esent st at e of f or est wor k i n al most al l devel opi ng coun-t r i es i s ver y poor . The wor ker s wor k under ver y di f f i cul t condi -t i ons, on a ver y l ow wage r at e, wi t h pr i m t i ve t ool s and no voca-t i onal t r ai ni ng, r esul t i ng i nt o an i mpai r ed l abour pr oduct i vi t yand ver y l ow soci o- econom c status. Ther e i s an ur gent need f orst udi es and r esear ch f or t he i mpr ovement of wor k and wor ker i nt hese count r i es. Compar i son of wor ki ng t echni ques and t ool s ander gonom c r esear ch ar e essent i al f or t he opt i m zat i on of "Man-Task Syst em" and t o i mprove the soci o- economc condi t i ons off or est wor ker s by way of r educed physi cal wor kl oad and i ncr easedwor k pr oduct i vi t y.


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For est ar eas of Paki st an ar e uni que i n t he wor l d f or p~esent i ngt he wor st combi nat i on of manual , t echni cal , cl i mat i c and t er r ai ncondi t i ons. Poor heal t h and nut r i t i on has r esul t ed i nt o a l owwor k capaci t y of wor ker s and adver se wor k condi t i ons, i nef f i ci entt ool s and l ack of pr oper t r ai ni ng ar e t he f act or s conduci ve t o aver y hi gh physi cal wor kl oad and ver y l ow l abour pr oduct i vi t y.W t h t he r esul t t hat t he f or est wor ker s i n Paki st an st and att he l owest t i er of t he soci et y.

W t hi n t he ai ms of l abour pol i ci es and over al l nat i onal devel op-ment , i t i s essent i al t o l ook f or t he possi bi l i t i es of i mpr ovementof f or est wor k and t he wor ker i n Paki st an. W t h t hese obj ect i vesi n vi ew, t he pr esent st udy has been under t aken and i t i s a smal lbut t he f i rst at t empt t o est i mat e t he physi cal wor kl oad andt echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ng i n t he count r y.A compar i son of convent i onal and i mpr oved t ool s has al so beeni ncl uded f or t hei r ef f ect i veness i n r educi ng t he physi cal wor k-l oad and i ncr easi ng t he t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y f or t heopt i on of bet t er al t er nat e t ool s and met hods.

1. 2 FOREST AND FORESTRY I N PAKI STAN

1. 2. 1 The Count ry i n gener al

Paki st an i s a sub- t r opi cal count r y, st r et chi ng bet ween 240and370N l at i t udes and 610and 750E l ongi t udes. I t pr esent s avar i et y of cl i mat es and veget at i on t ypes, whi ch ar e mai nl ybecause of ecol ogi cal changes w t h i ncr easi ng al t i t udes f romsout h t owar ds nor t h. Sout her n l ow ands i nt er sper sed w t h t r act sof sand, mer gi ng i nt o al l uvi al pl ai ns, sub- hi mal ayan pl at eau andt he ext ensi ve chai ns of hi gh Hi mal ayan mount ai ns i n t he nor t h,w t h peaks mor e t han 8000 m hi gh and permanent snow f i el ds, pr e-sent a uni que f eat ur e. These t opogr aphi c var i at i ons ar e al soaccompani ed by t he changes i n cl i mat e. I n sout h t her e i s a l ongspel l of hot summer s, w t h a m l d but shor t l i ved w nt er season.

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I n t he cent r al pl ai ns, t he summer s ar e ext r emel y hot , wi t h daytemperature of ten shoot i ng upto 450C i n t he mont h of J une, whi l ewi nt er s i n t hese ar eas ar e al so ver y di st i nct and chi l l y. Thewi nt er season i n t he nor t her n and nor t h west er n mount ai n count r yi s ver y col d wi t h m l d and pl easant summer s. The aver age r ai nf al li n t he sout h i s about 100 mm and i t i ncr eases wi t h t he i ncr easi ngal t i t udes upt o mor e t han 1500 mm i n t he nor t her n hi l l s. The bul kof t he r ai ns i s r ecei ved f r om t he sout h west er n monsoons, f r omt he Ar abi an sea i n t he mont hs of J ul y and August , whi l e heavywi nt er snow i n hi gh mountai ns char act er i zes t he l andscape. Mostof t he count ry f al l s i n ar i d and sem - ar i d zones, wi t h a nat ur alveget at i on of t r opi cal t hor n bushes and smal l t r ees, whi l e t hesub- t r opi cal and t emper at e zones i n Hi mal ayan f oot hi l l s and hi ghmount ai ns, have coni f er ous t r ee speci es as domnant nat ur al f l or a.I n 1981, Paki st an ( i ncl udi ng Azad Kashm r ) had a popul at i on of86. 32 m l l i on peopl e, and pr opor t i on of ur ban and r ur al popul at i onwas about 28 and 72 % r espect i vel y. I f pr oj ect ed at a gr owt h r at eof 3 % per annum t he pr esent ( 1985) popul at i on st at us i s about98. 16 m l l i on, wi t h about 112 per sons/ km ( Tabl e 1) .Agr i cul t ur e i s t he backbone of t he nat i onal economy, pr act i cedon 22. 9 % ( Tabl e 2) of t he t ot al l and ar ea most l y wi t h i r r i ga-t i on, cont r i but i ng about 22 % of t he GNP and empl oyi ng 55 % oft he l abour f or ce. The GNP at cur rent pr i ces ( 1983 - 84) i s est i -mat ed at 416. 2 bi l l i on Rupees and per capi t a i ncome at Rs. 4, 530( Sour ce: Paki st an economc sur vey, 1983 - 84) .Admni st r at i vel y Paki st an i s di vi ded i nt o f our pr ovi nces. Pr ovi nceof Si nd i n sout h east wi t h i t s capi t al at Kar achi , pr ovi nce ofPunj ab i n nor t h east wi t h i t s capi t al at Lahor e, pr ovi nce of Nor thWest Fr ont i er i n t he nor th west , wi t h i t s capi t al at Peshawar andt he pr ovi nce of Bal uchi st an i n sout h west wi t h i t s capi t al atQuet t a. Each pr ovi nce i s i nt er nal l y i ndependent , headed by anexecut i ve head ( governer ) , appoi nted by the Federal Governmenti n I sl amabad and a const i t ut i onal head ( chi ef m ni st er ) , el ect edby t he publ i c.

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Tabl e 1: Popul at i on of Paki st anPr oj ect ed

1981 Census Gr owt h popul at i on i nPr ovi nce/ t er r i t or y (m l l i ons) r at e % J une, 1985

(m l l i ons)

N. W F. P. 13. 06 2. 18 14. 32Punj ab 47. 45 2. 7 53. 21Si nd 18. 97 3. 5 21. 99Bal uchi st an 4. 30 7. 0 5. 16Nor t her n Ar eas 0. 56 3. 6 0. 65Azad Kashm r 1. 98 2. 8 2. 23

Tot al 86. 32 2. 988 98. 16

Tabl e 2: Land use cl assi f i cat i onLand Use Ar ea % of t ot al

(m l l i on ha) l and ar eaCul t i vat i on 20. 15 22. 9Cul t ur abl e wast e 11. 67 13. 3Not avai l abl e f or cul t i vat i on 18. 86 21. 4Ar ea under t he cont r ol of For estDepar t ment s excl udi ng t he range l ands 4. 37 5. 0Un- r epor t ed or uncl assi f i ed ar ea 32. 93 37. 4Tot al 87. 98 100. 0

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1. 2. 2 For est and For est r yFor est r y i n Paki st an i s a pr ovi nci al di sci pl i ne, headed by at er r i t or i al chi ef known as "Chi ef Conser vat or of For est " , si t t i ngi n t he capi t al of r espect i ve pr ovi nce and wor ki ng under t he pr o-vi nci al m ni st ry of f ood and agr i cul t ur e. The seat of a, f eder albody r esponsi bl e f or i nt er - pr ovi nci al coor di nat i on and cooper at i onwi t h t he ot her count r i es i s i n I sl amabad and i s chai r ed by t heI nspect or Gener al of For est s. For compl et e hi er ar chi cal or der ,see Fi g. 1.Pr oduct i ve Funct i on of For estThe f or est ry and f or est l i ke i n any ot her count ry has t o pl ay i t smat er i al and non-mat er i al r ol es i n Paki st an. Unf or t unatel y thear ea under f or est i s ver y l ow, est i mat ed as 4. 96 % ( AM AD and KHAN,1984) of t he t ot al l and ar ea of 87. 98 m l l i on ha ( Tabl e 3) and i s41. 3 % of t he t ot al ar ea ( 10. 4 m l l i on ha) ( AM AD and I QBAL, 1982)under t he cont r ol of f or est depar tment s. Remai ni ng 58. 7 % ( 6. 1m l l i on ha) ar e managed as r angel ands, wi t hout any t r ee gr owt h.Coni f er ous f or est , r i ver i n f or est and i r r i gat ed pl ant at i ons ar et he maj or sour ce of t i mber and f i r ewood suppl y i n t he publ i csect or , shar i ng as 41. 4 % 6. 8 %and 4. 5 %of t he t ot al f or estar ea, r espect i vel y ( Tabl e 4) . Rest 47. 3 % i s ei t her scr ub on t hedr y l ow hi l l s or as l i t t or al swamp veget at i on on t he sea coast .About 225 t housands m of t i mber and 250 t housands m of f i r ewood( AM AD and KHAN, 1984) ar e anual l y har vest ed f r om t he st at ef or est s and near l y 5. 9 t i mes t he quant i t i y of t i mber and 77. 5t i mes t he quant i t y of f i r ewood f r om f armands.

