UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS THESIS

JUDUL : THE CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF THE DUGONG (Ougong dugon) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA: A BASIS FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING

IJAZAH: Doctor Falsafah SESI PENGAJIAN: 2008/2009 SESI II

Saya Leela Rajamani A/P Ramnath Rajamani mengaku membenarkan tesis doctor falsafah ini disimpan di perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan berikut :

1. Thesis adalah hak milik Universiti Malaysia Sabah 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Malaysia Sabah dibenarkan membuat salinan

untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja 3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis sebagai bahan

pertukaran antara instititusi pengajian tinggi. 4. TIDAK TERHAD

Disahkan oleh:

ti4~ Penulis : Leela Rajamani A/P Ramnath Rajamani Alamat: B-4-4 Kondominium Abadi Villa, Jalan 2/109C,Taman Abadi Indah, 58100 Kuala Lumpur. W. Persekutuan.

Penyeli : Prof Dr. Ridzwan Abdul Rahman

p~et~~: 'Prof. Dr. Helene Marsh

Penyelia Bersama : Dr. Mabel Bernadette Manjaji Matsumoto

Tarikh : 19/03/09 Catatan: @ Tesis dimaksudkan SEBAGAI THESIS ijazah Doctor falsafah dan Sarjana secara penyelidikan atau desertasi bagi pengajiaan secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (LPSM).

THE CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF THE DUGONG (Ougong dugon) AND ITS SEAGRASS

HABITAT IN SABAH, MALAYSIA: A BASIS FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING

LEELA RAlAMANI AlP RAMNATH RAlAMANI

THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BORNEO MARINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

2009

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the material in this thesis is my own except for quotations, excerpts, equations, summaries and references, which have been duly acknowledged.

19th March 2009

ti~~~ LEELA RAJA~iAiPRAMNATH RAJAMANI

PS2000-004-230

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My Ph.D. journey has been an exhilarating one, in the quest for knowledge and experience. I would not have made it without the help of the following organisations and people:

The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, WWF Malaysia and Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong for providing me with the funding for research and training. Also because of the Prince Bernhard Scholarship, WWF­Switzerland, I was able to undergo training in Australia for dugongs and seagrasses.

The villagers at Banggi Island and Mantanani Island notably Encik Damsek and family who endured all those long seagrass and interview surveys.

My supervisors : Prof. Dr. Ridzwan Abdul Rahman thank for your thoughts and insights in solving conservation problems. Also thank you for providing significant funds to support my work. You inspired me to believe that anything could be done however impossible; Prof. Helene Marsh, it was a privilege to work with you and share your knowledge and enthusiasm for research and dugongs. I believe my writing skills have improved significantly. Also thanks for providing unlimited access to journals at JCU; Dr. Mabel Manjanji Matsumoto for aSSisting me during thesis preparation especially towards the end of the Ph.D.

My professors, colleagues, researchers and volunteers at Borneo Marine Research Institute Universiti Malaysia Sabah you are numerous, I thank Ronald Phan, Dr. Saifullah Jaaman, Yuhana Lah-Anyi, Dr. Ejria Salleh, Rosliah Lawrence, Jabdar A. Sahar, Ajahar A. Sahar, Zarinah Waheed, Laura Khor, Julian Ransangan, Rahdi Ajam, Josephine Gumpil, Basarun, Ramlan, Prof. Dr. Saleem Mustapha, Julian Ransangan, Ismail Tajul, Siti Badrah, Amizam Salleh, Musa Rubin, Bujang Kadir, Alex Hastie, Robert Hastie and many more. Dr. Annadel S. Cabanban was a source of support and provided advice on my editing skills.

Assoc. Prof. Hasan Mat Nor introduced me to social science research that opened doors and provided many new insights to address community in dugong research.

The staff and lecturers at James Cook University especially Dr. Ivan Lawler and Dr. Donna Kwan who helped me in various aspects of the aerial survey training. Thanks to Sue Bird for aSSisting me in various administration matters. I would also like to thank Dr. Rob Coles, Dr. Stuart Campbell and Len Mackenzie from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries who helped me design my seagrass surveys. I'm especially grateful to Juanita Bite for your warm hospitality.

