pevftlqsment• -...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER-I
Il'iTRODUCTION
It has rightly been said that the historians of
education must be "past at.rare, present concerned and future
oriented." 1 The reasons are many. Sinee one of their most
important areas of interest revolves around the study of
educational institutions, a thorough knowledge of the back•
ground of the institutions ~ould be helpful not only for
understanding their present set up and functioning but also
for identifying their specific problems and formulating
suitable guidelines. Educational institutions, especially
the universities, have a unique place in all societies and
they play a prominent part in the development of all nations. 2
Still it is a surprising fact that very little effort has
been made so far to study them particularly from a historical
point of viet1, 3 which is sine~ ngn to understand their
1. G.R. Batho, revie~ of Edycatign and tbe Social Cgnditiona by Harold Silver, in ~ti§h ~oqk NHHa, February 1981,p.90
2. On thi .. s point seel Y.Kim et.al. eds.L ~~~~a;;=~~ University in Nat_ona§ pevftlQsment• !O ___ A __________ tudiga ( Net.r Delhi: Vikas 19 0 • F.H. Harrington, ~Role of the University in Scientific and Technological Research for National Development" in University BenftShCh ip ~~ and %ecpno6gg~ ~n Delation to NatignaJ Devfth2nm~ New Delhi: University Grants Commission, 1980), PP•39-~6.
3. Erie Ashby who made an indepth analysis of the universities in U.K., Africa and India did lament on the lack of historical research about the universities. He observed: "It is a curious fact that universities which are dedicated to tba pursuit of kno~ledge are reluctant to pursue knowledge about themselves." Eric Ashby £attnrng_gf Uni~~tt~a tn'Non-Euro~ean ~ (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 19 61) t po 1.
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functioning and role in societyo Although some of the
scholars in the West have taken considerable interest in
this area and have bro~ght out quite a few scholarly
studies on the history of universities, 1 Indian historians
have comparatively neglected this area. 2 It cannot be due
to the dearth of data. 3 Possibly their lack of interest
in educational history might be due to a variety of reasons
of vhich mention may be made of inadequate facilities for specialization in this area,~ lack of expooure to the field-
1 •. e. g., See Hugh H.atrkins Pioneer A H!at.ru:;v ofthG J'ohn lisuUdA.CJ ym,vex:,U..t-:4 1874-1889. (~re"t! York: Cornell Univernity Press, 1960). . · Charles Edtrard 14allet, A H&c;J;.Qn: QL.thfLJln;ty..ruvc:titv oJ gx:ford, 3 vols. ( London: l·iathuen Co., 1924; reprint ed;.': , .L\1 ew York:· Barnes & Noble, 19 68) • Howard H. Peckham. l,be HrudJlttAf' tho Un,j_Iersil:v: of &chiltane. 181Z-190Z\Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 1967}. · Louis R. Hilson The U.n!vew...:t~ H.QX.tll. CBr,~
0 .. : T · Malt .. . 3iOdiciiJiilfuii<ChaPel Hilla University of North Carolina· Press, 19 7). ·
2. Yet few historical studies on certain Indian universities have been brought out either by the respective university officials or scholars in other discipline. e.g., seo A. R. Sethi and J. L, l>lehta: A *stoa of the Pun3ab Uniyenity0 Cha~ tt4Z·.QL (Chandigarha PunJab University Publication, 1968) • .R.w!d~qqf t}le unruu:sj,ty of' Calcutta (Calcutta& University of Calcutta, 1957). s. R. Dongerkery, A. His.t.on of ttuLUniye~:ltx or ~OP'lb.ax, 185?-1957 (Bombaya Bombay University, 1§5i).
3. Considerable material pertaining to universities is available at the record rooms of universities, National and State archives. Besides five volumes on the S n Go e di have already been For details see bibliography).
4. As far as ~e have been able to enquire, it seems that none of the departments of hiotory in Indian universities provide specialised courses in history of education, though many of them do enrol students for Ph.D in this area. It may be due to two reasons. The subject is generally offered at the departments of education and secondly there are not many scholars in the departments of history as well as education who have special interest or specialisation in this area.
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presumably due to the limited number of publication3 and .
discouraging attitude of certain people towards this area~
Besides, because of the inevitability of understanding the
more important aspects of history, viz., political,
administrative, social and economic, the historians seem to
have undervalued the significance of making exclusive studies
on the educational dimensions of our past. 3
This lacuna has, however, been fulfilled by the
pedagogists who produced quite a few research works in
.i. It may be noted that of the 281 articles published in a leading journal of history - Indian_Sgcial ang Economic liisto~ Rey~eH,during the period 1965-1979 there were only four articles on educational history. While three exclusive journals devoted to history of education continue to be brought out from London, New York and Belgium, there is not a single journal devoted exclusively to the history of education in India. Moreover, the foreign journals on history of education have very li~ted circulation in India.
2. e. g. According to an expert.. member (identity kept confidential) of a selection'committee for the recruitmento of a lecturer in Modern Indian history at a central university, it was decided to reject an otherwise qualified candidate \Whose academic record and the performance at the interview were not in any way lower than the selected candidate) mainly due to his specialisation in educational history. According to the expert, both the Vice-Chancellor and one of the members of the Committee, stated that "history of education is no history at all." Though we cannot rule out other motives of the selection committee in rejecting the specialist in educational history, this incidence throws light on the ignorance and bias of certain senior scholars towards this area. To change this attitude, the historians of education should produce outstanding works and try to introduce courses in this area in history departments.
3. While some aspects of education have been covered invariably in most of the studies on social history there has not been a single study dealing exclusively on any aspect of oducation, out of the 221 doctorates (Modern Indian History} produced during 1857-1970 from 60 Indian universities. See!A ~~t D~!~ral Dia£extat!ona Ae~epted bY Ind_an ________ 18 __ -:_9ZQ (New Delhi: Inter University Board, 197 section VIII.
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history of education. 1 Yet, non~ of them made any attempt
to study the history of a university. 2 In general their
approach to and analysis of a given problem differs
considerably from that of a historian - possibly due to
their lack of historical perspective and inadequate training
in the utilization or variety of primary sources. 3 Hence,
most of their studies seem to be incomplete from a historian's
point of vieu. A proper comprehension of our past, demands
serious and steady effort towards studying the educational
history primarily from a historian's angle.