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F l g . l : O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F F O R E S T R Y I N P A K I S T A N

Feder al M ni st r y of Food, Agr i cul t ur eand Cooper at i vesIFEDERAL SECRETARY OF AGRI CULTUREII NSPECTOR GENERAL OF FORESTS

IPr ovi nci al M ni st r i es of Food, Agr i cul t ur eand Cooper at i vesIPROVI NCI AL SECRETARI ES OF AGRI CULTURECHI EF CONSERVATORS OF FORESTS

( Headi ng t he Provi nci al ' For est Depar tment s)ICONSERVATORS OF FORESTS

( Heads of For est Ci r cl es i n a Pr ovi nci alFor est Depar tment , each For est Ci r cl ecompr i ses of many Forest Di vi si ons)I

DI VI SI ONAL FOREST OFFI CI ERS( Reads of For est Di vi si ons i n a For estCi r cl e, each For est Di vi si on compr i ses ofmany For est Ranges)IFOREST RANGE OFFI CI ERS

( Heads of For est Ranges i n a For estDi vi si on, each For est Range compr i ses ofmany Forest Bl ocks)FOREST BLOCK OFFI CI ERS

( I nchar gs of For est Bl ocks i n a For estRange, each Forest Bl ock compr i sesof many Forest Beat s )FOREST GUARDS

( Pr ot ect i on of For est Beat s i n a For estBl ock, each For est Beat compr i ses ofmany For est Compar tment s)


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Tabl e 3: For est Ar ea

Tot al l and For est ar ea For est ar ea Per capi t aPr ovi nce! area ( m l l . ha) % of t ot al f or est ar eater r i t or y (m l l . ha) ar ea ( ha)N. WF. P. 10. 17 1. 16 11. 4 0. 08Punj ab 20. 63 0. 55 2. 7 0. 01Si nd 14. 09 0. 59 4. 2 0. 03Bal uchi st an 34. 72 0. 72 2. 1 0. 14Nor t her n Ar ea 7. 04 0. 94 13. 4 1. 54Azad Kashm r 1. 33 0. 41 30. 8 0. 19Tot al 87. 98 4. 37 4. 96 0. 05

,

Tabl e 4: For est Ar ea of Paki st an and Azad Kashm r by Veget at i onType

Veget at i on Ar ea %oft ype ( m l l i on ha) total

Coni f er ous 1. 78 41. 4I r r i gated Pl antat i ons 0. 19 4. 5Ri ver i ne 0. 29 6. 8Scr ub 1. 72 40. 0Coast al 0. 28 6. 6Ot her s 0. 03 0. 7Tot al 4. 29 100. 0

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The i mpor t ant sof twood speci es ar e deodar ( Cedr us deodar a) , f i r( Abi es pi ndr ow) , spr uce ( Pi cea sm t hi ana) and two pi ne speci es( Pi nus Wal l i chi ana and Pi nus r oxbur ghi i ) , whi l e t he i mpor t anthardwood speci es are shi sham (Dal bergi a si ssoo) , mul ber r y (Morusal ba) , babul ( Acaci a ni l ot i ca) and popl ar s ( Popul us ~.The cause of l ow f or est ar ea i n Paki st an i s t he dest ruct i on donet o t he f or est at t he hands of r epeat ed m gr at i ons of set t l er s andi nvasi ons of devast at i ng armes over t housands of year s. M suseand over - ut i l i zat i on has r esul t ed i n t he t r ansf ormat i on of oncet hi ck f or est gr owt h i nt o bar r en l ands and bar e mount ai ns. Mor eover ,bef or e 1947 Paki st an r emai ned a par t of Mughal and Br i t i sh Empi r esof I ndi a, whi ch t hen had a r easonabl e per cent age of f or est s. Thet i mber demands wer e met most l y f r om those ar eas whi ch ar e not nowi n Paki st an. The t i mber bei ng qui t e common and cheep t hose daysand t he peopl e coul d not t hi nk of i t t o be a val uabl e commodi t y.Ther ef or e, t hey devel oped nonconser vat i ve habi t s i n t he use ofwood. Thi s si t uat i on di d not r emai n l ong and i n 1947, Paki st anemer ged as an i ndependent count r y wi t h ver y l i t t l e f or est and ahuge popul at i on havi ng t he habi t of l avi sh use of t i mber . Lowsuppl y and hi gh t i mber demand, r esul t ed i n an ext r a pr essur e ont he al r eady over ut i l i zed and meagr e f or est r esour ce. W t h t her esul t t hat t he t i mber has become a ver y scar ce and pr i ced commodi t y.The domest i c t i mber pr oduct i on i s onl y enough t o cat t er 69. 9 %of t he l ocal needs, r est of 30. 1 % i s made up f r om t he f or ei gni mpor t s of t i mber and i t s var i ous pr oduct s ( Tabl e 5) . About 665t housands m of t i mber and t i mber pr oduct s ar e annual l y i mpor t edat a cost of 1, 381 m l l i on Rupees, whi l e t he val ue of expor t ofwood and wood pr oduct s i s onl y 176 m l l i on Rupees, most l y i n t hef or m of spor t ar t i cl es. The demand of t i mber i n f ut ur e year s i sexpect ed t o i ncr ease shar pl y because of gr owi ng popul at i on andr i si ng st andar ds of l i vi ng.

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Tabl e 5: Annual t i mber demand and sour ces of suppl y

Sour ce Val ue( 1000m3) %1 Forest s 225 10. 22. I mpor t s 665 30. 1

( i ) Ti mber r ound & sawn 196( i i ) Wood based pul p, paper &

panel pr oducts ( r oundwood-equi val ent ) 4683. Farm & wast el ands ( by di f f er ence) 1, 320 59. 7

Tot al 2, 209 100. 0

Thi s acut e shor tage of t i mber has r esul t ed i nt o ver y hi gh pr i cesof t hi s commodi t y. I n t he sal e depot s of For est depar tment , t heaver age i mpor t ant har dwoods pr i ces l i e between Rs. 2, 500 - 4, 500/ mand the aver age pr i ces of i mpor t ant sof twood speci es r ange betweenRs. 2, 000 - 3, 500/ m3Protective Function of Forest

The pr ot ect i ve f unct i ons of f or est ar e even mor e i mpor t ant f orPaki st an t han i t s pr oduct i ve and r ecr eat i onal f unct i ons. Thevast mount ai nous t er r i t or i es i n t he nor t h and nor t h west con-st i t ut e i mpor t ant wat er sheds dr ai ned by t he r i ver I ndus, J hel umand t hei r t r i but or i es. Mor eover , t hese ar e al so t he ar eas ofhi gh pr eci pi t at i on, wi t h ver y st eep t er r ai n. Poor f or est cover ,damage t o veget at i on and def ect i ve agr i cul t ur e i n t hese ar eashas r esul t ed i nt o i ncr eased r unof f and accel er at ed er osi on.

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Thi s si t uat i on i s not onl y t he cause of er r at i c r i ver f l owand devast at i ng f l oods downst r eams, but al so a ser i ous t hr eatt o t he f unct i onal l i f e of t wo mul t i m l l i on wat er r eser voi r s,bui l t on r i ver I ndus at Tar bel a and r i ver J hel um at Mangl a,f or t he suppl y of i r r i gat i on wat er and el ect r i ci t y. I r r i gat i onwat er i s t he bl ood st ream f or l i vi ng and f l our i shi ng agr i cul -t ur e i n Paki st an. I t wi l l be beyond exagger at i on t o say t hatPaki st an has got t he most ext ensi ve i r r i gat i on syst em i n t hewor l d, wi t h a t ot al l engt h of mai n i r r i gat i on channel s about50, 000 k rn ( CHAMPI ON et al . , 1965) . For t he ef f i ci ent wor ki ng oft hi s syst em a r egul ar f l ow of wat er i n t he r i ver s i s a must .These r i ver s or i gi nat e i n t he hi gh mount ai ns and get t hei r wat erf r om mel t i ng of snow i n t he summer s and r ai ns. For t he const antf l ow of wat er i n t hese r i ver s, sl ow and st eady mel t i ng of snowand cont r ol l ed r unof f i s needed, whi ch i s possi bl e onl y i n t hepr esence of - adequat e veget at i on cover . But i n cont r ast t o i tsnow mel t s ver y qui ckl y i n summer s due t o ver y poor veget at i oncover or no cover at al l . Mor eover , t he si t uat i on get s wor st byi ncr eased r unof f dur i ng monsoon r ai ns and st eep nat ur e of t het er rai n. W t h t he r esul t t hat t he r i ver s i n summer mont hs of t enover f l ow t hei r banks, because of accessi ve wat er and cause t r emen-dous damage t o t he l i f e and _pr oper t y. Whi l e i n wi nt er s t hey donot have enough wat er t o f eed t he i r r i gat i on syst emAccel er at ed er osi on i n t he cat chment and si l t at i on of r i ver bedsi n t he pl ai ns i s al so a cont r i but or y f act or t o t he f r equency andsever i t y of f l oods and changi ng of r i ver cour ses. The er oded andt r anspor t ed mat er i al i s not onl y damagi ng t o r eser voi r s and agr i -cul t ur e down st r eam but i s al so t he most ser i ous pr obl em ofmount ai n r egi ons i t sel f . Removal of t op r i ch soi l i s a per manentl oss. Reveget at i on of exposed bar e r ocks i s i mpossi bl e. Dest r uct i onof veget at i on and accel er at ed er osi on i n t hese ar eas i s a compl exi nt er act i on of soci o- economc, bi ot i c, cl i mat i c and t opogr aphi cf act or s. The gr aveness of t he si t uat i on has al r eady been r eal i zedand l arge scal e wat ershed management programmes has been star t ednear l y t wo decades ago, wi t h t he hel p of i nt er nat i onal bodi es,

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such as FAa and Wor l d Bank. The st r at egy of t hese pr ogr ammes i st he r ehabi l i t at i on of veget at i on, mai nl y t hr ough mass scal eaf f or est at i on on pr i vat e l ands, cont r ol of er osi on and r unof fby engi neer i ng st r uct ur es and i mprovement i n t he economc con-di t i on of t he l ocal i nhabi t ant s by i ncr ease i n t hei r i ncomet hr ough pl ant i ng of f r ui t t r ees, r at her t o pr act i ce t he t radi -t i onal agr i cul ture.Recr eat i onal Funct i ons of For est

The f or est s al so af f or d r ecr eat i onal oppor t uni t i es t o t he peopl esl i vi ng i n t owns and ci t i es. The at t i t ude of peopl e t owar ds r ecr e-at i on depends on t hei r pr osper i t y. The economc condi t i on of t hemasses does not al l ow t hem t o t r avel t o f ar f l ung f or est ar eas.The r ecr eat i onal f aci l i t i es ar e avai l ed onl y by wel l of f ci t ydwel l er s or t he per sons l i vi ng near by t he f or est s. The r ecr ea-t i oni st s move t o t he hi l l st at i ons t o enj oy t he sceni c beaut yof f or est and l andscape and most l y r et i r e at headquar t er s i n t hecool and pl easant cl i mat e i n summer s. Ver y f ew peopl e ar e f ond ofhi ki ng, st r ol l t hr ough t he f or est and wi nt er spor t s.