WWF-Malaysia for providing technical assistance pertaining to the GIS work. I'm especially grateful to Ms. Diane Anthony and Ms. Rebecca Jumin for assistance at times when you were extremely busy with other work commitments.

The Department of Wildlife Sabah, especially to the Director, Mr. Mahedi Andau, and Senior Wildlife Officer, Edward Tangon, for providing assistance pertaining to the aerial surveys and permit approvals.

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The staff and pilots at Sabah Flying Club and Sabah Air who helped with the dugong surveys.

Mr. James Fernandez, from the Department of Mapping, Sabah for providing aerial photographs of Banggi Island and Mantanani Island for viewing to assist in seagrass mapping.

Especially to my parents Janet and Raji who supported me at all stages of my Ph.D. studies. Thank you for the financial help in completing this Ph.D. My typists, Georgina Wong, Felsy Sandi, and Elizabeth James who assisted me when I had RSI. Finally, I would like to thank some of my friends both overseas and here, Vani, Hana, Vangi, Cia, Tanya, Kennedy, Mary, Suzie, Beeda and Sharifah who made life more cheerful and helped me get through the rough patches.

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ABSTRACT

THE CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF THE DUGONG (Dugong Dugon) AND ITS SEAGRASS HABITAT IN SABAH, MALAYSIA: A BASIS FOR CONSERVATION

PLANNING

Prior to 1999, dugongs were rarely observed in Malaysia. This first comprehensive study of dugongs and their related seagrass habitats in Sabah, investigated the local stakeholder environment, the abundance and distribution of dugongs, identified and monitored threats to dugongs, and mapped seagrass habitats relevant to dugongs. The study was conducted in two spatial scales namely, 1) Regional (to determine dugong distribution in Sabah) (excluding Tawau) 2) Local - to determine local dugong abundance, conduct seagrass mapping and community surveys at two study sites Banggi island and Mantanani island. Community surveys consisted of a census, interview surveys, a dugong monitoring programme and participant observation. This information was used to determine stakeholder characters, and their perceptions of the researcher, research project, dugongs and seagrasses. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) of dugongs and seagrasses was also sought. The abundance, composition and habitat area of seagrass was assessed using a method of visually estimating above­ground seagrass biomass at sites along one kilometre transects perpendicular to the coast. Biomass was estimated every 50 metres in shallow areas (up to 5 metres depth) and every 100 metres in deep areas (greater than 5 metres depth). These sites later form the basis of seagrass meadows using GIS applications. Standardised aerial surveys were conducted regionally for the coastal waters of Sabah to determine dugong distribution patterns. The communities of Banggi and Mantanani are economically disadvantaged, practise destructive fishing and have little understanding of ecological processes and concepts of conservation. However, the reasons for dugong decline are known. Appreciation of the aesthetic value of dugongs within the communities is varied. However, the community appears to have adequate local knowledge of the dugong having cultural linkages through a dugong myth. Approximately, 70% of the total population is young below the age of 30, who could be receptive to new ideas. Outside influences from the media is widely available to the community. The community is able to develop a relationship with the researcher and partiCipate cordially in research activities. Dugong numbers are very low in Sabah. Fifty two dugongs were Sighted in Sabah excluding Tawau. Based on these results, crude estimates of minimal count are between 688 and 1376 dugongs residing in coastal Sabah. Key dugong areas were identified to be Brunei Bay, Labuan Island, and Sandakan Bay. Banggi Island and Mantanani Island supports a small population of dugongs respectively. Based on this study, dugongs were subject to threats, which were mostly anthropogenic. They were 1) blast fishing, 2) incidental entangling in nets and 3) unsupervised tourism and vessel strikes. The number of mortalities in Sabah (especially in Banggi Island), are high compared to dugong abundance results obtained in this study. When Potential Biological Removal (PBR) estimates were compared to crude estimates of yearly mortality, it is confirmed that dugong populations are declining. Ten species of seagrass from two families were found in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island. These include Ha/ophi/a ova/is, Ha/odu/e uninervis (broad and thin variety), Tha/assia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, Ha/ophi/a decipiens, Ha/ophi/a spinu/osa, Cymodocea serru/ata, Syringodium isoetifo/ium, and Enha/us acoroides. A new unidentified species of Ha/ophi/a was collected in Molleangan Island, west of Banggi Island. ApproXimately, 415 ha and 112 ha of seagrass meadows were mapped in Banggi island and Mantanani island respectively

