performance leadership and management in elite sport: recommendations, advice and suggestions from...
TRANSCRIPT
This article was downloaded by: [Kungliga Tekniska Hogskola]On: 07 October 2014, At: 18:34Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
European Sport Management QuarterlyPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/resm20
Performance leadership andmanagement in elite sport:recommendations, advice andsuggestions from national performancedirectorsRachel Arnold a , David Fletcher a & Lindsay Molyneux ba School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences , LoughboroughUniversity , Epinal Way, Loughborough , Leicestershire , LE113TU , UKb The English Institute of Sport , Bath , UKPublished online: 19 Jun 2012.
To cite this article: Rachel Arnold , David Fletcher & Lindsay Molyneux (2012) Performanceleadership and management in elite sport: recommendations, advice and suggestions fromnational performance directors, European Sport Management Quarterly, 12:4, 317-336, DOI:10.1080/16184742.2012.693115
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2012.693115
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Performance leadership and management in elite sport:recommendations, advice and suggestions from national performancedirectors
Rachel Arnolda*, David Fletchera and Lindsay Molyneuxb
aSchool of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Epinal Way,Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK; bThe English Institute of Sport, Bath, UK
(Received 8 May 2012; accepted 8 May 2012)
The purpose of this study was to elicit recommendations, advice and suggestionsthat can be used to enhance performance leadership and management in elitesport. To garner such information, 13 national performance directors wereinterviewed regarding the recommendations, advice and suggestions they had forleaders and managers of national sports teams and the sport organisations inwhich they operate. Five higher-order themes emerged for leaders and managers:establishing an approach, understanding roles within the team, developingcontextual awareness, enhancing personal skills and strengthening relationships.There were also five higher-order themes for sport organisations: employing themost appropriate individual, creating the optimal environment, implementingsystems and structures, developing an inclusive culture and providing appropriatesupport. As national governments place heightened importance on internationalsporting success, it is anticipated that the findings of this study will enable leaders,managers and sport organisations to more effectively address issues accompany-ing the leadership and management of Olympic programmes.
Keywords: athletic; governance; Olympic; organisation; psychology
The evolution of the Olympic Games from its origin to the modern day has benefited
many athletes and nations. For athletes, the Olympics are commonly regarded as the
pinnacle of athletic achievement, offering them an arena to demonstrate their talent
and skills on a global stage. This spectacle is also valued by nations, since it provides
them with a unique opportunity to attract more widespread recognition (Xu, 2006),
test their elite sport policies and gain a competitive advantage over other countries
(De Bosscher, Shilbury, Theeboom, Van Hoecke, & De Knop, 2011). For the host
city of an Olympic Games, the mega-event presents them with the chance to
showcase themselves, their facilities and their planning capabilities to a global
audience, as well as the prospect of making investments in infrastructure, generating
income and employment opportunities, attracting tourists and increasing national
pride (Gibson, Qi, & Zhang, 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Kasimati, 2003; Rose &
Spiegel, 2011; Tien, Lo, & Lin, 2011). Notwithstanding these benefits, research has
also found that a spectacle of this magnitude can, perhaps inevitably, create many
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
European Sport Management Quarterly
Vol. 12, No. 4, September 2012, 317�336
ISSN 1618-4742 print/ISSN 1746-031X online
# 2012 European Association for Sport Management
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2012.693115
http://www.tandfonline.com
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
issues for those managing and leading Olympic venues, programmes and teams.
These challenges include, but are not limited to: gigantism and over-commercialisation
(Preuss, 2004), sponsorship (Brown, 2000), negative environmental impacts (Collins,
Jones, & Munday, 2009), optimal human resource management (Chelladurai &
Madella, 2006), political exploitation and boycotting (Cottrell & Nelson, 2012), the
realisation of legacy (Girginov & Hills, 2008), security threats (Toohey & Taylor, 2008)
and, ultimately, the management of any factors that can potentially influence athletewell-being and performance (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001).