For estr y Oper at i onsThe maj or oper at i on i n t he st at e f or est s i s t i mber har vest i ngwhi ch i s car r i ed out ei t her by t he sem - aut onomous pr ovi nci albodi es, such as "N. W F. P. Forest Devel opment Corporat i on" i n thepr ovi nce of Nor t h West Fr ont i er and " Azad Kashm r Loggi ng andSawm l l i ng Cor por at i on" i n Azad Kashm r or pr ovi nci al f or estdepar t ment s t hemsel ves or t hrough a separat e i nt ra- depar t ment alset - up i n t he pr ovi nces of Punj ab and Si nd. The cor por at i onswor k t o har vest sof twood speci es i n t he mount ai nous r egi ons andpur chase st andi ng t r ees f r om the f or est depar tment s on negot i at edr at es. Tender s ar e f l oat ed by t hese cor por at i ons t o t he pr i vat econt r act or s f or car r yi ng out di f f er ent oper at i ons, such as f el l -i ng and conver si on of t r ees, m nor and maj or t r anspor t of t i mber

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upt o t r ans i t and s al e depot s . Cont r ac t ed t r ans por t i s al s o s uppl e-ment ed by depar t ment al t r uck when ever needed. Fr om t he s al e depott he t i mber i s s ol d out by open auc t i on t o t he cons umer s . ,

Har ves t i ng of t i mber i s al mos t cont i nuous t hr oughout t he yearexcept May and J une i n t he s ub- t r opi cal chi r pi ne f or es t as ar ul e ( f i r e s eas on) , whi l e heavy s now r es t r i c t s s uch ac t i v i t i esf r om t he mont hs of December t o Mar ch i n t emper at e ! ' or es t . I ni r r i gat ed pl ant at i ons t he har ves t i ng of t i mber i s i n pr ogr es sf r om Augus t t o Febr uar y, whi l e al l s uch wor ks ar e t o be compl e-t ed upt o Apr i l , bef or e t he ons et of f l oods i n r i ver i n f or es t .

The ot her f or es t wor ks ar e nur s er y, r egener at i o~ and t endi ngoper at i ons , whi ch ar e mor e or l es s car r i ed al mos t i n al l s eas onsof t he year , except af f or es t at i on wi t h a pr i me t i me i n s pr i ngsand mons oons . Thes e oper at i ons on account of bei ng l i m t ed i ns cal e and mor e t echni cal i n nat ur e, ar e di r ec t l y car r i ed by t hes t af f of t he f or es t depar t ment s t hr ough t he l abour engaged ondai l y wage bas i s .Al l t he f or es t oper at i ons ar e manual wi t h t he hel p of mos t s i mpl ehand t ool s .

1. 2 . 3 For es t Labour

Accor di ng t o AMJ AD and I QBAL ( 1982) , t her e ar e about 600, 000wor ker s empl oyed i n f or es t r y and wood bas ed i ndus t r y i n Paki s t an.I n f or es t r y al one 340, 500 wor k t o per f or m di f f er ent oper at i ons" bot h on s t at e f or es t s and pr i vat e f ar m ands and about 290, 000car r y out t i mber har ves t i ng f or about 28, 900 t hous and man days .Of t hes e 19, 000 wor k i n s t at e f or es t and 271, 000 on pr i vat e f ar ms .

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Types of For est Labour

The f ol l owi ng cat egor i es of l abour wor ki ng i n t he publ i c f or est scan be r ecogni zed based upon t hei r ski l l , met hods of wor ki ng,sour ce, t i me of avai l abi l i t y and r el at i on wi t h t he f or est adm ni -str at i on.a) Local Vi l l ager s: Thi s cat egor y of l abour i s seasonal , compr i s-

i ng of t he f armer s l i vi ng near by t he f or est ar eas. As a r equi r e-ment of f ar m ng t hey know t he use of axe, saw and soi l wor ki ngt ool s and wor k i n t he f or est when of f f r om t hei r agr i cul t ur epr act i ce. They wor k t o car ry out a wi de var i et y of oper at i ons,such as t i mber har vest i ng, r oad const r uct i on and r epai r , nur ser y,r egener at i on and t endi ng oper at i ons. Thi s t ype of l abour t hougheasi l y accessi bl e, var i es gr eat l y i n i t s suppl y wi t h t he al t er -nat i ng per i ods of sur pl us and scar ci t y, gover ned by cr op sowi ngand har vest.

b) Nomadi c Labour : These ar e ei t her Af ghal l s or come f r om t he" t r i balar eas between Af ~hani st an and Paki st an. I n wi nt er months t heymove t o t he pl ai ns of pr ovi nces of Punj ab and Si nd al ong wi t ht hei r f am l i es and ani mal s. They l i ve i n t he f or est i n t empo-r ar y hut s and wor k t o har vest har dwood speci es i n i r r i gat edpl ant at i ons and r i ver i n f or est s. These ar e ver y har dy peopl eand t hei r l ack of ski l l i n t i mber har vest i ng i s wel l compen-sat ed by t hei r body st r engt h. They wor k most l y f or wi nt ermont hs and move back bef or e t he onset of summer s. A l ocal no-madi c l abour cal l ed "Labanas" wor k mor e or l ess on t he si m -l ar l i nes i n l ower Punj ab and Si nd.

c) For est Set t l ement s: These ar e known as "Beldars" whi ch perma-nent l y l i ve i n t he f or est ar eas of Punj ab ( i r r i gat ed pl ant a-t i ons) and i n r et ur n t o cer t ai n concessi ons, l i ke f r ee accommo-dat i ons, a pi ece of l and, f i r ewood' and cer t ai n number of cat t l esar e bound t o per f orm di f f er ent f or est r y oper at i ons when desi r ed.Thei r hi st or y goes back t o t he t i me of est abl i shment of f i r st

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i r r i gat ed pl ant at i on of Changa Manga i n t he year 1866, t o meett he f i r ewood needs of newl y col oni s ed ar eas wi t h t he ext ens i onof i r r i gat i on s ys t em Thi s t ype of ar r angement pr oved ver ys at i s f ac t or y t o ens ur e s us t ai ned l abour s uppl y f or t he ef f i c i entexecut i on of f or es t oper at i ons . At t hat t i me f or es t wor k wast hei r onl y mean of s us t enance, but now a good deal of t hemwor k out s i de t he f or es t due t o a hi gh i nc r eas e i n t hei r number .

d) Mount ai n For es t Labour : Thi s cat egor y of wor ker s bel ong t o t henor t h wes t hi l l y count r y of Pak i s t an. They wor k f or f or es t con-t r ac t or s t o har ves t t he t i mber i n the hi gh hi l l f or es t s ofconi f er s . They ar e compar at i vel y bet t er ' s ki l l ed and bes i desl oggi ng and m nor t r ans por t , al s o car r y out hand and machi neconver s i on of t i mber i nt o s cant s i n t he f or es t , f or t hei r eas ycar r i age by means of ani mal s . They keep on movi ng f r om f or es tt o f or es t af t er wor k. I n wi nt er s t hey wor k mos t l y i n s ub- t r opi -cal chi r pi ne f or es t and i n s ummer mont hs i n t emper at e f or es t .

Sys t em of Wor k and Payment sThe f or es t l abour who car r y out nur s er y wor k, r egener at i on ope-r at i ons and cons t r uc t i on ~nd mai nt enance of engi neer i ng s t r uc -t ur es wor k di r ec t l y f or f or es t depar t ment and ar e pai d on t i mebas i s ( dai l y wage) f or wor k days of ei ght hour s dur at i on. Thegr ound f o r s uch payment s i s t aken f r om t he appr oved l abour wagesi n t he near by popul at i on ar eas . The l abour who car r y out t i mberhar ves t i ng, wor k ei t her di r ec t f or f or es t depar t ment or f or t hef or es t cont r ac t or i n r i ver i n f or es t and i r r i gat ed pl ant at i ons ,or s ol e l y f or t he f or es t cont r ac t or s i n hi gh hi l l f or es t s ofconi f er s . They wor k on pi ece- r at e, whi ch i s ver bal l y dec i dedbet ween empl oyer and l abour , di r ec t l y or t hr ough a l abour con-t r ac t or i n vi s ual cons i der at i on t o c r op and wor k condi t i ons .

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Some uni t s of wor k f or t he pur pose of pi ece- r at e ar - e summar i sedbel ow:- Fel l i ng/ t r ee, accor di ng t o a maxi mum of 2 - 3 DBH cl asses.- Per cf t . or per l og conver t ed, i ncl udi ng debr anchi ng, debar ki ng,cr osscut t i ng and engr avi ng of number and i dent i f i cat i on mar ks.For hand sawi ng i n t he f or est , per cf t . of sawn t i mber i r r e-spect i ve of si ze and per sl ab wi t h about t wo l engt h cl asses.

- Per st ack of f i r ewood conver t ed.- Li kewi se t r anspor t at i on and st acki ng r at es (manual , ani mal andmot or t r anspor t ) .

I n t he hi gh hi l l f or est s, t he f or est cont ract or ar r anges t he l a-bour t hr ough a l abour cont r act or . The l abour cont r act or per sonal l yknown each worker and i nf orms them about the work, per spect i ver at es and advances them money as sur et y of j ob and payment s andi n r et ur n char ges commssi on on t hei r ear ni ngs. The l abourersrecei ve payment s ei t her f or t ni ght l y or mont hl y i n cash. Dur i ngwor k t he wor ker s of cat egor y ( b) and ( d) l i ve i n t he f or est f orweeks i n t empor ar y sel f made hut s and most l y wor k f r om dawn t odusk wi t h a l unch br eak at noon and Fr i day as hol i day. Theyal ways wor k i n par t i es r angi ng most l y f r om 2 - 5 per sons.

Education and Training

Ther e i s no f or mal vocat i onal t r ai ni ng f or t he f or est wor ker s,i n wor k met hods and use and mai nt enance of t ool s. They know t heuse of axes, pi ck- axes and saws as a r equi r ement of agr i cul t ur eand vi l l age l i f e and ar e f ur t her t rai ned on t he j ob. Those whoi nher i t f or est wor k as t hei r f am l y pr of essi on, on t he j ob t rai n-i ng st ar t s f r om ear l y yout h by t hei r seni or s.