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giVing a total of 527 ha of seagrass available for dugong consumption. The information obtained on the local communities, seagrass and dugong provided the basis to inform a comprehensive conservation plan in Sabah. Key conservation strategies include a dialogue and community education programme, provision of alternative livelihoods, improving enforcement to prevent illegal fishing methods, co­management of dugong and seagrass resources, stringent controls on ecotourism and vessel strikes, zoning of seagrass in marine protected areas and further research. As the dugong is a migratory species, conservation management at an international level with the neighbouring state of Sarawak, and countries of Brunei, the Philippines and Indonesia is necessary.

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ABSTRAK

Sehingga tahun 1999, dugong jarang diperhatikan di Malaysia. Kajian secara menyeluruh ke atas dugong dan rumput laut yang menjadi habitat kepada dugong, mengkaji keadaan persekitaran pihak yang berminat, taburan habitat dugong, mengenalpasti dan memantow ancaman kepada dugong, kepadatan dan pemetaan habitat rumput laut dugong. Kajian ini telah dijalankan pada dua skala iaitu, 1) peringkat bahagian (bagi mengetahui taburan dugong di Sabah) (kecuali Tawau), dan 2) peringkat tempatan - untuk mengetahui taburan dugong, menjalankan pemetaan rumput laut dan tinjauan komuniti di dua kawasan kajian iaitu Pulau Banggi dan Pulau Mantanani. Tinjauan komuniti (termasuk bancian, soal selidik, pemantauan dugong, dan tinjauan ke atas peserta program) telah digunakan bagi mengenalpasti ciri-ciri pihak yang berminat dan untuk mendapatkan pendapat mereka terhadap penyelidik, projek penyelidikan, dugong dan rumput laut. Pengetahuan ekologi tempatan (LEK) mengenai dugong dan rumput laut turut dikaji. Kepadatan, komposisi, serta luas kawasan rumput laut telah dinilai secara visual untuk menganggar biojisim rumput laut. Garis tegak sepanjang 1 kilometer telah digunakan dimana ia diletakkan secara tegak dari pantai, dan penganggaran biomas rumput laut dilakukan setiap 50 meter di air cetek (sehingga kedalaman 5m) dan setiap 100 meter (bagi kedalaman melebihi 5m). Lokasi tersebut kemudiannya dijadikan sebagai asas pemetaan padang rumput menggunakan aplikasi GIS. Tinjauan piawai udara dilaksanakan pada peringkat bahagian bagi seluruh Sabah untuk menentukan corak taburan dugong. Komuniti di Pulau Banggi dan Pulau Mantanani merupakan golongan yang terbelakang dalam arus pembangunan ekonomi Negara, menggunakan kaedah perikanan yang membinasakan dan kurang memahami proses ekologi dan konsep pemuliharaan. Bagaimanapun, faktor pengurangan dugong adalah diketahui. Penghargaan nilai estetik dugong di kalangan komuniti adalah pelbagai. Namun demikian, pengetahuan mereka mengenai dugong boleh dikatakan memadai atas sebab perkaitan erat cerita dongeng mengenai dugong kepada budaya tradisional mereka. Lebih kurang 70% daripada jumlah populasi diwakili populasi muda yang berada di lingkungan umur bawah 30 tahun, dan adalah kumpulan yang mudah menerima idea baru. Bahkan, pengaruh luar dari media massa adalah mudah didapati. Komuniti didapati mudah menjalinkan hubungan mesra dengan penyelidik dan giat menyertai aktiviti-aktiviti penyelidikan. Bilangan dugong adalah amat kurang di Sabah. Sejumlah 52 ekor dugong telah diperhatikan di Sabah kecuali Tawau. Berdasarkan maklumat ini, anggaran kasar kiraan minima adalah diantara 688 dan 1376 ekor dugong yang menetap di kepantaian Sabah. Kawasan dugong didapati adalah Teluk Brunei, Pulau Labuan, dan Teluk Sandakan. Pulau Banggi dan Mantanani turut menampung populasi dugong yang kecil. Merujuk kepada kajian ini, dugong adalah dibawah ancaman. Antara sebabnya termasuklah 1) pengeboman ikan 2) penangkapan yang tidak disengajakan, dan 3) pelancongan dan kejadian pertembungan dengan kapal pelancong. Jumlah kematian melebihi catatan jumlah dugong yang dilihat. Pengurangan populasi dugong disahkan daripada 'Potential Biological Removal' (PBR), yang berdasarkan anggaran kasar kematian tahunan. Sepuluh spesies rumput laut daripada 2 famili dijumpai di Pulau Banggi dan Pulau Mantanani. Spesies-spesies tersebut adalah Halophila ovalis, Halophl'la uninervis Genis kurus dan juga jenis lebar), Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, Halophila decipiens, Halophila spinulosa, Cymodocea serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, dan Enhalus acoroides. Satu spesies baru dari genus Ha/ophila telah dijumpai di Pulau Mol/eangan, berdekatan Pulau Banggi. Lebih kurang 415 ha rumput laut telah dipetakan di Pulau Banggi, manakala sejumlah 112 ha pula di Pulau