Despite these challenges, many governments and national sports organisations
(NSOs) continue to invest heavily in supporting their participation in the Olympic
Games. These investments typically focus on preparing a comprehensive bid to
become a host nation and/or adopting a systematic, strategic approach to the
development of elite athletes (De Bosscher, Bingham, Shibli, van Bottenburg & De
Knop, 2008; Houlihan & Green, 2008). Sport management research can significantly
inform the latter of these investments, since it has identified the factors deemed
necessary for successful elite athlete development across a number of different
countries (e.g. De Bosscher et al., 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan &
Green, 2008; Oakley & Green, 2001; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). As part of a large-
scale project, De Bosscher and colleagues (De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg,
& Shibli, 2006; De Bosscher et al., 2008, 2011) concluded that the sport policy
factors leading to international sporting success can be classified under the following
nine ‘pillars’: financial support, integrated approach to policy development,foundation and participation, talent identification and development system, athletic
and post-career support, training facilities, coaching provision and coach develop-
ment, national and international competition and scientific research. Notwithstand-
ing the undoubted importance of these ‘pillars’, Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) argued
that ‘these policy and strategic level developments alone will not guarantee
international success; to attain and sustain successful outcomes such initiatives
need to be inspirationally led, effectively managed and competently executed’ (p.
427). Hence, if nations wish to maximise the likelihood of success at the Olympic
Games, they must not only design and develop effective elite sport policies, they must
also have the right personnel in place to lead and manage their Olympic programmes,
competently respond to and address issues, and create, optimise and maintain a high
performance environment.
In view of the importance of performance leadership and management in
determining NSOs’ success in Olympic competition, it seems surprising that these
concepts have remained largely unexplored at the managerial level in sport research
(cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009; Ratten, 2009; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). Incontrast, other domains of academic inquiry have examined these areas in some
detail with scholars proposing a number of theories, approaches and perspectives for
performance leadership (for a discussion of these, see Northouse, 2010; Zaccaro &
Klimoski, 2001) and performance management (for a discussion of these, see
Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway, 2009; Thorpe & Holloway, 2008). Unfortu-
nately space precludes an elaboration of all these areas; however, it is worth noting
that performance leadership has been defined as ‘a process whereby an individual
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal’ (Northouse, 2010, p. 3)
and the definition of performance management has proved more elusive in view of
the amount of disparate research that has been conducted on the concept. That said,
318 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Thorpe and Holloway (2008) have outlined the general aims of performance
management, which are ‘to share understanding about what is to be achieved, to
develop the capacity of people and the organization to achieve it, and to provide the
support and guidance individuals and teams need to improve their performance’
(p. 88). Although performance leadership and management research in these other
domains has the potential to inform sport management practice, scholars should be
cautious of blindly extracting findings and applying them to the elite sport domain,
since their direct relevance may be questionable. Rather, it has been suggested that
researchers should design and conduct studies that listen to the subjective voices of
key stakeholders who lead and manage within elite sport (Kihl, Leberman, & Schull,
2010; Starkey & Madan, 2001).
In an attempt to advance understanding in this area and enhance support to the
leadership and management of international sports teams, Fletcher and Arnold (2011)
interviewed national performance directors (NPDs) about their perceptions of best
practice for leading and managing teams in preparation for Olympic competition. The
findings highlighted the multifaceted nature of orchestrating elite performance,
involving the development of a vision, the management of operations, the leadership
of people and the creation of a culture. While it is beyond the scope of this study to
discuss in detail the specific findings of this study, it is worth highlighting that the NPDs
they interviewed ‘valued opportunities to learn from one another, share knowledge, and
provide feedback to other stakeholders’ (p. 238). The purpose of this study, therefore, is
to elicit recommendations, advice, and suggestions that can be used to enhance
performance leadership and management in elite sport. Specifically, recommendations,
advice and suggestions will be gleaned from NPDs of Olympic sports for leaders and
managers of national sports teams and the sport organisations in which they operate. It
is hoped that such evidence-based information, provided by active stakeholders, will
enable leaders and managers in elite sport to respond to the issues and challenges that
they encounter and, ultimately, better lead and manage their Olympic programmes.