~nifisanc~_and Sggpe gt the Top!g
The history of education is a vast area and keeping
the scope of the present study in view, the focus here is
confined to higher education in British India, which commenced
with the establishment of the university of Calcutta in 18,?.
Since then, University education has been expanding and by
1. or the total 1,128 doctorates produced from the various departments of education of the Indian universities during 1943-?8, there were 82 doctorates in history of education. This is calculated from the following publications:-l•L B. Buch, ed. '· A suryoy of Refearch ).n ~duif'tion., 194-3-zg { Barodaa 1~. s. university, 1974 , PP• 8, 3- 2. M. B. Buch, ed., Sectond Sttrvey.: of RM~ in Edugat~ .l9Z2·Z8. ( Barodal 1-1. s. University, 19'79; PP• i+2-68
d t i a · an U i Ne1-1 Delh12 N.C. E. R. T., 1966 , PP• -12.
2. The necessity of undert~~ing detailed studies on th.e various aspects of universities has been pointed out by. s. c. Shukla, "History of Education - A Trend Report," in M.B. Buch, ed., A S~~XftY qf R~qeatcb in Edgcation0 1943-?2, P• 51.
3. Though these points are debatable, an examination of the theses presented to the departments of education of the various Indian universities (Many of them are available at the I.c.s.s.R. Library, 35 Farozhah Road, New Delhi) lend considerable support to our conclusion.
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1920, there were altogether ten universities (Table 1).
Of these, the universities at Banar~s. (1916) and Aligarh
{ 1920) known as Banaras Hindu University ( BHU) and A.ligarh
Muslim University ( AMU) have some special significance
because of various reasons. First of all, their founders
:l:able-1 Growth of Yni~ersittes in Britisp India, 1812-192Q
s.No. Name of the University Place Year of Type of the
1. Calcutta University Calcutta 2. Bombay University Bombay 3. Madras University Madras ~t.. Allahabad University Allahabad 5· Banaras Hindu University Varanasi
6. Mysore University My sore
1· Patna University Patna.
8. Osmania University Hyderaba.d
9· Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh
10. Lucknow University Lucknow
establish- University ment
1857 Affiliating 1857 Affiliating 1857 Affiliating 1887 Af fi 11 a ting 1916 Teaching and
Residential 1916 Teaching and
Affiliating (Federal)
1917 Teaching and
1918 Affiliating Teaching and Residential
1920 Teaching and Residential
1920 Teaching and Affiliating
(This table does not include the three other universities viz., PunJab ( 1882), Dacca ( 1920) and Rangoon ( 1920) -since they are not in India at present}.
Source:
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viz., Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya ( 1861-19lt-6) and Syed .Ahmed
Khan1 ( 1817-1898) and others who were associated with the
building up of these institutions, in one way or other were
also actively involved in important contemporary socio
political movements and organizations such as Hindu Mahasabha,
Indian National Congress and Muslim League. Secondly these
two universities were the first to come into existence
prima_rily due to the initiatives of the politically conscious
Indi~n intellectuals2 and contributions from In~ians. By
1. Different biographers of Syed Ahm~d Khan spell his name in different manner and there is a need to differentiate him from Saiyyid .Ahmed Khan of Rae Bareilly ( 1786-1836) who was associated with the Wababbi movement. Though the nationalist historians prefer to refer him simply as Syed Ahmed Khan, he is even today popularly A referred to as Sir Syed at A.1'4. U. (He \'Tas ktlighted in 18o9). In the present work, be is referred to as Sir Syed. · '
2. While different scholars in the past have used the term intellectuals and intelligentsia in a common way to denote ''western educated, 11 ( as Edward Shill does); "active conceptive ideologistsn (as Marx uses); "Writers, public men, journalists and thinkers, who are intellectual . representatives of new classes and of Indian nationalism" (as Bipan Chandra uses); Bhattacharya has mado an effort to distinguish between intelligentsia and intellectuals. According to him "all intellectuals are members .of the intelligentsia, but not every member of the intelligentsia is an intellec~ual." Accepting Bipan's definition of intellectual, Bhattacharya also adds those belonging to the traditional learned professions in the category of intelligentsia, because of their crucial role in the formation of Pakistan. eft Feuer defines intellectual as the one with at least some knowledge of contemporary ideas, who is under an emotion~ compYl§ion to challenge,the social world in which he lives emphasis added). See, s. Bhattacharya, "Notes on the Role of the Intelligentsia in Colonial Society: India from Mid Nineteenth Century." Paper presented at the Seminar on Comparative Education, Jawaharlal Nehru University Netr Delhi 22 l4arch 1979; subsequently published in sJu~tes in History, Vol.I, No.I (January-June 1979) 9 PP• 89-104. Leui s s. Feuer, ;tdAA~Y: and ,the IdJiRl,ogis:t ( Oxford:& Basil Blackwell, 1975), p.20 •
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providing special facilities for the study of Hindu and
Islamic learning and culture, :S. H. u. and A.M. u. have been
attracting a comparatively greater number of Hindu and Muslim
students from all over the country1 and thus functioning as
the universities of "All India Character"2 and "National
importance. n 3
Of these two universities, Aligarh has been singled
out for the present study due to a variety of reasons. Apart
from the political, social and cultural reasons mentioned above,
Aligarh has a special significance due to its controversial
role in the history of modern India. Prior to 1947, the
controversy was centred on three ~ssues viz., w,hether Sir Syed
1. There can be two more important reasons 1.-rhy ·the Uuslim as well as Hindu students from distant places opt for Aligarh and Banaras respectively when they may be in a position to pursue their studies in the local institutions. These institutions provide innumerable scholarships and freeships to the Muslim and Hindu students out of the number of· endowments instituted by the members of the erstwhile princely families of British India. Besides due to absence of stiff competition and special admission policy many students succeed in securing admission to the course of their choice comparatively easier than other better universities. However, in the case of Aligarh some Muslim students show preference to it because of the emotional satisfaction they derive due to the Islamic atmosphere and Muslim majority in the campus. But with the expansion of
·the educational facilities and the growing awareness of secularism, the dependence of the distant students on these institutions is being reduced and these universities are becoming more localised. On this point, see,
·Akhtar Hussain, "Shrinking Catchment 1lrea of .A. N. u., 19 20-75" Seminar Paper, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, 1975 {Typescript).
2. Radhakrishnan Commission Repo~, Vol.I, p.461.
3. ~~art of the Cgmmittee on Ggyernfnce of Universities and olleg eft (New Delhi: u. G. c., 1971 , P• 20. . .