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Mantanani. O/eh sebab itu, sejum/ah 527 ha rumput /aut ada/ah sesuai sebagai makanan dugong secara kese/uruhannya. Mak/umat mengenai komuniti dugong, dan rumput laut ini akan dijadikan asas bagi penyediaan pelan pemuliharaan dugong di Sabah. Strategi pemu/iharaan yang utama termasuklah program pendidikan masyarakat, pengusahaan cara hidup alternatif, pengurusan sumber dugong dan rumput laut, penguatkasaan akta bagi membanteras penangkapan ikan secara membinasakan, memperketatkan system pelancongan dan kejadian pertembungan dengan kapa/ pe/ancong, penzonan kawasan rumput laut di kawasan yang dilindungi, dan meneruskan penyelidikan. Memandangkan dugong adalah spesies yang bermigrasi, pengurusan pemuliharaan pada tahap antarabangsa dengan kawasan bersebelahan seperti negeri Sarawak dan Negara Brunei, Fi/ipina dan Indonesia adalah disyorkan.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vii

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF TABLES xxi

LIST OF PHOTOS xxii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiii

LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi

CHAPTER 1: CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE DUGONG (Dugong 1 dugon) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Conservation History of Dugongs in Malaysia 1

1.3 Vulnerability of the Dugong to Anthropogenic Threats 2

1.4 Conservation Efforts 3

1.5 Aims and Rationale of the Study 5

1.6 Thesis Outline 6

CHAPTER 2: CONSERVING DUGONGS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: 9 CHALLENGE AND HOPE

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 General Biology 9

2.2.1 Distribution and Abundance 9

2.2.2 Diet 12

2.2.3 Habitat 13

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2.2.4 Life History 14

2.2.5 Movements 14

2.3 Anthropogenic Threats to Dugongs 15

2.3.1 Fishing Pressure 16

2.3.2 Blast Fishing 16

2.3.3 Indigenous Hunting 18

2.3.4 Interference from Boats 18

2.4 Anthropogenic Threats to Seagrasses 19

2.4.1 Increased Nutrient Loads 19

2.4.2 Human-Induced increases in Sedimentation and Turbidity 20

2.4.3 Direct Mechanical Damage 20

2.5 Natural Threats to Seagrasses and Dugongs 21

2.6 Challenges Faced in Conserving Dugongs in Developing Countries 22

2.6.1 Institutional, Legislation and Enforcement issues 22

2.6.2 Research 23

2.6.3 Marine Park Management Issues 24

2.6.4 Cultural and Socia-Economic Factors 25

2.7 Conservation and Strategies Adopted in Developing Countries 25

2.8 Conservation Strategies Adopted in Australia: A Comparison 27

CHAPTER 3: THE STUDY AREA AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR 30 THE METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 30

3.1 The Study Sites 30

3.1.1 Rationale for Selection of Study Sites 32

3.1.2 Banggi Island 32

3.1.3 Mantanani Island 35

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3.2 Seasonality and Oceanographic Conditions 35

3.3 Development of Methodology 36

3.3.1 Aerial Surveys for Dugongs 37

3.3.2 Community surveys which include the Census, Focus Group 37 Interviews, Dugong Monitoring Programme and Participant Observation

3.3.3 Seagrass Mapping Surveys 38

3.4 Research Approach 39

CHAPTER 4: THE COMMUNITY, THE DUGONG AND THE RESEARCHER: 41 SETIING THE STAGE FOR THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

4.1 -Introduction: Involving Stakeholders in the Conservation 41 Process.