Method
Research design
In line with the earlier observation that the concepts of performance leadership and
management have been afforded limited attention at the managerial level in sport
research (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009; Ratten, 2009; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009),
it was considered that this study would be best suited to qualitative methods. Such
methods enable researchers to examine participant knowledge and practices in an
exploratory way, so that an innovative understanding of complex human experiences
can be developed and portrayed (Flick, 2009; Silverman, 2006). In addition, the use
of qualitative methods can address a limitation currently associated with perfor-
mance management research from domains outside of sport. To elaborate, Thorpe
and Beasley (2004) identified that a lack of real-world relevance in performance
management research can be attributed to the emphasis placed on under-theorised,
quantitative approaches. Therefore, by adopting qualitative methods, rich and
informative data can be garnered from participants that actually operate within
elite sport. Semi-structured interviews were deemed most appropriate to collect this
data, since they encourage participants to contribute in-depth information relating to
European Sport Management Quarterly 319
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
their experiences of performance leadership and management. Furthermore, as
Edwards and Skinner (2009) have remarked, semi-structured interviews allow
participants to seek further information where uncertainty exists, and enable
researchers to probe interviewees for more detail if required.
Participants
A purposive sampling technique was used to recruit participants in this study, since itenables qualitative researchers to select a representative group of participants who
have experience in the area being studied (Flick, 2009). The only criterion for
selection was that individuals had to be a current NPD of an Olympic sport. There
was no set criterion regarding the type of sport that the NPD had to be leading and
managing, since we wanted to provide insights into performance leadership and
management across different contexts and Olympic programmes. Therefore, follow-
ing ethical approval for the study, all current NPDs working in Olympic sports were
contacted by email. This message informed them of the purpose of the study, provideda description of what it would entail, and invited them to participate. NPDs who
expressed an interest in participating were contacted to arrange a convenient time and
location for the interview, and were provided with a copy of the interview guide.
The sample comprised 13 current NPDs (11 male, 2 female) who ranged in age
from 42 to 54 years (M�48.88, SD�4.52). The participants had been a NPD for
between 0.5 and 13 years (M�6.01 years, SD�3.76) and worked in elite sport
for 4�35 years (M�20.21 years, SD�11.02). Represented Olympic sports in the
sample accumulated a total of 24 medals at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and accountedfor £138 million of public investment (equivalent to approximately $260 million).
With regards to the size of the sample, 13 NPDs were deemed an appropriate
quantity, since similar vignettes were beginning to be recalled as the data collection
phase progressed. As a result, there was an absence of new themes emerging and, in
line with Bowen’s (2008) suggestions, it was considered that both theoretical and data
saturation had occurred.
Interview guide
To investigate the purpose of this study, a five-section interview guide1 was
developed. Section one of this guide provided participants with information about
the study’s purpose and their right to remain anonymous and withdraw from thestudy at any time. In section two, the participants were offered an opportunity to ask
any further questions and, subsequently, were invited to voluntarily provide informed
consent and proceed with the interview. Section three consisted of a number of
introductory questions (e.g. what is your background in [sport]?) in order to obtain
an insight into the participant’s involvement in his or her sport and enable rapport to
develop between the interviewer and interviewee. In section four, the questions
focused on the recommendations, advice and suggestions that NPDs would provide;
firstly, for other leaders and managers to help them oversee their Olympicprogrammes more effectively and, secondly, for sport organisations to support their
leaders and managers in a more favourable and optimal way. Section five asked the
participants to voice any further pertinent issues, followed by a short evaluation of
the efficacy of the interview. Prior to the interviews with the NPDs, a pilot interview
320 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
was conducted with a recently retired NPD to help ensure that the interview guide
addressed all the relevant areas. The pilot interview also enabled the interviewer to
refine her interview skills and techniques. From this initial interview, it was decided
that additional clarification and elaboration probes were required to attain a greaterprofundity of the participants’ subjective experiences (cf. Ritchie & Lewis, 2003).