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Soci al Benef i t sTher e exi st s no syst em of l i f e i nsur ance, medi cal f aci l i t i esand acci dent benef i t s f or t he f or est wor ker s. I n case of acci dent ,di sabi l i t y or deat h, t he f or est cont r act or may pay an unf i xedamount of money onl y on humani t ar i an gr ounds and t o mai nt ai n hi sr eput at i on among t he wor ker s. Thi s amount never exceeds a f ewthousand Rupees i n any case. But even these meagre compensat i onsar e uni magi nabl e when a l abour er i s wor ki ng di r ect f or t he f or estdepar tment . Such payment s ar e onl y l umpsum f or t he occur r ance ofi nci dence, but does not guar ant ee t he cost of absent ees f r om wor kdue t o i nj ur y or si ckness. I n hi l l f or est t he wor ker s al ways wor ki n gr oups and have devel oped a syst em of mut ual hel p among t hemsel ves. When a wor ker i s i nj ur ed or si ck, t he ot her member s oft he gr oup keep on payi ng hi s shar e f r om t hei r ear ni ngs t i l l t henhe st ays i n t he f or est .

1. 3 NEED FOR THE I MPROVEMENT OF FOREST WORK I N PAKI STANI nspi t e of t he f act t hat f or est l abour i s an i mpor t ant componentof al l f or est ry act i vi t i es, l i t t l e at t ent i on has ever been pai df or t he bet t erment and i mpr ovement of t hi s aspect i n Paki st an.Low l abour pr oduct i vi t y, poor wor ki ng condi t i ons, bad heal t h,di sease, mal and under nut r i t i on, i nef f i ci ent and i nsuf f i ci entt ool s and l ack of pr oper t r ai ni ng ar e al l t he f act or s conduci vet o a ver y l ow soci o- econom c st at us of f or est wor ker s. W th t her esul t t hat t hey wor k at a subsi st ence l evel and i t wi l l be beyondexagger at i on t o say t hat t hey wor k at t he l owest wage r at e andunder t he most di f f i cul t and poor wor ki ng condi t i ons.Thi s cycl e of event s has r eached an equi l i br i um st at e bet weenpr oduct i vi t y and ear ni ngs and soci o- economc condi t i on of t hewor ker s. I t i s an i mpor t ant t echni cal and human pr obl em andbeeds due consi derat i on at t he manager i al l evel . The ways andmeans ar e t o be l ooked f or t he bet t erment of wor k and t he wor ker .

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On account of al l oper at i ons bei ng manual , f or est l abour i s t hebi ggest pot ent i al i n t he di r ect i on of i nt ensi f i cat i on of f or estwor k, t hr ough bet t er l abour management pr act i ces. I n t he f ol l owi ngpar agr aphs some of t he aspect s of f or est l abour i n Paki st an ar eout l i ned al ong wi t h t he need f or pr act i cal measur es, st udi es andr esear ch f or i t s i mpr ovement possi bi l i t i es.The avai l abl e i nf ormat i ons about t he f or est l abour i n t he count r yar e ver y sket chy and f r agment r y. For any f ut ur e pl anni ng and t oascer t ai n t he l i ne of act i on i n t he di r ect i on of f or est l abouri mpr ovement , i t i s essent i al t hat cer t ai n basi c st at i st i cs shoul dbe avai l abl e about t he exact number , age, ski l l , t ool s, wor ki ngdays/ year , ear ni ng, heal t h, endemc di seases, n~t r i t i on st at us,acci dent s (STREHLKE, 1971) and types of operat i ons per f ormedby t he f or est wor ker s.Al l f or est r y oper at i ons i n Paki st an ar e car r i ed out al mostmanual l y. The t ool s used ar e cent ur i es ol d, whi ch not onl y ar epoor i n mat er i al but al so i n desi gn and st at e of mai nt enance.These i nef f i ci ent and i nsuf f i ci ent t ool s make t he j ob ver yst er nuous wi t h a ver y hi gh physi cal wor kl oad.The si t uat i on i s wor sened by t he unf avour abl e cl i mat e. As . t hef or est wor k i s al ways car r i ed out i n t he open and t he wor ker sar e exposed t o t he adver se cl i mat i c condi t i ons. Hi gh heat of t heday and a hi gh physi cal wor kl oad, cause a mar ked decr ease i n t hedai l y wor k hour s and ul t i mat el y r educed l abour pr oduct i vi t y.Ther e i s a good scope f or t he i nt r oduct i on of i mpr oved tool s bot h i n qual i t y and desi gn. These t ool s wi l l pr ove of gr eat hel p i ni ncr easi ng t he l abour pr oduct i vi t y and decr easi ng t he physi calwor kl oad or keepi ng i t at a compar abl e l evel . St udi es on er gono-mcs f or t he opt i mzat i on of "Man- Task Syst em" ( ANON, 1979, ZANDER,1979) and t o br eak t he vi ci ous ci r cl e of l ow pr oduct i vi t y, l owi ncome, mal nut r i t i on, di sease and l ow worki ng capaci ty (ELGSTRAND,1982) are str ongl y emphasi sed.

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Anot her aspect of f or est l abour i n Paki st an i s f ood. Good,adequat e and bal anced f ood i s ver y essent i al f or f or est wor kt o meet t he dai l y energy r equi r ement s f or normal per f ormance( ABELl , 1979, STAUDT, 1984) . A f or est wor ker needs a dai l yenergy i nt ake of about 16- 20 M ( LOON, 1982, CHRI STENSEN, 1964,ANON, 1961). But i n cont r ast t o i t , t he pr esent st at e of f or estl abour nut r i t i on i n Paki st an i s ver y poor . The f ood i s i nadequat eand most l y consi st s of car bohydr at es and f at s, wi t h a ver y l i t t l eor no ani mal pr ot ei n at al l . Under and mal nut r i t i on af f ect s t heheal t h and wor ki ng capaci t y (CHRI STENSEN, 1964) . I ncr ease i n t hei ncome of f or est wor ker s and t hei r i nst i gat i on t o t ake enough andbal anced f ood t hr ough educat i on i s a pl ausi bl e sol ut i on t o over -come t he pr obl em of nut r i t i on i n f or est wor k.Li vi ng envi r onment s of t he wor ker s ar e hi ghl y unhygi eni c andpol l ut ed, mosqui t oes ar e i n l ar ge number s, because of st agnantwat er ponds al l ar ound. Dr i nki ng wat er i s heavi l y cont amnat ed,wi t h t he r esul t t hat t he di seases l i ke mal ar i a and dysent r y ar ever y common and ar e t he mai n cause of absent ees f r om the wor k.Medi cal f aci l i t i es ar e ver y meagr e, t her ef or e, di sease and deat hespeci al l y of i nf ant s i s r at her a r out i ne of common day l i f e.Di sease and death has got f ar r eachi ng soci o- econom c consequences.Di sease sel f means absent ees f r om wor k or even deat h - no moneyf or t he f am l y, t reat ment sel f or of a f am l y member - cost smoney, weakness due t o di sease r educes t he wor k pr oduct i vi t y -l ess money, bi r th and car e of a chi l d - cost s money, di sease anddeat h of a chi l d - agai n an econom c and soci al l oss. Thi s si t ua~t i on i s ver y wel l expl ai ned by t he "Econom c Cycl e of Di seases"( ELGSTRAND, 1982) and i s denot ed as vi ci ous ci r cl e of l ow pr oduc-t i vi t y, l ow i ncome, mal nut r i t i on, di sease and l ow wor ki ng capaci t y( Fi g. 2) .

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F i gur e 2: The s o- cal l ed " Econom c Cyc l e of Di s eas es "

Low pr oduc t i on ~Lows al ar i es1Mal nut r i t i onPoor educat i onI nadequat ehous i ng

~

Low wor k i ngc apa ci t y

Di seases

s t udi es ar e needed f or t he i mpr ovement of l i v i ng and wor k i ngcondi t i ons ( LOON, 1982, ZANDER, 1979) of f or es t wor ker s .

Ther e i s no medi c al and s oc i al s ecur i t y cover age f or t he f or es twor ker s . I n cas e of di s eas e t he wor ker has t o bear t he expens esof hi s t r eat ment and mor eover addi t i onal l os s becaus e of abs en-t ees f r om t he wor k. I n cas e of i nj ur y, di sabi l i t y or deat h, t hewor ker or hi s dependent s may get a ver y meagr e amount f r om t hef or es t cont r ac t or , whi c h i s not becaus e of any l egal obl i gat i on,but onl y on humani t ar i an gr ounds . Even t hi s much a wor ker cannotexpec t when he i s wor k i ng di r ec t l y f or t he f or es t depar t ment ,becaus e of l ack of s uch pr ovi s i on i n t he gover nment r ul es . Ther ei s an ur gent need f or t he f or mul at i on of a l egi s l at i on and maki ngof l aws and by- l aws f or pr ovi di ng s oc i al and medi cal s ecur i t y t ot he f or es t wor ker s .

Ther e exi s t s no s ys t em of f or mal t r ai ni ng of f or es t wor ker s , i npr oper wor k met hods , mai nt enance of t ool s and per sonal s af et y.Lack of pr oper t r ai ni ng r es ul t s i nt o l ow l abour pr oduc t i v i t y,poor mai nt enance of t ool s , hi gh phys i c al wor k l oad and hi gh chan-ces of acc i dent s . Pr ogr ammes f or t he f or es t l abour t r ai ni ng i nt he met hods of wor k, mai nt enance of t ool s and per s onal s af et yar e an ur gent need of t he t i me.

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The wor ker s wor k wi t hout t he use of any prot ect i ve accessor i esand cl ot hi ng, such as gl oves, boot s and wor ki ng sui t s. Normal l yt hey wor k bar e f oot ed, t her ef or e, t he i nj ur i es t o t he hands andf eet ar e ver y common. Mor eover , t he wor ker s ar e never pr ovi dedwi t h t he f i r st ai d mat er i al . The wounds ar e dr essed wi t h ashes,pi ne r esi n and ol d unhygi eni c cl ot h wi t hout t he use of any ant i -sept i c medi cal pr epar at i on, wi t h t he r esul t t hat t he wounds of t enget i nf ect ed and r emai n a sour ce of t roubl e f or l ong t i mes. Con-vent i onal prot ect i ve cl ot hi ngs cannot be used because of cl i mat i cconst r ai nt s. But t her e i s a good scope f or t he i nt r oduct i on ofpr oper l y desi gned cl ot hi ngs and pr ot ect i ve accessor i es sui t edt o t he l ocal cl i mat e. Pr ovi si on of pr oper f i r st ai d mat er i al atwor k pl ace wi l l r educe t he sever i t y of acci dent s.