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was a nationalist; 1 whether he was influenced by the English
Principal of ~~.o. College, Theodore Beck, in taking an
anti-congress stand and remaining loyal to the British; 2
whether the Muslim League was the brainchild of the English
Principal Archebold or Nawab Mohsinul Mulk and his associates. 3
Even after the independence of India, Aligarh is not free
from one or other politico-communal controversy. Controversy,
however, continues as its curse.
At present the controversy revolves round the "historic
or minority character" of the un1 versi ty. 4 To many Huslima,
the minority character of A.M.U. has become more of an
"emotional issue" rather than an academic or constitutional
one.? It means different things to different interested groups 6
1. While a group of scholars, represented by Tarachand, Nizami and Shan Muhammad consider Sir Syed as a Nationalist, another group represented by .M.s. Jain and A. c. Bannerji considerably differ in their assessment of Sir Syed. This point has been examined in Cbapters V-VI. passim
2. For details on this _point, see Chapters IV & VI passim.
3. For details on this point, see Chapter VII, passim.
4. This controversy had its origin in 1951 when the A.M.U. Act of 1920 was amended by the Government of India. Thereafter with every subsequent amendments in 1965, 72, 78, 80 the issue became more politicised. The various factors that led to the amendment of the A. 14. u. Act during the last three decades and its impact on the Indian society provide ample scope for research in contemporary history.
5. v.v. John, "Safeguards for Aligarh• Distorted View of Preservation of Minor! ty Character," Contgur \'ifeek~ (New Delhi), .30 March 1980, p.16.
6. "While a section of Muslims believed that the restoration of the minority character would restrict the admission to the various courses at A. 14. u. only to Muslims; others thought that the academic and administrative appointments would be reserved for Muslims. n ( ~) A.M. Khusro, "Minor! ty Cbarac ter of A.l4. U.," speech delivered at Y.M.C.A., New Delhi on lvtarch 1, 198o.
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and it seems that there is a great deal of ignorance about this.
Perhaps no other educational institution in modern India has
been an issue of continuous debates r~.nd discussions among the
Parliamentarians, press and publicJ·- To know how and why an
educational institution has become a significant and sensitive
issue, we have·to examine three aspects. What exactly is the
"historic or minority" character of the A. N. U.? How and why
did A.M. u. acquire it when it was established in 19 20? What
are 1 ts various dimensions?
These questions drew the attention of the present
researcher as early as 19?1 when he was a student of M.Ed. at
the A.M.U. While the walls of the campus were pasted with posters
demanding the restoration of the character, the halB of residence
and the students' union witnessed a series of meetings which
echoed the sentiments of a large number of the Aligarh students
and their concern for • protecting' the character of their
institution. It would have been impossible for a student living
in the campus to remain unconcerned to those developments and
naturally his curiosity would have aroused. A preliminary
reading of the extant literature and informal discussio~s with
the members of the Faculty of Education made it clear that to
form a full perspective of the historic character of the A.M.u.
1. For a cross-section of different views see the followinG: Parliament Debatea~ Vol.XV, XVI (1951)t col.2201-3, 3545-51. Lo~sapha Depates, No.5?~ Vol.XVI ( 19?2J, col. 19-228. ib!d, No.5?, Vol.XV ( 19r8) co1.320. ~ndian Egnress (New Delhi Edition), 16th April 1979, 30th Narch 19 0; 9th March 1981. Hindustan Times, 4th May 19?8; 6th January 1980; 12th February 1981. §undaY: Week;l:v (Calcutta ed.) 1st February 1981. H.A. Gani, Muslim Po1iticg1 issues an~ National Integration (New Delhi: Sterling, 197 ) , PP• 136-7 •
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one should understand the underlying historic facts and forces
that shaped the destiny of Indian Muslims since 1857. It also
became clear that without the grasp of modern Indian history
and Urdu - one of the important languages of the source
materials on Muslim politics - it would be difficult to trace
the evolution of the historic character of the A.M.U. While,
on the one hand, the interest in the study of the character,
introduced the researcher to the study of modern Indian history
and the Urdu language; on the other hand, the intense but
'peaceful agitational activities' of the campus students of
A. N:. U, and their speeches, statements and other publications
with which the researcher got acquainted during the course of
his M.A. programme ( 1971-7 3) at A.M. u., further deepened his
desire to study the character of the university, primarily to
understand its significance and relevance to Muslims and others.
In 1975, when it was decided to undertake the· present
study, 1 there was no piece of research work on this topic -
either published or unpublished, of which the researcher was
aware of. Neither was there any model for studying the
character of an institution. The problem was of methodology.
How should one study the character'l An answer to this question
would be easier, if we try to know what is meant by the word
'character' and then formulate a definition of it. Adopting
the literal meaning of the word 'character,' as given in the
Cong_ise Gxford Dicti.gna.a, ~re can formulate a simple de_finitioh
1. Another important incentive to work on this topic was the easy accessi bill ty to the documents on A.l-'1. U. at the Z. H.- Centre for Educational Studies where the researcher was pursuing his worl{. Since the Educational Records Project of the Ministry of Education was ·located there a typescript copy the selected documents from National Archives of India was readily available in 1975· By 1977, they were published.
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for the purpose of the present study. The character of a
university may be defined as those distinct! ve features which
distinguish it, at least in certain respects from the rest of
the universities. For studying the distinguishing features
of a university, we need to have a clear understanding of its
general organizational set up. Considering the university as
an organization, 1 we can identify it~ three important dimensions.
They are (i) the ideology which determines the aims and
objectives; (ii) the individuals, who provide leadership, viz.,
Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Registrar, etc., (iii) the
institutional bodies, viz., Court, Executive Council, Academic
Council etc., which function according to the ideology and the
leadership. In other words, to examine the character of a
university, we have to study it from an organizational point
of vie,.,.
How does the University acquire its 'features'? A
university primarily acquires its characteristics from the ideas,
initiatives and involvements of its propo~nts and promoters.
Since their ideas and initiatives are invariably influenced by
the policies of the state and the expectations and requirements
of the society, we have to examine all these aspects to know
why and how a university acquires its character. As the Aligarh
Muslim University came into existence as a result of the
1. On this point see, E. D. Duryea "Evolution of' University Organization!" in James A. Perkins, ed., Th~ Unixers~ty as_ .an Organizat~on ( Ne\·T Delhi: l"J.CGraw Hill, 1970j) pp.1 -38. Hugh L1vin6stone, The UniyerCttx: An Organisational Analysis ( Scotland: Blacki e Sons, 197 , PP• 1-16.