Data analysis
All of the interviews were digitally recorded in their entirety. The duration of the
interviews ranged from 30 to 74 minutes (M �57.31, SD �12.28) and interviews
were transcribed verbatim. In view of the scant knowledge of performance leadership
and management in sport research at the managerial level, a thematic interpreta-
tional content analysis was selected as the most appropriate method to analyse the
data (Aronson, 1994; Gibbs, 2007). Krippendorff (2004) highlighted that a content
analysis can provide new insights into a research area or particular phenomenon via
the emergence and interpretation of themes from interview transcripts. To furthergenerate knowledge and foster innovation in this area, an inductive approach was
adopted (Cassell & Symon, 2004; Gibbs, 2007). More specifically, this approach
involved the interviewer first immersing herself in the transcripts to extract raw data
quotes that represented common themes. These initial themes were paraphrased as
lower-order themes, before they were grouped according to similar content to form a
number of higher-order themes. The higher-order themes were then combined into
appropriate general dimensions, forming a comprehensive depiction of the partici-
pants’ collective experiences. When handling the data, manual analysis was usedrather than computer analysis in view of a number of disadvantages that have been
associated with the latter method (see Basit, 2003; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003). Finally, a
frequency analysis was conducted to identify how often each theme was mentioned
by the participants (Neuendorf, 2002).
Rigor and trustworthiness
Researchers have identified various criteria for evaluating the quality of qualitative
research (Krefting, 1991; Sparkes & Smith, 2009). By employing such research
criteria, scholars can generate both researcher and practitioner confidence in
qualitative research findings (Porter, 2007). This study sought to employ the criteria
that were most appropriate to the purpose of the research and the data that emerged.The first criterion that was adopted was authenticity, which was enhanced by
acknowledging any biases of the researchers. More specifically, the processes of
analyst triangulation and peer reviewing were implemented to review and challenge
any assumptions held and interpretations made during the data analysis process
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Watt, 2007). In addition to these techniques, the themes
and dimensions were sent to a random selection of participants to check if they were
clear and accurate. Credibility and rigor were also addressed by interviewing NPDs
who had first-hand knowledge and experience from a wide range of sports. To enablescholars to assess the findings’ degree of transferability to other settings (Tranfield,
2002), a thick description is provided of the characteristics of the sample.
Furthermore, the results are presented using both hierarchical content trees and
direct quotations, so that readers can appreciate the wide array of emergent themes
European Sport Management Quarterly 321
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
together with their complexity, and evaluate the applicability of the findings to other
settings and contexts.
Results
The results that emerged from the data analysis process represent the participants’
combined responses. From the interview data, 301 raw data quotes2 were extracted,
which were grouped into 57 lower-order themes. These themes were grouped
together into 10 higher-order themes and combined into the following two general
dimensions: recommendations, advice and suggestions from NPDs for leaders and
managers of national sports teams (see Figure 1), and for the sport organisations in
which leaders and managers operate (see Figure 2).
Recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders and managers
The recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders and managers dimension
consisted of five higher-order themes: establishing an approach; understanding roles
within the team; developing contextual awareness; enhancing personal skills and
strengthening relationships (see Figure 1). With regards to establishing an approach,
the NPDs described how their role was predominantly informed by previous
experience. They advised other leaders and managers to make sense of their past
experiences and use these to help them develop an early vision, set expectations, and
identify what needs to be delivered. Following this, the NPDs suggested that any
plans and policies should be implemented in a flexible way, whilst maintaining an
underlying focus on success. To achieve this, leaders and managers should reflect on
previous successes and challenges in order to recognise potential opportunities and
barriers. Furthermore, leaders and managers must remain committed in their roles.
The most frequently cited theme in this higher-order theme was being able to make
tough decisions and accept that mistakes can be made in the process:
You need to be able to take the tough decisions when they are in front of you . . . if youhide then you will be judged on the programme and I think then you’ll suffer. Sometimesyou get it [the decisions] wrong . . . I know certainly in the context of some of the sportsthat I went into, I probably got a bit hasty with one or two people and got rid of them,but in hindsight I probably got 85% of the decisions right, so you’ve got to go with yourgut feeling.