1. 4 AI MS OF THE STUDYThe i nvest i gat i on at hand i s t o be seen as f i r st , t hough smal lst ep f or t he i mpr ovement of f or est wor k i n Paki st an. The st udyi s f ocussed on t he measur ement of physi cal wor kl oad and t echni -cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ng wi t h t he f ol l owi ngobj ect i ves:- Sci ent i f i c est i mat i on of physi cal wor kl oad and t echni cal

labour pr oduct i vi t y i n t r ee f el l i ng and conver si on i n t hei r r i gat ed pl ant at i ons i n Paki st an, i n r el at i on t o di f f er enti nf l uenci ng f act or s, such as t r ee speci es, t r ee par amet er sand wor k par t y si zes.

- Ef f ect i veness of addi t i onal i nput s as i mpr oved t ool s andtraining of f or est wor ker s wi l l al so be t est ed i n consi de-r at i on t o enhanced out put of wor k and er gonomc benef i t s.

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- Based upon t he physi cal wor kl oad, t he r esul t s wi l l i dent i f y t hemost difficult phases of work, optimum work party size assuggest ed by a decr ease i n physi cal wor kl oad and an i ncr easei n t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y. Ef f ect of speci es and t r eepar amet er s on t he t i me demand wi t h r espect t o di f f er ent wor kel ement s and l abour pr oduct i vi t y shal l al so be di scussed.

- The st udy i s f i r st of i t s ki nd i n t he count r y and t he f i ndi ngswi l l ser ve as gui de l i nes f or t he f ut ur e act i vi t i es i n t hedi r ect i on of i nt ensi f i cat i on of f or est wor k.

The pr oposed st udy i s t he f i r st one deal i ng wi t h physi cal wor k-l oad and t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ng i nPaki st an and t he r eader s wi l l r epeat edl y cor ne acr oss wi t h t heset erms. Ther ef or e, f or t he ease of r eader s t o under st and t he wor kf ul l y and t o appr eci at e i t s usef ul ness, t wo speci al chapt er s onpr oduct i vi t y and wor kl oad have been pr ovi ded i n t he t ext . Chapt erNo. 2 deal s wi t h t he di f f er ent t ypes of pr oduct i vi t y i n f or est r y,f act or s and met hods of i t s i mpr ovement . Whi l e chapt er No. 3 di s-cusses t he wor kl oad, i t s t ypes, i ndi cat or s and l i m t s f or sust ai -ned per f ormance.

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2 P R OD U C T I V I T Y2. 1 KI NDS OF PRODUCTI VI TYPr oduct i vi t y ( P) i s def i ned as an i nt er - r el at i onshi p, bet weenpr oduct i on r esul t s ( R) and empl oyed f act or s of pr od~ct i on ( F)( SPEI DEL, 1963), Fi g. 3:

P RF

Ful l pr oduct i vi t y ( t ot al pr oduct i vi t y, val ue pr oduct i vi t y) i scal cul at ed by expr essi ng t he pr oduct i on r esul t s i n monet ar yuni t s:

Ful l Pr oduct i vi t y val ue addedSum of i nput f act or s

The t echni cal or par t i al pr oduct i vi t y i s shown by t he quot i enti n whi ch pr oduct i on r esul t s ar e expr essed i n nat ur al uni t s:

Techni cal or Par t i alPr oducti vi t y

Quant i t i es pr oducedSum of i nput f act or s

By usi ng t he wor k t i me (A) as denomnat or i n t he above t woequat i ons, f ul l l abour pr oduct i vi t y and t echni cal l abour pr o-duct i vi t y can be cal cul at ed, r espect i vel y.

Ful l LabourPr oduct i vi t y

Techni cal LabourPr oducti vi t y

val ue addedSum of AQuant i t i es pr oducedSum of A

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Flg.3: Types o - f Productivity (after SPEIDEL 1963)

'"$> .

Out put RProducti vi t y = ( P =- )Fact or s of Pr oduct i on FII I

Ful l Pr oduct i vi t y Par t i al or Techni cal- ( R = Val ue added, net out put r-- Producti vi t yi n monet ar y uni t s ) * ( R = Output , i n physi cal uni t s)

f- Area Product i vi ty - - - Area Product i vi ty( F = Ar ea, i n ar ea uni t s) ( F = Ar ea, i n ar ea uni t s)

Capi t al Product i vi t y Capi t al Product i vi t yf- ( F = I nvest ed capi t al , i n - ( F = I nvest ed capi t al , i nmonetary uni ts) monetary uni ts)

Labour Product i vi ty - Labour Product i vi ty'--- ( F = Labour , i n t i me uni t s) ( F = Labour , i n t i me uni t s)* ) Val ue Added or Net Out put

= Gr oss Yi el d - ( mat er i al i nput s + cont r act edser vi ces + depr eci ati on)


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The uni t s of t i me used may be an hour , day, week, mont h or ayear , whi l e uni t s of pr oduct i on can be any physi cal quant i t i esi n number , wei ght , vol ume and ar ea.

Ther e can ar i se a conf usi on i n t he use of di f f er ent t i me uni t sl i ke a day, an hour , a m nut e and so on. To over come t he con-t r over sy i n t aki ng t he meani ngs of di f f er ent t i me uni t s, SAMSETet al . ( 1978) pr esent ed a t i me st udy concept f or t he di f f er entt i me uni t s, det ai l ed as under :

Uni t s of Ti me

Ti me study Days Wor k Hour M nut e 1/ 100 mn SecondConcept s ( d) ( h) (m n) ( cm n) ( s)

Tot al t i me ( To) d To h To mn To cm n To s ToWor k pl ace t i me (Wo) d Wo h Wo mn Wo cm n Wo s WoEf f ect i ve t i me ( E) d E h E mn E cm n E s EDel ay t i me ( D) d D h D mn D cm n D s D

Energy Product i vi t y

I n t he l ast f ew decades, ener gy consumpt i on has i ncr eased manyf ol ds, especi al l y i n devel oped count r i es, due t o expansi on ofi ndust ry and mechani zat i on of di f f er ent wor k oper at i ons. Mor e-over , dur i ng t hi s per i od t he pr i ces of oi l , as an i mpor t antsour ce of ener gy, on t he i nt er nat i onal mar ket have al so gonever y hi gh. Under t hese condi t i ons t he ener gy i nput s have becomea st r ong det erm nant of econom cs of di f f er ent pr oduct i onpr ocesses. Ther ef or e, ener gy consumpt i on i n kWh i s al so t akenas a f act or of pr oduct i vi t y.

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Ver y f ew peopl e ar e i nt er est ed i n t he absol ut e val ues of pr o-duct i vi t y measurement ( SPEI DEL, 1983 and GRAMMEL, 1978) , butt he changes i n pr oduct i vi t y over a def i ni t e per i od expr essedas Productivity Index ( PI ) :

PI P ( new r esul t s)P ( base val ue) x 100

Compar i son of product i vi t y i ndexes show, i n whi ch per cent age t hepr oduct i vi t y has i ncr eased ( Gei ger , 1960) over a t i me per i od wi t ht he i mproved and changed f act or s of pr oduct i on.For exampl e t he t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ngwi t h convent i onal t ool s i s 0. 249 m / man hour ( base val ue) andi mpr oved t ool s gave a t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y of 0. 307 m /man hour . To see t he change i n pr oduct i vi t y wi t h t he i mpr ovedt ool s, t he pr oduct i vi t y i ndex i s cal cul at ed as f ol l ows:

TLP = m / man hour Pr oduct i vi t y I nd. xPr oduct i vi t y New r esul t s

= x 100Var i abl e Base val ue New r esul t s Base val ueTot al vol ume/Total work t i me 0. 249 0. 307 123

The pr oduct i vi t y i ndex i n t he above exampl e came out t o be as 123.I t means t hat i mpr oved t ool s caused a t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t yi ncr ease of 23 % over a base val ue of 100 f or convent i onal t ool s.The pr oduct i vi t y i s j ust l i ke a measur i ng st i ck f or t he t echni calachi evement (WEI ZACKER, 1966 ci ted by GRAMMEL, 1978) of an ent er -pr i se. Techni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y and f ul l l abour pr oduct i vi t y

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and t hei r changes ar e t he essent i al basi s f or ent er pr i se economcsand f or t he deci si ons of ent er pr i se pol i t i cs, especi al l y i n wor kpl anni ng, wor k vol ume and wor k f or ce r equi r ement , t est i ng ofwor ker s capaci t y i n t he i nt er est of ent er pr i se and above al l t omai nt ai n t he sust ai ned per f ormance of wor ker s. Use of pr oduct i vi t yi ndex i s a usef ul t ool f or t he set t l ement of wor k cont ract s(GRAMMEL, 1978) , test i ng of i mproved work t echni ques and opt i mumdegr ee of mechani zat i on ( SPEI DEL, 1983) . The l evel of pr oduct i vi t yaf f ect s not onl y t he per sonal secur i t y and wel l bei ng of t he i n-di vi dual s (GUZZO and BONDY, 1983) , but al so t he cohesi veness andi nt egr i t y of t he soci et y.I n f or est r y most l y t he t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y ( par t i alpr oduct i vi t y) i s measur ed (SPEI DEL, 1983) , expr essed i n outputuni t s as cubi c met er s, r unni ng met er s, squar e met er s, hect ar esand number of pi eces pr oduced et c. and t he empl oyed f act or s ofwor k ar e l abour wage hour s, machi ne hour s or even per shi f tor per day of wor k.I n t i mber har vest i ng t he t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i s t akenei t her as a col l ect i ve f i gur es f or al l t he oper at i ons bet ween ast andi ng t r ee and t i mber r eady f or sal e at t he mar ket i ng si t e,or i t may be cal cul at ed f or i ndi vi dual oper at i ons as pr i mar yf el l i ng and conver si on, mnor and maj or t r anspor t .Gi ven bel ow i s an exampl e f or t he cal cul at i on of t echni cal l abourpr oduct i vi t y wi t h r espect t o t ot al wor k t i me and ef f ect i ve t i mef or di f f er ent sub- oper at i ons i n t i mber har vest i ng:

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Exampl e f or cal cul at i ng t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y f ordi f f er ent sub- oper at i ons i n t i mber har vest i ng.