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continuous efforts of Sir Syed and his followers over a long
period of 50 years (1870-1920) 9 we have to examine the
intellectual9 social, political, economic and educational
history of these years, to delineate the 'historical character'
of the university.
Revi etr of .4.ligarh ~tugiAA
There has been no dearth of scholarly studies on the
history of this period under review, pertaining to British
policy, 1 Indian nationalism, 2 Muslim politics3 and· U.P. politics. 4
There are also specialised works on Alit;;arh leaders and their
activities - which for the sake of brevity \·Te may cat·egorise as
Aligarh studies. It may be helpful to review the latter mainly
to get ac·quainted with their aims, approaches, aspects and· the
sources and thus avoid duplication and enhance the ratson-~
etre of this study.
1. e.g., s. Gopal, ~itish Policy 1n In41a, 1858-1902 (Cambridgea Cambridge University Press, 1965; reprint ed., New Delhi, Orient Longmans, 1975).
2. e.g., Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Qomrurti:ti.on ::tnd CgJ.J.a.boration .• in the L~.ter H1nete~ntb c entuu ( Cambridgea Cambridge University Press, 196 , Paper back ed., 1971). John R. McLane, Indian Nationalism and EarJ,y: Cgng.res.s ( Ne,., Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1977).
3. e.g. , Peter Hardy? Ihg +:tus lims .. or Bri t:t s.b ln<'".i a ( C arnbridges Cambridge Univers~ty Press, 1974; paper back ed., 1975). Mushirul Hassan, Nationalism and Communal Pglitics in tndia (New Delhis Manohar, 1977).
4. e. g., C. A. Bayly, Local Roots of Ifdism Na.tion01ismr AJ.laha]:lad, 1880-1920 (Oxford: ClA-rendon, 1975 • Francis Robinson, ~ep~;ati~m A~gn~ I~dran Muslims: Tbe Politics of United PrgyinceB Mes1ims 1B6o-1923Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 197 ; reprint ea., New Delhi: Vikas, 1975).
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Aligarh studies began in 1885, when G.F.I. Graham,
brought out a volume on the life and activities of Sir Syed. 1
Since then quite a few works have been published on and about
Aligarh2 and 1 t continues as a fertile and facin'iting area of
study even today. 3 It would, no doubt, be a stupendous task
to review all of them. From the point of present work it would
be enough if we restrict the review only to the major and minor
research studies, 4 both published and unpublished. Uptill now,
we have about 8 major and 10 minor studies on Aligarh. All
these studies have been carried out during the last two decades
and the fact that 80 per cent of the studies have been produced
by foreign scholars should motivate the scholars at Aligarh and
other Indian universities to understand the significance of
Aligarh studies and encoura~e them to undertake more studies in
1. G.F.I. Graham, Th K.C.s.I. (Edinburg: w. B~l~a~c~k~w~o~o~d~,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~I~d~a~r·-~
i-Adabiyat, 1975).
2. This term has been used in a general way to denote the leaders of Aligarb movement, their various orJanizations and the M.A. o. College.
3. e.g., It has been understood that at present Arfa Zohra is writing a thesis on "An Intellectual Biography of Sir Syed" for her Ph.D at the East-West Centre of Hawai university. Recently Dr. Hafeez Malik of Toronto University has brought out a volume on Aligarh. (Inspite of the best efforts, a copy of this work could not be procured and hence it is not included in this review). Hafeez Malik, Sir Sayytd .lb.mad KhM and Muslim Modernization in I¥nia and PakLqtan Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1980 •
4. The major studies here, include only doctoral dissertations, while the minor studies include ~A. Theses, as well as the research p:'1.pers and chapters on .AliJarh (in other studies) which have made use of primary source materials. The two studies by Nizami and Bhatnagar though based on primary sources have, however, been left out due to the limitations of the present work. They are K. A. Nizami, sriyyj.d Abmad Khan (New Delhi: Publications Division 19 66 • S•K· Bhatnagar, Jlistgf. of tbe 1•1. A.. o. College, AJ,igarh (Bombay: Asia Publishing, 1969 •
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this area in future. 1
Of the eight ma.j or research studies, four have been
submitted to the universities of u.s.A. and tvo each to those
in the U.K. and India. Only 50 per cent of the studies have
been published so far. Of the four published works, two studies
by 1-1. s. Jain2 and Sh~n Huhammad 3 have been completed from the
uni versi ties of Agra and Allahabad respectively in 19 62 and 19 68,
while the remainin5 two by Christian W. Tro114 and David Lelyveld5
have been completed from the universities of London and Clucago
in 1975 though published in 1973. Of the remaining four
unpublished studies, ~~M.R. Hassan's study was completed as
early as 1959, from the University of London. 6 The other three
1. One reason why the members of the faculty of history of .1.. ¥u U. did ne6lect the studies on Aligarh, might be due to their preoccup-tion with medieval Indian History since, U.G.C. has recognised it ~s an adv~nced centre in me~ieval history. However, it would be worthwhile to set up atlea.st a unit at .'l. N. t.J. or any other Indian university to undertake special studies on .Aligarh and l•1uslim politics, society and ecucation in modern India, which remains comparatively neglec terl..
2. M.s. Jain, .IJliLAliga.;t:h .l·loyement ( 1828-1906): Its Qrig,in apd Deyeloument ( Ag ra, s. R. !•lehra, 19 65}.
3. Shan HuhammaC!, qir Say:yid Abma.d Khfn: A. Political 3iog;caphy ( }1eerut: Neenakshi PrA.kashan, 19 ($ • ·
4. Christi an, \1. Troll, S"\yyid A1unad }\han: A Re;i.nter12retation o! 1-ip.slim Theology: (New Delhi: Vikas, 19'78).
5. David Lelyvelcl, Aluarh' s Fir::;.t Generation: i1y,sl~m Solidarity in Brit;i.sh India (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978).
6. Despite the repeated efforts, the researcher could not procure a microfilm copy of this work. However, we can form an idea of the scope of the theme and the period covered froo the title of the thesis. Since the researcher had no chanGe to go through the full study except for- some cross r€ferences and quotations in other studies, this wi'll not be taken up for the present review. R. B. 1•1. R. Hassan "The E-ducational 1·1ovement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, 1858-1898 Tt (Ph.D dissertation, Uni verst ty of London, 1959).