4.2 Background 43

4.2.1 Banggi Island 43

4.2.2 Mantanani Island 45

4.3 METHODS 45

4.3.1 Ethical and Cultural Considerations 45

4.3.2 Community Surveys 46

a. Interview Surveys 46

b. Monitoring programme 49

4.3.3 Community Survey Area 49

4.3.4 Validation of the Interview Responses 50

4.3.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study 51

4.4 RESULTS 52

4.4.1 Community Attitudes towards the Researcher and the 52 Research Project

a. Approaches Used to Communicate and Develop a 52 Relationship with the Community

b. Initial Interactions with the Community in Banggi Island 53

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c. Responses of the Communities in Banggi Island 56

d. Responses of the Communities in Mantanani Island 57

e. Impact of Monitoring Programme on the Community 59

f. Impact of Monitoring Programme on the Research 60 Project and the Researcher's Abilities to Carry Out Other aspects of the Research

4.4.2 Census Information 61

a. Community Origins and Ethnic Background 61

b. Age Structure 63

c. Education 64

d. Literacy Levels, Languages and Reading Interests 66

e. Media Sources 70

f. Occupation and Income 74

4.4.3 Fishing Practices 76

a. Fishing Vessels 77

b. Boat Crew 78

c. Fishing Grounds 79

d. Fishing Gear 79

e. Fishing Catch 81

4.4.4 Fishermen's Attitudes and Knowledge of the Dugong 82

a. The Link Between the Community and the Dugong 82

b. Local Knowledge of Dugong and Seagrass 83

c. Knowledge and Perceptions towards the Conservation 84 of the Dugong

d. Views of the Fishermen towards the Decline of 88 Seagrass

4.5 DISCUSSION 89

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4.6 CONCLUSION 93

CHAPTER 5: COMPosmON, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE 94

5.1

5.2

5.3

SEAGRASS COMMUNmES IN BANGGIISLAND AND MANTANANIISLAND, MALAYSIA

Introduction: Status of Seagrass in Sabah

5.1.1 Description of the Seagrass Areas in Sabah

5.1.2 Seagrass Habitat Suitable for Dugongs

METHODS

5.2.1 Focus Group Interviews

5.2.2 Mapping of Seagrass in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island

5.2.3 Mellors's Method, Standardisation and Preparation of Seagrass Standards

5.2.4 Preliminary Seagrass Surveys

a. Manta Tow and Spot Sampling of Seagrass

5.2.5 Transect Surveys at Banggi and Mantanani Island

a. Grab Sampling

5.2.6 Methods of Seagrass Analysis

5.2.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

RESULTS

5.3.1 Focus Group Interviews - Local Ecological Knowledge of Seagrass in Banggi Island

a. Distribution of Seagrass

b. Seasonality of the Seagrass

c. Threats to Seagrass

5.3.2 Focus Groups Interviews - Local Ecological Knowledge of Mantanani Island

5.3.3 Seagrass Mapping - Banggi Island

a. Description of the Subtidal Meadows in Banggi Island

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b. Description of the Intertidal Meadows in Banggi Island 114

5.3.4 Seagrass Mapping - Mantanani Island 121

5.3.5 Biomass of the Individual Seagrass Species and Depth 125 Distribution

5.4 DISCUSSION 129

5.5 CONCLUSION 131

CHAPTER 6: THE DISTRIBUTION OF DUGONGS IN SABAH, MALAYSIA 132

6.1 Introduction .133

6.2 METHODS 133

6.2.1 Aerial Survey Methodology

a. Transect Aerial Surveys

b. Shoreline Aerial Surveys

6.2.2 Focus Group Interviews and Dugong Monitoring Programme

6.2.3 Scope and Limitations of the Study

6.3 RESULTS

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6.3.1 Aerial Surveys - Distribution of Dugongs in Sabah as a Whole 138