Ti me consumed Techni cal Labour Pr oduct i vi t ym ni m m / hour

Sub- oper at i ons Ef f ect i ve Tot al wor k Ef f ect i ve Total wor kt i me t i me t i me t i me

Fel l i ng 12 18 5. 00 3. 33Del i mbi ng 28 39 2. 14 1. 54Cr osscut t i ng 22 30 2. 73 2. 00

M nor t r ans-por t at i on 33 45 1. 82 1. 33Pi l i ng al ongthe f or estr oad si de 15 21 4. 00 2. 86sum aver age 110 153 0. 55 0. 39

m = cubi c met er sol i d vol ume out si de bar k. When usi ng ot heri ndi cat i ons, a def i ni t i on shoul d be gi ven i n each case.

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2. 2 PRODUCTI VI TY AND UNI T COSTSThe i mpr ovement i n pr oduct i vi t y i s an achi evement f or an enter-pr i se and i s t he best guar ant ee f or i t s econom c vi abi l i t y. Theproduct i vi t y i mpr ovement s ar e sai d t o exi st ( GUZZO and BONDY,1983) , when out put i ncreases r el at i ve t o i nput cost s or wheni nput cost s decl i ne r el at i ve t o out put . I n bot h t hese s i t uat i onswhet her i t i s an i ncr ease i n t he uni t s of pr oduct i on or a de-cr ease i n t he pr oduct i on cost s means a r educt i on i n t he cost / uni tof pr oduct i on. So t he uni t cost i s a si ngl e cr i t er i on of pr oduc-t i vi t y achi evement wi t h any of t he above ment i oned al t er nat i ves.Gi ven bel ow i s an exampl e f or cal cul at i ng uni t cost i n t i mberhar vest i ng:

Cu har vest i ng cost per uni t ( Rs. / m )TLP t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y ( m / man hour )Ch cost per hour ( Rs. / hour ) , i ncl udi ng wages, soci al

benef i t s as wel l as cost of t ool st t i me consumpt i on per uni t ( m n/ m )t he f ol l owi ng r el at i on exi st s:

Cu ChTLPCh . t60

For exampl e t he har vest i ng cost / hour i ncr eases at a r at e of12. 4 % and t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i ncr eases at a r at eof 23 % What wi l l be t he r at e of change of har vest i ng ( Cu)cost/ m3?

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Formul a:PHC 100 100 + PCh100 + PTLP - 1)

where PHC r at e of change of harvest i ng cost / m3 as per centPCh r at e of change of cost / hour as percentPTLP rate of change of TLP as percent

Cal cul at i ons:100 100 + 12. 4100 + 23 -1)

100 ( 112. 4_1)123

100 112. 4 - 123123

100 (~) 123

100 ( - 0. 086 ) = _. 8. 62 %

So t he har vest i ng cost / m3 ( Cu) wi l l show a r educt i on of 8. 62 %.

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2. 3 FACTORS AFFECTI NG TECHNI CAL LABOUR PRODUCTI VI TY I N TI MBERHARVESTI NG

As al r eady di scussed we need two par amet er s f or t he cal cul at i onof t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ng. One i s t hemat er i al out come of wor k as m3 of t i mber and t he ot her i s wor kdur at i on t o pr oduce t hi s quant i t y of t i mber . The r el at i onshi pbetween pr oduct i on and wor k t i me, i . e. t echni cal l abour pr oduc-t i vi t y, does not r emai n constant, but i s subj ect t o var y f ordi f f er ent per sons, t ool s, t echni ques, cr op and wor k pl acecondi t i ons. Gi ven bel ow ar e t he f act or s, whi ch af f ect t echni call abour pr oduct i vi t y i n t i mber har vest i ng:

Per sonal Capabi l i t i es of Worker sCondi t i ons of Workpl aceCr op Feat ur esQual i t y of Work Organi zat i onTechni cal Equi pmentWork Requi r ement s.

Each of t hese f act or s i s f ur t her el abor at ed as f ol l ows:Per sonal Capabi l i t i es of wor ker s Physi cal bui l d- up Nut r i t i on and cl ot hi ng At t i t ude towards work Gener al and pr of essi onal t r ai ni ng Soci al benef i t s Rat e and Syst em of wageCondi t i ons of Workpl ace Ter r ai n f eat ur es

Sl opeSur f ace f eat ures

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Cl i mat eTemper at ureAi r humdi t yAi r movementRai nf al l or snowf al l

Cr op Feat ur esCut / uni t ar ea

Tr ee speci esTree f eat ures

Qual i t y of Work Organi zat i onWor k or gani zat i on accor di ng t o t i me and l ocal i t y

Wor k sequenceSaf et y at wor kLi vi ng f aci l i t i es

Techni cal Equi pmentPr ovi si on of pr oper and adequat e t ool sPossi bi l i t i es of mechani zat i on

Work Requi r ement s Number and qual i t y of wor k el ement s( debranchi ng, debarki ng et c. )

Ti mber si zesAdher ence t o speci al si zes, st r i ct "observance oft op di amet er .Ot her oper at i on l i ke ext r act i on i ncl uded or not .

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2. 4 POSSI BI LI TI ES TO I NCREASE TECHNI CAL LABOUR PRODUCTI VI TY I NTI MBER HARVESTI NG

W t h t he pace of devel opment t he demand f or i ncr ease i n l abourpr oduct i vi t y i s al so r i s i ng. Thi s i s i mpor tant t o mai nt ai n anadequat e suppl y of r aw mat er i al t o di f f er ent i ndust r i es andal so f or t he cheeper pr oduct i on of goods and econom c vi abi l i t yof di f f er ent pr oduct i on concer ns. Mor eover , t he cost s of pr o-duct i on pr ocess per uni t t i me keeps on i ncr easi ng wi t h t he passageof t i me and i t i s needed t hat t he pr oduct i vi t y shoul d out pace t hecost s or at l east r emai n i n bal ance wi t h t hemThe pr oduct i vi t y of an or gani zat i on i s pr i nci pal l y det er m ned byt he or gani zat i onal t echnol ogy and j ob per f ormance of i t s empl oyees.I n hi ghl y mechani zed oper at i ons, change i n t echnol ogy i s t he mostpower f ul l determ nant of product i vi t y (GUZZO and BONDY, 1983) ,whi l e i n oper at i ons wi t h mor e manual i nput s, subst ant i al i ncr easei n l abour pr oduct i vi t y i s achi eved by i mpr ovement i n t he wor ker sper f ormance.Wor ker s per f ormance i s a pr oduct of wor ker s capabi l i t i es and mo-t i vat i on. The manual and t echnol ogy f act or s i n t hei r harmoni ouscombi nat i on can onl y guar antee f or opt i mum resul t s . Pr oduct i vi t yi ncr ease upt o 200 % and a cost r educt i on upt o 50 % has beenachi eved i n many count r i es (SUNDBERG, 1974) through work studi es,r esear ch, t r ai ni ng and i mpr oved pl anni ng pr ocedur es. I n t he par a-gr aphs t o f ol l ow di f f er ent possi bi l i t i es of i mpr ovement i n t ech-ni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y wi t h par t i cul ar r ef er ence t o t i mberharvest i ng are di scussed.

2. 4. 1 Educat i on and Vocat i onal Tr ai ni ngThe vocat i onal t r ai ni ng i s an or gani zat i onal pr act i ce wher ebyt he wor ker s ar e educat ed wi t h r espect t o speci f i c ski l l deemedcent r al t o t hei r j ob (GUZZO and BONDY, 1983) . Vocat i onal t r ai n-

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i ng of f or est wor ker s i n pr oper wor k met hods, use and mai nt en-ance of di f f er ent t ool s, per sonal saf et y and er gonom cs i sessent i al t o i ncr ease t hei r per f ormance and ef f i ci ency ( ANONY-MOUS, 1974, EI SENHAUER, 1979) and al so to make f orest r y moreat t r act i ve t o pot ent i al wor ker s and l ess cumber some t o t hosewho are al r eady empl oyed i n i t (ANONYMOUS, 1979) .I mpr ovement of t echni que and i nt r oduct i on of new t ool s i sessent i al f or hi gher wor k per f ormance, whi ch i s onl y possi bl et hr ough t r ai ni ng pr ogr ammes i n new t echni ques and use of i mpr oved t ool s f or i ncr eased pr oduct i vi t y and t o compensat e t hehi gher cost s so i ncur ed. The use of power chai nsaw has becomever y common i n al most al l i ndust r i al count r i es and some of t hedevel opi ng count r i es, because of i t s much hi gher per f ormance.But t o wor k wi t h a power chai nsaw i s not a si mpl e mat t er . I fnot f ul l y under st ood, i t can pr ove t o be a danger ous compani onwi t h a ver y hi gh r i sk of acci dent s and at t he same t i me posi ngser i ous er gonom c t hr eat s t o t he user . Speci al and i nt ensi vet r ai ni ng i s essent i al i n t he use of t hi s t ool f or i t s opt i mumand saf e ut i l i zat i on.Pr oper t ool mai nt enance i s anot her aspect of vocat i onal t r ai ni ngof f or est wor ker s. Wel l mai nt ai ned t ool s not onl y gi ve a hi gherwor k per f ormance, but al so make t he wor k mor e easy by r educi ngt he physi cal wor kl oad on t he wor ker . I n a st udy on t ool s and er -gonomcs i n I ndi an l oggi ng oper at i ons ( HANSSON et al . , 1966) ,i t was f ound t hat i mpr oper l y mai nt ai ned saws f or t he same ener gyconsumpt i on gave a per f ormance onl y 50 % of t he pr oper l y mai n-t ai ned ones. Tr ai ni ng i n t he mai nt enance of saws and pr operwor k met hods r esul t ed i nt o an i ncr ease i n wor k pr oduct i vi t y byabout 15 % ( SUMANTRI , 1979) i n t he t eak pl ant at i ons i n J ava.For est wor k i st t he most hazar duous j ob wi t h ver y hi gh chancesof acci dent s and about 80 % of t hese ar e because of human f ai -l ur e ( ANONYMOUS, 1960) . I f a compar i son of acci dent s st at i st i csi n f or est wor k i s made t he r at e of f at al acci dent s i n devel opi ng