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studies by Margaret Harison Case, 1 Riazuddin Zobairi~ and Alfred
Elizabeth Mayers 3 were completed in 1970, 1971 and 1973
respectively from the universities of Chicago9 Southern Illinois
and American University at Washington. In short, the majority
of the major studies on Aligarh came out in 1970s.
These studies were undertaken at different'places and
times and varied considerably from each other. However, one of
the most important concern of these studies was to th~w light
on the various facets of the person~.11 ty of Sir Syed. In a.ll
these studies, invariably an effort has been made to study the
educ~tional ideas of Sir Syed only briefly and not in comparison
with other contemporary intellectuals - which seems to be
inevitable for a proper comprehension of the educational thought
of the time as well as for makin6 a comparative but realistic
assessment of Sir Syed as an educationist. Making use of more
or less the same sources, .Tain and Shan l4uhan:.mad proj eeted the
persona.li ty of Sir Syed entirely from two opposite standpoints.
\':/bile the former became too critical of Sir Syed and' primarily
projected him as a 'communalist' from the very beginning without
trying to examine objectively '-Thy and how and at what stage
Sir Syed got transformed from an ardent advocata of the Hindu-
1. Nargaret Hartson Case, 'The Aligarh Erat Musl.i.m Politics in Northern India, 1860-1910.' (Ph.D dissertation, University of ChiCaJo, 19?0; New Delhi: Nehru i·1useum Libr'!lry Lhenceforth N. J.'i. IJ, Mic rof'i ll.a copy, !~ o. 10 6) •
2. Riazuddin H. lobairi 'The Eductttional and Social Ideas of' Sir S;y ed Ahmad Khan, t ( Ph.D dissert~.tion, Southern Illinois University, 1971; New Delhi: N.N .• L., lftcrofilm copy No.1'73).
3. Alfred blizabeth .~.-!eyers, 'Theodore Beck !!!.nd Saiyyid Abntad Khan; '?he Nyth of Provocateur ant'!. Puppet in MusLi.m Separatism 187)-1906' ( l'h.D dissertation, American University, ~:r-shington, 19'13; New Delhi 1~.1'-1. L., lftcrofilm copy No.998).
- 16 -
Muslim unity for the social and political upliftment of the
country as a whole, to a champion of the cause of exclusively
Muslim interests; the latter got overwhelmed with the personality
and programmes of Sir Syed. Yet, Shan Muhammad • a political
scientist and not a historian like Jain - has excelled in
examining how the various historical forces and factors led to
the change of Sir Syed's attitude towards Hindus and Indian
National Congress after a particular stage.
Sir Syed•s attitude towards Congress and his advise to the
Muslims to keep away from it have been an enigma to many scholars,.
How could a leader of Sir Syed' s stature who compared, Hindus and
Muslims to the 'two beautiful eyes of a bride,' later think of
taking care of only one 'eye'? Was he p~essurised or influenced
by the British personalities especially Theodore Beck, the
principal of M.A. o. College with whom Sir Syed was very close?
While some scholars do subscribe to the belief that Beck was
responsible for the change of Sir Syed's attitude towards Congress,
Alfred Elizabeth Meyers, after making an indepth study of Sir
Syed' s relation with the members of European faculty of M.A. o. Colleg~ particularly with Beck, observe that they were "puppets
and provoc aters who used each other. "
The political aspects of Aligarh already examined briefly
by the earlier scholars were studied extensively by Margaret H.
Case. Besides this study, the educational and social ideas of
Sir Syed were also examined by Zobairi. But neither of them
throws any new light.
Many other aspects of Aligarh have also been investigated
in detail by various scholars. Religious philosophy was one of
the important areas of Sir Syed's interest and involvement. His
- 17 -
religious beliefs and attitudes had considerably antagonised a
section of the orthodox Muslims. What was the origin of Sir . Syed 1 s views on Islam and to what extent were it influenced by
the contemporary challenges of Christianity and of the champions
of the natural sciences• have been ably examined by Troll who
brought to our notice that the development of the religious
thoughts of Sir Syed had very little to do with the outward
challenges and it proceeded on rational lines and owed its
origins to his inner urge for the widening of his knowledge and
experience. A study of his religious thoughts, shows that Sir
Syed was not only too bold for his age but also an erudite
scholar endowed with a capa41ty for original thinking.
One of the most important achievements of Sir Syed was the
establishment of 14. A. o. College at Aligarh. Why and for whom did
he establish it and what type of students and teachers did it
attract during its first twenty five years of existence; and what
were the mutual relationships between the students, teachers and
the management; and what sort of educational, social and political
activities they were engaged in both inside and outside the
college have been examined in an interesting but intellectually
stimulating manner by David Lelyveld in his study. This work
which has been well received by the scholars~ may serve, as a
model for the future social historians to undertake similar
studies on important educational institutions.
1. e.g., See the reviews by Francis Robinson and Gail Minault, Robinson praised the study saying that 'it contains Jewels.' Francis Robinson, "Nineteenth Century Indian Islam", Bevimr of Aligarh's First Generation by David Lelyveld and S r d A a an: A R e n on 1-1 by c.w. Troll in Mgdern As1an StudLea, 1 October 19 0 : 83-704. Gail Minault, RJ;vieJ·t ot: A&t,~~~· s Firat Q;enera.t:t.on by David Lelyveld, Joqrnal of AslaP:stUdies, 38 (August 1979): 804-6.
- 18 -
This brief review of the major studies on Aligarh shows
that while the educational ideas of Sir Syed and his role in
establishing the l•l.A. o. College, as the nucleus of the future
university have been well examined, why he failed to raise the
college to the status of a fullfledged university, nothwith
standing his deep desire for it bas yet to be studied. Did Sir
Syed or any of his colleagues or contemporaries make any effort
to expand the college into a university during 1875-1898? If
so, how? And if nor't why not? An examination of these issues
not covered in the earlier studies cannot be ignored for tracing
the evolution of the historic character of A. H. u.