6.3.2 Focus Group Interviews - Observing dugongs at Banggi 143 and Mantanani Island

6.3.3 Abundance and Distribution of Dugongs in Banggi Island 144

a. Focus Group Interviews 144

b. Monitoring Programme in Banggi Island 145

6.3.4 Abundance and Distribution of Dugongs in Mantanani Island 147

a. Focus Group Interviews 147

b. Monitoring Programme in Mantanani Island 148

6.3.5 Estimating the Size of the Coastal Dugong Population in 151 Sabah Waters

6.4 DISCUSSION 154

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6.5 CONCLUSION 158

CHAPTER 7: THREATS, INDIGENOUS USE AND TRADE OF DUGONG 160 (Dugong dugon) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA

7.1 Introduction 160

7.2 METHODS 161

7.2.1 Focus Group Interviews, Dugong Monitoring Programme and Participant Observation

7.3 RESULTS

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7.3.1 Threats to Dugongs 161

7.3.2 Illegal Blast Fishing 163

a. Blast Fishing at Banggi Island 163

7.3.3 Incidental Entangling in Nets 164

a. Reports of Incidental Catch 165

7.3.4 Indigenous Use and Trade of the Dugong in Banggi Island 166

a. Dugong Preparation and Consumption 166

b. Indigenous Use of Dugong Products 166

c. Dugong Trade 167

7.3.5 Unsupervised Tourism and Vessel Strikes in Mantanani 169 Island

7.4 DISCUSSION 171

7.5 CONCLUSION 174

CHAPTER 8: A CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR SABAH, MALAYSIA 176

8.1 Introduction 176

8.2 BACKGROUND 176

8.2.1 Legislation 177

a. The Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 (Sabah) 177

b. The Fisheries Act 1985 177

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8.2.2 Organisations Involved in the Conservation of Dugongs in 177 Sabah

a. Department of Wildlife, Sabah 177

b. The Board of Trustees of Sabah Parks 178

c. Department of Fisheries, Sabah 178

8.2.3 Facilitation of Laws relevant to Protecting Dugongs in Sabah 179

8.3 Conservation Issues 181

8.4 Conservation Strategies for Dugongs and Related Seagrasses in 181 Sabah

CHAPTER 9:

REFERENCES

8.4.1 EDUCATION 183

a. Dialogue and Community Education Programme 183

8.4.2 MANAGEMENT 187

a. Alternative Livelihoods 187

b. Illegal Fishing Methods and Enforcement 188

c. Co-management of Dugong and Seagrass Resources 188

d. Zoning of Seagrass in Marine Protected Areas 190 (MPAs) and Marine Managed Areas (MMAs).

e. Issues with Unsupervised Tourism and Vessel Strikes 191

f. Is Establishing a Dugong Sanctuary Feasible and Necessary?

g. Conservation at a Regional Level

8.4.3 Recommendations for Future Research

WHAT NOW FOR THE DUGONGS OF SABAH ?

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1.1 Conceptual model of the thesis. 6

Figure 3.1 Map of Sabah showing study sites Banggi Island and 31 Mantanani Island.

Figure 3.2 Banggi Island is located north of Kudat district in Sabah. 34

Figure 3.3 Map of Mantanani Island showing study area. 35

Figure 4.1 Villages surveyed in Banggi Island. 50

Figure 4.2 Origins of the surveyed communities in Banggi Island and 62 Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.3 Ethnic background of the surveyed community in Banggi 62 Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.4 Age structure of the communities in Banggi Island and 63 Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.5 Age structure of the fishermen in Banggi Island and 64 Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.6 Comparison of the education levels of the fishermen, 66 school children and housewives in Banggi and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.7 Literacy level of the general community in Banggi Island 67 and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.8 Comparison of literacy levels of the fishermen, housewives 67 and school children in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.9 Languages spoken in the community of Banggi Island and 68 Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.10 Reading materials enjoyed by the community of Banggi 69 Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.11 Reading materials enjoyed by the fishermen, housewives 70 and school children in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.12 Comparison of the percentage of fishermen, school 71 children and housewives who watch television in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

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Figure 4.13 Television programmes favoured by the fishermen, school 72 children and housewives in Banggi Island.