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count r i es i s 10 t i mes as hi gh as i n i ndust r i al count r i es ( ANONY-MOUS, 1974) . Thi s bi g di f f er ence i s onl y because of bet t er t r ai -ni ng of f or est wor ker s i n i ndust r i al count r i es, even t hough t hewor ker s i n i ndust r i al count r i es have mor e pot ent i al danger ofsever e acci dent s ( LAGERLOF, 1979) on account of a ver y hi gh de-gree of ~echani zat i on. Mor eover , t wo t hi r d of t he t i m~ ~ost i nf or est r y wor k i s because of acci dent s and di seases ( STAREK,1985) and t r ai ni ng pr ogr ammes i n er gonomcs f or f or est wor ker sr esul t ed i nt o a subst ant i al r educt i on ( OBLI VI N, 1985) i n t he r at eof occupat i onal acci dent s and di seases. Savi ngs i n wor k t i me be-cause of a r educed r at e of acci dent s and di seases account s f ori ncreased wor k per f ormance.Tr ai ni ng i n er gonomcs i s al so essent i al f or opt i mum per f ormance.Pr oper body post ur e at wor k and er gonomcal l y desi gned wor k pl acesgr eat l y r educe t he physi cal wor kl oad, wi t h l ess f at i gue, l ess r estbr eaks, i ncr eased wor k t i me and mor e wor k out put . Physi cal t r ai -ni ng i s al so essent i al f or i mpr ovi ng muscul ar st r engt h ( TEI KARI ,1981) and physi cal per f ormance of wor ker s f or i ncr eased pr oduct i -vi t y.

2. 4. 2 I nst i t ut i onsExi st ence and r ol e of nat i onal and r egi onal r esear ch and t r ai ni ngi nst i t ut i ons i s ver y essent i al f or t he i mpr ovement of wor k andwor ker . These i nst i t ut i ons ser ve as nucl ei f or er gonomc r esear ch,t eachi ng and t r ai ni ng i n di f f er ent f or est r y oper at i ons. Er gonomcshas t o ser ve i t s wi dest r ol e f or t he benef i t of bi ol ogi cal uni t ofwor k " t he man" and t he mat er i al out come of t he act i vi t y " t he t ech-ni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y" . Er gonomc r esear ch has been def i nedas a pr econdi t i on f or t he i mpr ovement of si t uat i on of wor ki ng manas wel l as f or t he i mpr ovement of ent er pr i se economy, by way ofadequat e desi gn of organi zat i on of t echni ques (MUELLER- DARSS, 1979) .Col l ect i on of i nf ormat i ons on di f f er ent aspect s of man and wor k,t hei r pr ocessi ng, di ssi pat i on and pr act i cal appl i cat i on of r e-

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suI t s i nt o var i ous wor k f i el ds of f or est r y ar e t he mai n f unct i onof t hese i nst i t ut i ons.

The bi ggest dr aw- back i n t he i ni t i at i on of act i vi t i es f or t he i mpr ovement of wor k and wor ker i n devel opi ng count r i es i s t he l ackof basi c i nf ormat i ons f or f i xi ng t he st r at egi es f or f ut ur e i mpr ovement pl ans. St udi es and r esear ch i s t o be or gani zed andcar r i ed out by t hese i nst i t ut i ons f or t he col l ect i on of dat aon t he number , age, ski l l , t ool s, wor k days/ year , ear ni ngs andt ypes of oper at i ons per f ormed by t he f or est wor ker s i n t he coun-t r y. Resear ch i n er gonom cs i s needed f or t he opt i m zat i on f or"Man- Task Syst em" ( ANONYMOUS, 1979, ZANDER, 1979) and f or t hei mpr ovement of l i vi ng and wor ki ng condi t i ons of t he wor ker s( LOON, 1982) . Est i mat i on of physi cal wor kl oad, t echni cal l abourpr oduct i vi t y, wor ki ng condi t i ons, endem c di seases and nut r i t i oni s al so essent i al f or t he i mpr ovement of wor k and wor ker . Compar i son of wor k t echni ques and t ool s i n f or est r y shoul d al so bei ncl uded i n t he r esear ch and t r ai ni ng pr ogr ammes of t hese i nst i -t ut i ons.MUELLER- DARSS ( 1979) pr oposed t he f ol l ow ng pl an of act i vi t i esf or an er gonom c r esear ch and t r ai ni ng i nst i t ut i on f or t r opi calagr i cul t ur e and f or est r y.

Resear ch Uni tPhysi ol ogi cal st udi es:- physi ol ogi cal capaci t i es- l i vi ng condi t i ons- cl i mat i c condi t i ons- nut r i t i on- endur ance capaci t i es

Psychol ogi cal St udi es:- envi r onment al i nf l uences- qual i f i cat i on, i nt el l i gence and l ear ni ng- f at i gue, acci dent s

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- man- work rel at i onshi p- mot i vat i on, cul t ur al backgr oundSoci ol ogi cal Studi es- soci al st r uct ur e of r ur al popul at i on- l i vi ng at t i t udes ( backgr ound)- mobi l i t y- l abour marketWor k St udi es:- t i me- worki ng procedure- wor k outputTechni cal St udi es:- adaptat i on and/ or devel opment of i nvest i gat i on equi pment- t ool s and machi ner y

Tr ai ni ng Uni t- i nvent or y of cur r ent t ool s and equi pment ;el i m nat i on and/ or suppl y accor di ng t o t he r egi onal si t uat i on( e. g. know- how of workers and personnel s) ;

- i nvent or y of ser vi ces f or t ool s and machi ner y;- cont act i ng manuf act ur er s of t ool s and machi ner i es, f or er gono-m cal , t echni cal and econom cal adaptat i ons and i mprovement ;

- sur vey of educat i onal st at e of per sonnel s and wor ker s;- f ormat i on of a t r ai ni ng gr oup f or demonst r at i on of "per f ectand moder n" wor k.

2. 4. 3 I mproved tool sAs t he demand f or wood i ncr eased t he pr essur e f or hi gher pr oduc-t i vi t y pr ompt ed t he i mpr ovement of ol d t ool s and devel opment ofnew methods and equi pment (GOLOB, 1981) . The f i r st t ool used f orwood cut t i ng was axe, underwent many changes i n mater i al and de-

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si gn over a per i od of cent ur i es. I nt r oduct i on of cr osscut sawal most r epl aced t he axe wor k and made t he wor k l ess ar duous wi t hi ncr eased pr oduct i vi t y. Cr osscut saw was f ol l owed by bucksaw andbowsaw, whi ch agai n had t hei r own advant ages. Thi s al l sequenceof devel opment i s because of t he const ant human per sui t f or bet t erand ef f i ci ent t ool s.I mpr oved t ool s bot h i n qual i t y and desi gn and pr oper l y mai nt ai ned,not onl y have a posi t i ve i nf l uence on wor k pr oduct i vi t y, but al sor educe t he physi cal wor kl oad on t he wor ker . I n a st udy on t ool sand er gonom cs i n l oggi ng oper at i ons i n I ndi a ( HANSSON et al . ,1966) , i t was f ound t hat t he bowsaws gave a hi gher per f ormanceand l ess energy demands as compared to one- and. two- men crosscutsaws i n f el l i ng and cr osscut t i ng of di amet er s upt o 30 cm Advan-t ages of r aker - t oot h bowsaws wer e even hi gher t han t he peg- t oot hbowsaws. St udi es on t he choi ce of t echnol ogy i n f or est r y i n Phi -l i ppi ne ( LAARMAN et al . , 1981) showed t hat t he bowsaw i s l esst han hal f as l abour i nt ensi ve as axe and by about 7 - 11 t i mesl ess wast ef ul . Compar i son of two-men cr osscut saws peg- andraker - t ooth (MALETA and SOOD, 1984, HANSSON et al . , 1966) , showedt hat t he r aker - t oot h saw gave a hi gher out put and l ower ener gyconsumpt i on than the peg- t ooth saw. Tr ai ni ng and i nt r oduct i onof i mpr oved t ool s r esul t ed i nt o an i ncr ease of 33 % i n l abourproduct i vi t y dur i ng harvest i ng of sof t wood speci es i n Tur key( GORTAN, 1964) .Power chai nsaw i s a ver y ef f i ci ent t ool i n f el l i ng and conver -si on of t rees and has al most r epl aced al l cut t i ng t ool s i n t reef el l i ng and conver si on oper at i ons i n i ndust r i al count r i ~s. Re-sul t s of t he st udi es on t he ef f i ci ency of power chai nsaw r e-veal ed t hat t he power chai nsaw gi ves a hi gher per f ormance andl ess ener gy demand per uni t ar ea of cut i n f el l i ng and cr oss-cut t i ng as compar ed t o t he ot her cut t i ng t ool s ( HANSSON et al . ,1966) . The hi gher wor k per f ormance of t he power chai n saw i nt i mber har vest i ng i s al so suppor ted by t he r esul t s of t he st u-di es car r i ed out i n t he pl ant at i ons i n Paki st an. These st udi es

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( ANONYMOUS, 1984 b, AYAZ and SI DDI QUI , 1982) r epor t ed thatpower chai nsaw i s 2. 6 t o 3. 5 t i mes mor e ef f i ci ent i n f el l i ngand conver si on of t r ees i n compar i son t o axe and two-men cr oss-cut saw ( peg~toot h) , respect i vel y.