' The story of the expansion of the college into a univer-
sity after the death of Sir Syed in 1898 forms the theme of only
two minor studies. While in a brief but brilliant article,
lfinault and Lelyveld made an attempt to focus o~ the campaign of
the colleagues and the contemporaries of Sir Syed for the collec-'
tion of funds and drafting of the constitution for tne proposed
university~ Aparna Basu in a scholarly but short section of her
worlt on I)le G~nth of pgu.c_at:Mtn and Pqlltical Develonment ip
Indip. 1898-1920 tried to highlight how the various political
factors a.ffecteo the scheme. 2 Though to a great extent Minault
and Lelyveld and to a limited extent Basu, did throw light on
the ideas of the intellectuals and the officials regarding the
Muslim university, they have refrained from examining whether
1. Gail Minault and David Lelyveld 9 "The Campaign for a 1-tuslim University 1898-1920," 1:Jodern Asi.an Studiea 8 ( 1974): 145-89.
2.
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the contemporaries and successors of Sir Syed differed from
his basic educational ideas and if so, in what respects and
why and how far the ideas of the latter influenced the
character of the contemplated university? These questions which
are essential for a clear understanding of the character of the
university will be taken up in the present study.
Few other studies worth mentioning have also not taken
care of the above questions. t'ihile in a brief artie le Lelyveld
has shown how the early socio-economic background and the "life
styles" of the three important Aligarh students affected their
future relationships and activities at the ~A.~ College and
its functioning; 1 Irene A. Gilbert, in another article studied
holt the autonomy of the British professors at the M.A. o. College
was gradually challenged by the growth of political consciousness
among the Indians and affected the functioning of the institution. 2
The aims and the activities of the Mohammadan Educational
Conference ( 1885) - an important deliberative body of the .Aligarh
leaders have been studi ec! by A. \oi~.sey.9 and Edward Churchi 11
junior~ The remaining minor studies on Aligarh primarily deal
1. David Lelyveld, "Three Alig arh Students: Aftab Ahmad Khan, Ziauddin Ahmad and Muhammad All," Mgdern Asian Stqdi§.g, 9 (1975): 103-16.
2.
3.
4. Edward Churchill, Jr., "Nuhammadan l!.ducational Conf'erence and the Aligarh Novementt. 1886-1900," ?unJab fast and Present, 8 ( October 1974) s 366-_j81.
- 20 -
with the reforms and the religious and political views of
Sir Syed and his role in the development of Muslim Nationalism
in India. 1
In short, none of the above major or minor studies have
attempted to examine/the evolution of the historical character
of the A.M.u., its various dimensions, significance and
relevance to the Muslims and the non-Muslims. Hence there is
ample scope for studying these aspects.
Discussion ot Squreen
One important consideration for the selection of this
topic has been tne availability of some new source materials.
The papers of Syed Hoss ein Bilgrami l'Tho was associated with
the affairs of Aligarh in various capacities, contain important
files of correspondence with Theodore Beck and Theodore
Morrison ... both principals of lv1. A. o. College and James Hewett,
the Lieutenant Governor of U.P. (1907-12). Apart from the
personal letters, speeches and writings of Bilgrami, his
papers also include the writings of Ameer Ali, Nawab Mohsinul
Mulk and the proceedings of the meetings of H. A. o. Colleae Fund
1. See the followinga Hafeez 1-ialik, "Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's Role in the Develoi>ment of Muslim Nationalism in the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, Islamic Studies, 5 ( 1966): 385-410. ,_._ Idem., "Sir Saiyyid Ahmad Khan's Doct.....,rines of Muslim Nationalism in India, n l:lg_d.,ru:p A.s;lan S.t.ug:le§., 4 ( 1970)s 129-47. Idem., "Sir Saiyyid Ahmad Khan• s Doct:rines of Muslic Nationalism and National Progress," MQdetn Asigq Stgnies, 11 ( 4968) s 221-44. Prem Naraint "Political Views of Sayyid Ahmad Khan: Evolution and Impact, ' Bengal Past and Pre.sent, 95 ( .Tuly-Decamber 1976): 238-61. J.¥~s. Baljon, The Reforms ~nd Religious Ideas of Sir Sazx1d :Ahmad Khan ( Lahore: M. Ashraf, 19 64).
- 21 -
Committee. The letters of Beck, Morrison, Hewett and Thomas
Raleigh which throw light on the inner motives of the British
and their acti viti es behind the scene have, so far, ~~been not
used by any other researcher. 1
• I.
The papers of Abdul i..faj id Khwaj a, Dr. Syed Mahmud, Dr. M·. J .•
Ansari and Raj a of Hahmudabad, though these have been used by a
few scholars in the past still contain certain letters pertaining
to the affairs of Aligarh, which remained unused and thef were
found to be very useful for the present work. Abdul Maji~ Khwaja
papers, wr~cb include the correspondence with the Honorary
Secretaries of the .M.A. o. College, viz., 14ohammad IshA.q Khan,
Muzzamilullah Khan and other important Aligarians 2 like Dr.
Ziauddin Ahmad, Syed Mahmud, Nawab of Bhopal, S.H. Bilgrami,
Shafi Mohammad Mian, Dr. i•I.ll. Ansari, Mohammad Ali and H1\keem
Ajmal Khan, enable us to understand more clearly the conflicts
among the ~ligarians and their attitude towards and association
with the nationalist movement, and how and why, the establishment
of A.M.U. was delayed. Dr. Syed Mahmud's papers also contain
important correspondence with Ziauddin Ahmad Ahmad, Ameer Ali
and Morison, which throw more light on the affairs at Aligarh.
The private papers of several Indians and the British
statesmen which were used by the earlier scholars mainly in
connection with their works on the various aspects of the history
of modern India, contain plenty of materials pertaining to the
1. These papers vTere gifted to Nehru Memorial 14useum Library in 1979 and were classified and open to scholars only in October 1980. On enquirlt it has been understood tha.t they have not been used by· earLier scholars.
2. This is a popular term used at Aligarh to designate not only the students but also the staff of A.M.u. In this study, this term also include all those well wishers of Sir Syed ~ho worked for the establishment of A. H .. u. "fl...<.. 1 ~ 1 rz IZ
1)4• 4-467-7, ·; / 1 .f'(N1.-- fvJ I ttf ... \ O~
- 22 -
establishment of the A.M.u., which remained either untapped or
used to a limited extent. For example, there are papers of
Badruddin Tyabj i, Gopal Krishna Goll:hale, Lord l·1ayo9 Northbrook)
Elgin, Minto, Morley, Hardinge, Curzon, Hewett, Meston and
Butler. In addition to these unpublished priivate papers, this 1 study has also made us·e of the published papers of 14. A. Ansari,
Ameer Ali, 2 Nawab .Abdul Lateer3 and Ali brothers. 4
A major part of the writings, speeches and letters of
Sir Syed used in this study, have been published5 and the ~ir Syed Archives at Aligarh contains little unpublished material
useful for the present work. 6 Of the several important works
1. l-iushirul Haas an, ed., Hus]J..ms and (he Con&X:EV3S2 Select Correapond§nce of Dr. M.A. Ansari New Delhil Manohar Publication, 1979).