Figure 4.14 Television programmes favoured by the fishermen, school 73 children and housewives in Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.15 Categorization of the occupations of the populations in 74 Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.16 Number of years of fishing of the fishermen in Mantanani 76 Island and Banggi Island.

Figure 4.17 Fishing vessels used by the fishermen in Banggi Island and 77 Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.18 Percentage of number of boat crew per fishing vessel. 78

Figure 4.19 Fishing gear the fishermen used in Banggi Island and 80 Mantanani island.

Figure 4.20 Estimated total catch per month in Banggi Island and 81 Mantanani Island during good weather conditions.

Figure 4.21 Other catch besides usual species of fish caught by the 82 fishermen in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Figure 4.22 Views of the fishermen towards the extinction of the 85 dugong in Banggi Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.23 Views of the fishermen towards the extinction of dugong 85 in Mantanani Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.24 Reasons given for dugong numbers lowering in Banggi 86 Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.25 Reasons given for dugong numbers lowering in Mantanani 86 Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.26 Views of the fishermen to dugongs returning to Banggi 87 Island after a long absence (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.27 Views of the fishermen to dugongs returning to Mantanani 87 Island after a long absence (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.28 Views of the fishermen towards seagrass loss in Banggi 88 Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 4.29 Views of the fishermen towards seagrass loss in Mantanani 89 Island (number of interviews, percentage).

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Figure 5.1 Seagrass distribution in Sabah based on previous research. 96

Figure 5.2 Interview reports of the distribution of seagrass around 106 Banggi area.

Figure 5.3 Intervieweet reports of the areas in the vicinity of Banggi 107 which contain seagrasses.

Figure 5.4 Perceptions of the interview groups on the shift in 108 seagrass abundance over time in Banggi (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 5.5 Seagrass survey sites in Banggi Island. 110

Figure 5.6 Seagrass Meadows in Banggi Island, Molleangan Island, 118 Pagassan Island and Balak Island.

Figure 5.7 Seagrass survey sites in Mantanani Island. 122

Figure 5.8 Seagrass meadows in Mantanani Island. 124

Figure 5.9 Above-ground biomass (gDW/m2) for each meadow type in 125 Banggi Island and Mantanani Island (mean and ± standard error displayed).

Figure 5.10 Above-ground biomasses of seagrasses (gDW/m2) in 127 Banggi Island and Mantanani Island (mean and standard error displayed).

Figure 5.11 Depths (m) of occurrence of each seagrass species in 128 Banggi Island and Mantanani Island (mean and standard error displayed).

Figure 6.1 Aerial strip transect surveys conducted in Sabah (drawn to 135 scale).

Figure 6.2 Illustration of flight route of coastal aerial survey of Sabah 137 (drawn to scale).

Figure 6.3 Dugong sightings during the aerial surveys in July 2003, 141 December 2005 and September 2006.

Figure 6.4 Sightings of marine fauna besides dugongs during the 142 transect surveys and the shoreline surveys.

Figure 6.5 Information on dugong occurrence obtained from interview 145 surveys before 2002.

Figure 6.6 Information obtained from dugong monitoring programme 146 in Banggi Island (2001-2003).

xix

Figure 6.7 Information obtained on dugongs from interview surveys 147 in Mantanani Island before 2002.

Figure 6.8 Information obtained on dugong sightings and incidental 148 catch from the monitoring programme in Mantanani Island (2001 - 2003).

Figure 6.9 Reports of mortalities and sightings in Banggi Island from 157 interview surveys and the monitoring programme in relation to seagrass habitats mapped.

Figure 6.10 Reports of mortalities and sightings in Mantanani Island 157 from interview surveys and the monitoring programme in relation to seagrass habitats mapped.

Figure 7.1 Fishermen's perception of the frequency of dugong 162 sightings in Banggi Island (number of interviews, percentage) .

Figure 7.2 Fishermen's perception of the frequency of dugong 162 sightings in Mantanani Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 7.3 Size of the fishing nets in relation to size of catch in Banggi 165 Island (number of interviews, percentage).