2. 4. 4 Mechani zat i onHuman capaci t y t o per f orm physi cal wor k i s l i m t ed, but t he de-mands f or hi gher l abour pr oduct i vi t y ar e al ways surpassi ng. Ther e-f or e, some hel pi ng means ar e needed t o i ncr ease t he spher e ofmanual act i vi t i es. Mechani zat i on of wor k oper at i ons i s t he onl ysol ut i on t o br i dge t he gap bet ween human l i m t s of physi cal per -f ormance and hi gher l abour product i vi t y demands. Change i n tech-nol ogy i s t he most power f ul l det ermnant of l abour pr oduct i vi t y(GUZZO and BONDY, 1983) . The "axeman" of today cont Tol s a machi necapabl e of pr oduct i vi t y many t i mes gr eat er (GOLOB, 1981) t han t hepr oduct i vi t y of t he best axeman of t he past . Sust ai ned i ncr easei n l abour pr oduct i vi t y can be achi eved ( DUNLOP and DI ATCHENKO,1964) wi t h t he i nt r oduct i on of new machi nes and t echnol ogy amoun-t i ng t o 64 - 74 % i ncr ease i n pr oduct i vi t y i n di f f er ent wor kf i el ds.Mechani zat i on i s t he most ef f ect i ve t ool f or i ncreasi ng the tech-ni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y and i s mor e or l ess i ndependent of so-ci o- econom c condi t i ons of di f f er ent count r i es. But f ul l l abourproduct i vi ty of mechani zat i on i s hi ghl y var i abl e because of di f -f er ence i n machi ne and l abour cost s among t he count r i es. The i n-dust r i al count r i es ar e t he sel f manuf act ur er s of machi nes and t hemachi ne costs sel dom exceed 50 %of t he t ot al cost s and t he shar eof l abour cost i s mor e t han hal f ( SUNDBERG, 1974) .Empl oyment of machi nes i n i ndust r i al count r i es cut down t he wor kt i me ( STEI NLI N, 1969) and r esul t i nt o a hi gher t echni cal as wel las f ul l l abour pr oduct i vi t y, because of a savi ng i n t he l abourcost s. I n devel opi ng count r i es t he machi nes ar e i mpor t ed and

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equi pment cost s go up as hi gh as 70 - 80 % and l abour cost accountonl y f or 20 - 30 % The use of machi nes al t hough r esul t s i n ahi gher t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y, but f ul l l abour pr oduct i -vi t y may not i mpr ove so much, because of cheeper l abour costf act or and a savi ng i n t he l abour cost due t o mechani zat i on maynot si gni f i cant l y af f ect t he f ul l l abour pr oduct i vi t y i ndex.Anot her aspect of mechani zat i on i s i t s ef f ect on empl oyment . I nSweden the number of j obs was r educed f r om 230, 000 to 100, 000( SANDAHL, 1974) wi t h t he i nt r oduct i on of machi nes i n di f f er entf or est oper at i ons over a per i od of 20 year s. Devel opi ng coun-t r i es ar e al r eady f aci ng a chr oni c pr obl em of unempl oyment .Mechani zat i on means mor e peopl e wi l l be out of t hei r j obs.Ther ef or e, t he opt i on f or mechani zat i on shoul d onl y be madeunder ver y speci al condi t i ons, ot her wi se t he wel l t r ai nedwor ker s, wor ki ng wi t h bet t er t ool s, t echni ques and wor k condi -t i ons i s a sui t abl e comprom se between empl oyment probl ems andl abour pr oduct i vi t y i n devel opi ng count r i es.I LO ( I nt er nat i onal Labour Or gani zat i on) has car r i ed out a numberof case st udi es compar i ng hi ghl y mechani zed oper at i ons wi t h ef f i -ci ent manual wor k ( ci t ed by SANDAHL, 1974) . Based upon t he r esul t sof t hese st udi es, i t i s concl uded t hat a combi nat i on of mechani zedt echni ques at an i nt ermedi at e t echnol ogy l evel and i mprovement i nl abour i nt ensi ve oper at i ons woul d be mor e economc t han t he use ofhi ghl y mechani zed t echnol ogy.

2. 4. 5 Work Organi zat i onThe pur pose of wor k or gani zat i on i n t i mber har vest i ng i s t opr epl an t he ways and means f or t he opt i mum use of avai l abl el abour , machi ner y and t ool s f or pr oduct i on i n accor dance wi t ht he speci f i c t ask assi gned ( FRAUENHOLZ, 1978) . Bet t er wor k or -gani zat i on af f ect s wor ker s per f ormance and i s t he j ob of f or est -r y ent er pr i se t o est i mat e t he si ze of wor k and avai l abl e means.

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Or gani zat i on of wor k depends upon t he l evel of educat i on, competence of wor ker s, wage syst em and the organi zat i onal cl i mate( AGER, 1981). Bet t er wor k or gani zat i on i ncr eases l abour pr o-duct i vi t y by bet t er coor di nat i on, l ess i nt er r upt i ons and capa-ci t y t o f i ni sh t he wor k ( FRYKMAN, 1980) i n t he al l ot ed t i meper i od.The f ol l owi ng poi nt s ar e necessar y f or t he or gani zat i on of wor ki n t i mber har vest i ng f or opt i mum resul t s:- Det er m nat i on of Si ze of Wor k:Ful l i nf ormat i ons about t he st and and gr owi ng st ock, such asspeci es and si zes of t rees, t ype of f el l i ng t o be car r i ed outand vol ume of t i mber t o be ext r act ed, nat ur e of gr ound and si l -vi cul tural const r ai nt s .

- Means of Transpor t at i on and Communi cat i on:Exi st i ng means of communi cat i on f or t he wor ker s t o t he wor kpl ace, di st ances i nvol ved, means of ext r act i on of t i mber andthei r pr esent condi t i on.

- Det ermnat i on of Wor k Cr ew Si ze:I n vi ew of si ze of wor k and t i me per i od at hand, cal cul at i onof number of wor ker s needed t o compl et e t he j ob. Vol ume of cutand t he t echni cal l abour pr oduct i vi t y ar e t he basi s f or t heest i mat i on of cr ew si ze.

- Tool s and Equi pment :Whet her t he t ool s and machi nes t o be used i n t he t i mber har -vest i ng wor k ar e avai l abl e i n suf f i ci ent number , t hei r st at eof mai nt enance and readi ness f or use.

- Pr ot ect i on of Wor ker s:Ar r angement s f or t he pr ot ect i on of wor ker s agai nst heat , col d,r ai n and di seases.

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- Or gani zat i on of Wor ki ng Hour s:Fi xi ng t he t i me of st ar t of wor k and cl ose of wor k t o t he bestconveni ence of wor ker s and f or t he mut ual sat i sf act i on of empl oyer and empl oyee. I n hot seasons t he wor k shoul d conf i ne t ot he mor ni ng and af t er noon, avoi di ng hot t est hour s of t he day( STREHLKE, 1974) .

- Ar r angement s of Breaks:Cont i nuous wor ki ng i s i mpossi bl e and the wor ker s get exhaust edver y soon i f t he wor k i s heavy. Suf f i ci ent br eaks i n number anddur at i on ar e needed t o r ebui l d t he wor ker s ener gy. I n hot cl i -mat es f r equent and shor t br eaks ar e essent i al t o avoi d overheat i ng of t he body t han t he l ess f r equent but l ong br eaks.

- J ob Rot at i on:Di f f er ent wor k oper at i ons have di f f er ent ener gy demands. I n awor k syst em some of t he wor ker s ar e permanent l y over l oaded,whi l e ot her s enj oy a bet t er wor k condi t i on. Change of wor k amongt he wor ker s i s essent i al t o gi ve r el i ef t o t he wor ker s who havewor ked above t hei r physi cal l i m t s.

- Avai l abi l i t y of Good Qual i t y Dr i nki ng Wat er :Under hot cl i mat es a wor ker consumes 5 - 10 l i t r es of wat er perwor k shi f t ( STREHLKE, 1974) . I t i s di f f i cul t f or each wor ker t ocar ry t hi s much of wat er dai l y t o t he wor k pl ace. Suppl y of goodqual i t y of dr i nki ng wat er pr ef er abl e cont ai ni ng 1 % sal t , i sessent i al t o r epl eni sh t he l oss of wat er f r om t he bodi es of t hewor ker s and t o avoi d dehydr at i on.

- Mot i vat i on:Di f f er ent psychol ogi cal and mat er i al mot i vat i onal f act or saf f ect wor ker s per f ormance. Handl i ng of wor ker s wi t h t he bestl eader shi p qual i t i es, appr eci at i on and par t i ci pat i on of wor ker si n wor k pl anni ng ar e some of t he psychol ogi cal aspect s of wor kor gani zat i on. Ot her monet ar y i ncent i ves ar e t he r at e and syst emof payment s, possi bi l i t i es of bonus, soci al benef i t s and medi cal

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i nsur ance f or t he wor ker s. Pr ovi si on of f i r st ai d ki t s t o t hewor ker s wi l l r educe t he t i me of i nt er r upt i ons because of m noracci dent s.

2. 5 COMPARI SON OF TECHNI CAL LABOUR PRODUCTI VI TY I N TI MBER HAR-VESTI NG AMONG DI FFERENT REGI ONS AND COUNTRI ES

2. 5. 1 I mpor t ance

The obj ect i ves of i nt er nat i onal exchange of exper i ence ar e t oi mprove the t echnol ogy and to r educe the econom c gap amongcooper at i ng peopl es and count r i es, as f ar as al l owed by t hei rl ocal condi t i ons. HI LF et al . ( 1961) pr oposed an i nt er nat i onalpr oduct i vi t y compar i son among t he f or est wor ker s of t he di f f er entcount r i es, f or a sel ect ed wor k oper at i on, whi ch i s i mpor t ant andas wel l common t o t he count r i es i n quest i on. Among di f f er entf or est r y oper at i ons t he wor k of t i mber har vest i mg (wi t hout mnorand maj or t r anspor t ) of f er s good possi bi l i t i es of such i nvest i -gat i ons. The pur pose of pr oposed st udi es i s t o choose t he bestt echni ques and t hei r appl i cat i on f or i ncr easi ng t he l abour pr o-duct i vi t y, ei t her at compar abl e cost s or at t he r educed cost sf or i ncr easi ng t he econom c st andar d of f or est wor ker s ( HI LFet al . , 1954) i n t he devel opi ng r egi ons of t he wor l d.For a j ust compar i son of per f ormance of wor ker s f r om di f f er entr egi ons and count r i es, cer t ai n r eser vat i ons need t o be obser ved.Because t he per f ormance of wor ker s not onl y depends upon t hei rper sonal capabi l i t i es, but al so on many ot her f act or s. These canbe due t o cl i mat e, t r ee speci es, wor k r equi r ement s and deg

physical workload and labour productivity in timber harvesting in pakistan- ph. d thesis. mohammad...

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