2. Aziz, K. K., ed., A.meer Ali& His Life Md \1gr1f,R ( Lahore: Publishers United, 1968). s.R. Wasti~ ed.1 Hemglrs and Other Writings of S~ed Ameer Ali ( Lahore: P.I:'H, 1';' 6). · .
3. Enamul Haq ed. 9 Nawab Abdql Lateef: His Wgftings·ang Related Documents (Dacca: Samundra Prakashini, 196 • ,Lhenceforth Lateef Document§./
4. Shan Muhamad, ed., Yl.ul.ubJ.isbed Letters of the Ali Brgthera (Delhi: Idarh-i-Adabiyat, 1979). ·
5. Of the published vTOrks, the following have been extensively made use of in this study. ·They "ire: Yusuf Hussain ed., Selected Docyments from the Aligarh .&rc;hivu (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1967). Shan Mohamad, ed., Ihe A}igarh Mgvement: Basic Documents~ 3 vola. ( 1-ieert: Meenakshi Publication, 1978). Lhenceforth Aligarh Documental Idem. , ~Jrlting s ~,nd Speeghes of S_i r S;x: ed Ahmad Kban ( Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1972).
6. Except for a volume of letters connected with the educational aspect of ~ligarh movement (File book No.29), the rest of the materials pertaining to the establishtuent of .~. M. u., remains unclassified. In the present work the unclassified materials of' Sir Syed Archives are referred to as Alig arb papers.
- 23 -
of Sir Syed only a few have been found very useful from the
point of this study. 1 Of the innumerable works on Sir Syed
produced during his life time by his friends, the two biographies
of Sir Syed by G.F.I. Graham2 and~.H. Ha11 3 have been found very
useful and they have been used as primary sources in this study.
Though the present work has extensively made use of a recently
published volume of documents pertaining to the establishment of
.:. 14. u., 4 and the earlier published volumes of the educational
documents? and the other published official records of Government
2. G.F.I. Graham, gn.cit.
3. -~·H. Hali.t '~at-e-Ja.xeti,' trans. K. H. Qadir1 and David H. Mathews (uelhi: Idarh-i-adabiyat, 1979}.
4. s. c. Ghosh, ed., DeveJ.o:gment of Univ§I"sitY Educa:!fiqn9 1916-20: Sel,eation from the Educational Recgrds of Ggyemment of India New Series, Vol.I,(New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University, 1977>, PP• 96-223. Lhenceforth Kducational RecgAfis I-1
5. The following four volumes have been found to be of immense importance. Henry Sharp, ed. 9 Selections f'r~ Educational Reco~~ t~~;-1832, reprint ed. (New Delhi: NAI, ~96:1. Lhenceforth Eaueafi9nil Records I I J. A. Richey, ed. 9 §elections from Educ;rtional Records. 1340-59 9 reprint ed. ( Ne\'f Delhi: NAI, 1965>. Lhencefortb Educa:t.:lanal
f:l~io~-from the Educ~tiongl R§Sft~s gf the Government g! ~' Vol.I, ~ducational ReRorts 1 5~-z~, reprinted., (New- Delhiz NAI, 1960). Lhenceforth EducationaJ. .Records tii.t J.P. Naik, ed.L Selegtions !rom the EdugattQAal Records of Gaxernment of ~ndia, Vol.II, Development of Uniyeraitf Education 1§60-87, reprint ed., (New Delhi: NAI, 19640 • Lhenceforth Edugatiqnal Regqrds IV I
- 24 -
of India 1 and the Iiorth \-/estern Provinces; 2 and the documents
of the Muslim League, 3 still a number of useful documents
connected with the leaders of A]garh and the scheme of the
establishment of the A. 14. u. , have been located at the National
Archives of India ( NAI) and the u. P. State Archives ( UPSA) and
th~y were also found to be of im.1.ense import-=mce to this "t-Tork.
Of the other sources, the Aligarh Institute qaz~~te,
C gmraM, Iius lim Chronicle, ~ and the Sel~c.ti on§ from the
YernP.CUlar i'lewspapers of u. p. during the period 1870-1920 provided
variety of inform~.tion· regarQ.ing the attitude of the public and . .
the press towards the proposed university at Aligarh.
The oral transcripts of two eminent Aligaria.ns viz., Dr.
Syed Mahmud 4 and Abid Al15 - unused in earlier studies on
Allgarh - provided some information about. the political and social
activities of the students of Aligarh during 1905-1907 .and. their
attitude towards British and Indian National Congress and the
relationship between the British professors and the .A.ligarians.
1. Specially the following volumes have been found very useful.
2.
3.
Correnpondence gn the sub1ect of the Educatign of Mgslim CgmmunitY in British India and their Emploxment in tle Public .Service Gene:r:alJ.x.. Selections from the RP&g,rds of Ggv:ernment of Indba, No.CCV (Calcutta: Suverintendent of Govt. Printing, 1886). Lhenceforth Ggxergment Reqor~s No. ccy I Philips, C.H., R. i\. Pande, eds., A,he E.yoJ.ution of Indi,a and Pakistan 1858-19~7: Select D en o r o I d and Pakistan~ Vol. IV ( London: Oxford University Press, 19 62 • Lhenceforth India Select Documenta I
4. Syed
?• Abid
- 25 -
Ob;}ectiyes and the Aspects of Stud~
Mainly by making use of the above mentioned prinary
sources, this study, attempts to examine the process of the
establishment of the A.l"l. u., with particular reference to the
evolution of its historic character and its different cimensions
and significance and relevance to the ivluslims as \<Tell as to non
Muslims. Moreover, this study has four more subsidiary aims,
i.e. to analyse the Huslim educational thought of the intellectuals
and British statesmen; to throw light on the British policy
to\'la.rds l•iuslim higher education with particular reference to
Aligarh during 187?-1920; to examine the extent to which the
emergence of other educational institutions, especially the
Islamiya colle~es, Shia college and Banaras Hindu University did
affect the process of the establishment of A.. H. u.; and the
attitude of the press and public toH·ards the proposed univ~rsi ty
of Aligarh. A study of these aspects of A.lvl. u. will enable us
to uriravel and understand the process of politicization1 of
higher education in British India because unlike other educational
institutions of Indian sub-continent .1. d. u. was invariably and
at times intensely involved with all the political developments of
the period 1870-1920 and often it has been observed that the
establishtlent of "-• r-l. u. was politically motivated. ~he hypothesis
that the political factors were responsible for the establishment
1. This study adopts Rudolph and Rudolph's definition of politicization; i.e. 'the appropriation of educational structures and resources and the displacement of educational goals by organized political and community {religion, caste, locality) interests.• Bee s. H. Rudolph and L. I. Rudolph, PP• cit,.., P• 8
- 26 -
of A.M. U. needs to be examined from three angles, viz., that
of the founder, his associates and the Government. Whether
the motives and the ideas of the founder, his associates and
the Government with regard to the establishment of A. i-1. u. were
political and if so, how did they try to achieve it and to
'\vhat extent did they succeed? In short, by making a case study
of the establishment of .1. h. u., we can form a clear picture of
the the pol.iticization of higher education in British Inria.