Figure 7.4 Possible dugong trade routes compared to known fishing 168 routes (obtained from census data) within Banggi Island to neighbouring areas.

Figure 8.1 Marine protected areas of Sabah, Malaysia. 180

Figure 8.2 Conceptual framework of a dugong conservation strategy 182 for Sabah.

xx

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1 Percentage of numbers of the general population who received an 64 education.

Table 4.2 Education levels of the teenage fishermen Cwho were between 65 the ages of 16-19).

Table 4.3 Comparison of the income levels of the Banggi and 75 Mantanani communities with the current poverty line income CPU) and food poverty level income CPU).

Table 4.4 Frequency of fishing in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island. 76

Table 5.1 Description of the Subtidal Meadows in Banggi Island. 113

Table 5.2 Description of the Intertidal Meadows in Banggi Island. 119

Table 5.3 Algae Composition of the Intertidal and Subtidal Meadows in 120 Banggi Island.

Table 5.4 Mean above-ground biomass, areas and mean depths of the 123 seagrass meadows in Mantanani Island.

Table 5.5 Mean above-ground biomass, standard errors, ranges and 126 numbers of samples of the individual seagrass species in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Table 5.6 Depth below mean sea level, standard errors and numbers of 128 samples of the individual seagrass species in Banggi Island and Mantanani Island.

Table 6.1 Dugongs observed per hour during the aerial surveys. 139

Table 6.2 Summary of dugong sightings obtained during the aerial surveys. 140

Table 6.3 Responses of the interviewees regarding seasonality for sighting 143 dugongs.

Table 6.4 Summary of dugong observations reported by the villagers 151 from the interview surveys and the monitoring programme.

Table 6.5 Crude estimates of the annual sustainable human induced 154 mortality for dugongs in Sabah based on extrapolations from the aerial survey data.

xxi

LIST OF PHOTOS

Page

Photo 4.1 Educational posters shown during the presentation at 54 Banggi and Mantanani Island.

Photo 4.2 Interviewing villagers for the monitoring programme in 59 Mantanani Island.

Photo 4.3 Common pump boats in Banggi and Mantanani Island. 78

Photo 4.4 Monofilament gillnets used in Mantanani Island (mesh size 80 1-4 inches).

Photo 5.1 Seagrass beds of Ha/ophila sp. unidentified in 111 Molleangan Island.

Photo 5.2 Close up of Ha/ophi/a sp. unidentified in Molleangan Island. 112

Photo 5.3 Ha/ophi/a decipiens/Ha/ophi/a ova/is meadows at depths above 114 10 m.

Photo 5.4 Shallow seagrass of Ha/odu/e uninelVis (thin)/Ha/ophi/a 116 ova/is in Wak-Wak bay.

Photo 5.5 Dugong feeding trails of HalodulelHalophiia meadows in 116 Molieangan Island, south-west of Banggi Island.

Photo 6.1 Adjustment of tape in the window to establish field of view for 134 survey observer before flight.

Photo 6.2 Areas where the villagers sight the dugong in Kg. Siring 149 Bukit, Mantanani island.

Photo 6.3 Conducting interviews for the monitoring programme in 150 Mantanani Island.

Photo 7.1 The dugong 'Nicky' which has been observed conSistently in 170 Mantanani Island.

Photo 7.2 Dugong showing mating-like behaviour when approaching 171 the dive boat.

xxii

ACF

AIM

AREAS

CITES

em

CMP

CMS

dbMSL

DPA

EEZ

EPU

FELCRA

GBRWHA

GIS

GPS

GRT

ha

IUCN

lKKK

kg

kg.

km

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Availability Correction Factor

Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia

Asian Rhino and Elephant Strategy

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

Centimetre

Conservation and Management Plan

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Depth Below Mean Sea Level

Dugong Protected Area

Exclusive Economic Zone

Economic Planning Unit

Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority

Recovery Factor

Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area

Gram Dry Weight per square metre

Geographical Information Systems

Global Position System

Gross Register Tonnage

Hectare

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Jawatankuasa Kebajikan dan Keselamatan Kampung

Kilogramme

Kampung (village)

Kilometre xxiii

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