While none of the earlier studies, of which the researcher
is aware, has made any attempt to examine the above mentioned
dimensions in a detailed and consistent manner; some aspects of
Aligarh have invariably been touched or dealt with to a limited
extent by certain scholars because of the significant role
played by Aligarh in the history of modern India. Though we
cannot avoid some amount of repetition, a.n effort has been m~de
in various chapters to approach the theme as far as possible
from a different but critical angle.
The establishment of the Aligarh university has been
examined extensively in nine chapters (including introduction,
chapter I). Ideas and institutions are not born in a vaccum;
but they emerge out of various factors. What were the social,
political and economic factors which motivated intellectuals
like Sir Syed to think about and work for the mo~ernisation of
the Muslim community, have been analysed in the second chapter,
with particular reference to U.P. - the province in which Sir
Syed concucted his activities. Chapter III examines the extent
to ,.,hich the nineteenth century educational policy, pattern
and progress (with special reference to U. P. region and the
- 27 -
Muslims), prompted Sir Syed to lay the foundation of a
university in the form of M.A.o. College at Aligarh in 1875·
No doubt, the condition of the society, polity, economy
and education during the nineteenth century India might have
moved Sir Syed. Though there Here many intellectuals of Sir
Syed' s calibre and status at that time, 'llhy be alone thouJht
of the nece ·sity of modernisin..; the Huslims !'lnd succeeded in
founding the ~4. A. 0. College have been left more or less
unanswered by the earlier schola.rs. Hi th the help of psycho
history, an effort has been made in chapter IV to study the
development of the ~ersonality of Sir Syed with a view to
~nalyse the various psychological factors which made him a
staunch loyalist and motivated him to initiate the various
programmes for the upliftment of the Muslim community.
\>/hen did the idea of a university occur to him? t.Jhat
sort of an education did he envisage for the Indians? Wtat
were his ideas on the medium of instruction and technical,
primary and women's education? How far his educ~tional ideas
were compatible with the educational policy of the colonial
regime and the requirements of the r.1uslims and non-r4uslims?
All these aspects have been analysed in. chapter V though at
times, differing from the interpretations of some of the earlier
scholars.
Chapter VI traces the trials and tribulations which
Sir Syed had to overcowe in establishing the 1·1. l. Q. College
and the various reasons due to which he could not raise it to
the status of a university during his life time. While the
role of Sir Syed in the establishment of the ~A.o. College has
- 28 -
been studied by the earlier scholars, the extent to which he
succeeded or failed in implementing his ideas on education and
the reasons thereof, have not been clearly brought out in the
earlier works. This aspect has also been studied in chapter
VIwith a view to know whether Sir Syed practised what he
preached. Despite his deep desire and the best relations
'dth the.Bri~ish, Sir Syed could not raise the college to a
university. An examination of the extent to which the British
policy affected the process of raising the college into a
university during 1875-1898 would constitute a new dimension . .
to this study.
Chapter VII and VIII, apart from identifying the
intellectuals who took up the task of the establishment df the
university, after the death of Sir Syed, attempt to study their
motives and analyse their views on the proposed university.
Unlike the earlier works, this has been attempted in an
elaborate manner with a view to throw light on the development
of Muslim educational thought during 1898-1920. Unlike the
earlier works this study tries to exa~une whether the ideas of
the contemporaries and successors of Sir Syed differ froru hi~,
and if so how and why? This would enable us to understand the
extent to which they succeeded in moulding the character of the
university. Moreover, these two chapters also examine the ideas,
motives and the role of British professors of M.A.o. College
and British statesmen in the establishment of the university.
How the British policy, political developments and the internal '
tussles among the Aligarians and their relationship with the
British; economic and social factors, especially Hindu-Muslim
tension~, attitude of press and public affected the process of
- 29 -
the establishment of the ~~u., have been studied in detail
in these chapters. To what extent the educational factor,
especially the emergence of Islamiya and Shia colleges and
B. H. u. affected the progress of the scheme of A.M. u. - has
been dealt in chapter VIII. This chapter also deals with the
various aspects of the character of the university - particularly
its special aims, constitution of the Court, the powers of
Government and the functions of different constit~ent bodies.
The final chapter by way of conclusion not only summarises the
key points in various chapters but also discusses the
significance of the character of the university.
In short, the present study attempts a new departure. By
making use of a good deal of untapped primary sources it makes a
maiden effort at trqcing the evolution of the historic character
of A.M.U. In this process, it simultaneously seeks to
demonstrate the interdependence and interplay of higher
education, Muslim politics and British policy thereby striving
to bring out the complexities of the process of politicization
of higher education in British India. This study also attempts
to provide an overall background to undertake further studies
on .Allgarh. 1
1. e.g. Various studies can be undertaken to investigate ( i) how far did A • .i.i. U. succeed in achieving its various aims since 1920. (ii) What was the impact of partition of India on A.M.U.? (iii) When, why and how did the Government of India try to amend the Act of 11.1-1. u. after 1947 and what was its impact on Muslims? ( iv) Why did the Government of India declare it as a central university in 1970 and what were its special contributions to the higher education in Ind.ia? However, some efforts have been made to study ::. • .H. U. as a central university. See, s. Y. Shah, "The Central Universities in India: An Introduc-tion," PaedaR:ogica Historic as In;t~rnational J:gu;rna.l of Hi storx of Education, forthcoming.