Leaders and managers operating in elite sport are advised to clearly understand
both their own and others’ roles in the organisation. More specifically, they should be
aware of role boundaries, including where one’s responsibilities end and another’s
begin. This understanding is informed by a comprehensive knowledge of the
organisation within which they are operating. Therefore, the NPDs encourage
leaders and managers to spend time developing their familiarity with the ways in
which their particular organisation typically functions. Regarding their own role, it
was recommended that leaders and managers take responsibility for their decisions
and corresponding actions, maintain a healthy work-life balance and endeavour to
protect those individuals that are delivering elite sport. To elaborate on the latter
322 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
point, the following quote provides advice on protecting coaches and athletes in elite
sport from internal politics:
One of the successes we’ve had in [sport] . . . is that in my time as a NPD we have nothad internal political fighting. You must be aware that a lot of that still goes on
Figure 1. Recommendations, advice, and suggestions from NPDs for leaders and managers
of national sports teams.
European Sport Management Quarterly 323
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
elsewhere, sports with competing bodies within them. While it might be natural tosome extent, it can just sap your energy . . . a NPD must take the politics awayfrom the front line coaches and athletes, so that they can just focus and get on withtheir job.
When beginning a job as a leader or manager of an organisation, the NPDs advised
individuals to develop contextual awareness. To achieve this, they recommended
that leaders and managers assess and constantly evaluate and review their current
situation. Some of the NPDs had encountered challenges with regards to the
amount of time taken to witness an improvement in particular parts of their
programme. In view of this, they advised that leaders and managers remain
patient in developments and always be prepared for change so that they are
ready to cope with and overcome new challenges and demands. It is also important
for NPDs to be aware of and tailor advice to both the sporting and cultural
Figure 2. Recommendations, advice, and suggestions from NPDs for the sport organisation
in which leaders and managers operate.
324 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
situation. The following quote illustrates how one NPD was aware of cultural
differences:
Often people don’t take the time to understand the culture of the country and theculture of the sport. They are making real errors from the beginning and I think luckily Iwas sensible about that when I came from [previous country] to [current country].However, I had to learn quickly that [current country] has a culture all of its own . . . Ifound that there are a lot of people here that don’t like to be told straight, whereas in thecountry where I previously worked, they are very direct.
In line with the aforementioned theme, the NPDs recommended that leaders and
managers should develop the skills and traits that are most suitable for the context in
which they are leading or managing, rather than simply adopting a rigid approach.
This is supported in the variety of personal skills that NPDs working in different
contexts identified as essential for a leadership or managerial role in elite sport.
These include exhibiting a high level of confidence, displaying integrity, possessing
strategic and critical thinking skills and being organised and able to deal with
conflict. Further personal characteristics that are deemed fundamental for the role of
a NPD are passion and motivation, as the following quote indicates:
I think it’s your passion and your commitment to excellence that are pretty crucial . . . Ifpeople don’t think that the person at the top really believes that you can, or is notrealistic and focused on what’s important, or motivated in their job and passionate inachieving the outcomes, then you’ll lose the support from below.
Leaders and managers are often required to interact and build relationships with
a number of stakeholders including other leaders, senior management, individuals in
the National Governing Body (NGB), external partners, support personnel and the
athletes. With these personnel, the NPDs emphasised the importance of commu-
nicating frequently and effectively. By enhancing communication and building these
relationships with stakeholders, NPDs are able to integrate and engage all areas of
the NGB. To strengthen relationships when leading and managing others, it was
suggested that NPDs seek an appropriate balance in the level of control or influence
that they have over others. In addition, they should not attempt to achieve everything
by themselves, but instead recognise the importance of teamwork, as the following
quote demonstrates:
You cannot make improvements alone; it has to be as a team. The team members needto respect and listen to each other. I know that I can learn a lot from them [the rest ofthe team]. To do this [work as a team], I need to walk the shop floor and know thereality of the sport on the ground, see what’s actually happening on a daily basis withthe athletes, coaches, and support staff.
Recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations
The recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations consisted of
five higher-order themes: employing the most appropriate individual, creating the
optimal environment, implementing systems and structures, developing an inclusive
culture and providing appropriate support (see Figure 2). When employing an
individual for the role of leader or manager, the NPDs advised organisations to be
European Sport Management Quarterly 325
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
clear regarding exactly what the job will involve on the job specification. This is
deemed essential to ensure candidate understanding. It was also suggested that whilst
the role of a NPD typically requires experience in a performance environment,
previous experience as an athlete or a coach is not always necessary. Therefore,
organisations are advised to incorporate this advice in to their recruitment process,
perhaps by simply encouraging potential applicants to reflect on and apply what they
have learnt from past experiences to the specific role being advertised. Moreover, it
was recommended that organisations comprehensively assess each applicant’s
personal, leadership and managerial skills to ensure an appropriate level of
competency for the role. Finally, as the following quote highlights, the NPDs
advised organisations to be clear on what they specifically require in a leader and/or
manager:
Organisations should first decide what kind of role they want. I’d say that’s the firstquestion that any part of the organisation’s recruitment panel needs to ask itself. If you[the organisation] are a smaller sport it may be that you want a top-line coach to leadthe performance program and deliver the goods as a NPD, because if you don’t have theluxury of having one person for each role, you may have to make a compromi-se . . . though if you’re a slightly bigger sport, it may be that you want somebody a littlebit different to do each role.
To facilitate the work of a leader or manager, sport organisations should attempt
to create the optimal environment for them and the rest of the organisation. This
involves remaining ambitious and positive in the achievement of the organisation’s
vision, and not only making decisions quickly, but also determining accountability
for any choices made. In addition, the NPDs advised organisations to control
the level of unnecessary interference by senior management preceding a major
competition. The majority of NPDs suggested that organisations should give leadersand managers freedom to operate, as the following quote exemplifies:
I think there is a thin line between the board wanting information and interferingbecause they feel they should make decisions. I sense that, from talking to other NPDs,that it [interference from the board] is not just happening in my sport, it is actuallyhappening across sports. Leave them [leaders and managers] alone to run things . . . letthem do their job.
National performance directors advised sport organisations to develop systems
and structures that enable leaders and managers to fulfil their role. To elaborate,
advice on this topic includes providing appropriate salaries and funding, developing
sustainable policies which commence before and continue after each Olympic Games,
establishing a coaching structure and minimising the amount of administration that
NPDs are required to carry out. The most frequently cited theme within this higher-
order theme was the importance of providing opportunities for NPDs to enhance
their own knowledge. One way that sport organisations can develop individuals is by
increasing their interaction with other leaders and managers, as the following quote
indicates:
If I were to go into a podium sport, I reckon I would come out with two or three nuggetsthat would make a difference. Now I am lucky enough to be on the performancedirector’s achievement group, and I have picked nuggets up from that, but that’s only
326 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
once every quarter [of a year], and there are just eight of us. I think there is a lot ofbenefit to be gained by thinking outside the box and understanding how other peopledo it . . . so it’s this real isolation of the NPDs that could be hugely improved.
A further recommendation provided by the NPDs for sport organisations was to
develop an inclusive culture. In view of the often disparate location of different
personnel within an organisation, it was suggested that an inclusive culture should
be developed in which all team members feel integrated and involved. The NPDssuggested that developing a team ethos, to which all members understand their
affiliations, would help to create an inclusive culture. To achieve this integration
and ethos, sport organisations are advised to clearly define roles and responsibilities
of all divisions within the NGB, effectively listen and communicate to all involved
in delivering elite performance, and value and demonstrate respect for all employ-
ees. The following quote concerns the need to formalise links between NPDs, which
was suggested to be another method that could be used to develop an inclusive
culture:
There is no actual formalising of links within the NPD culture, which I think isabsolutely stupid. I dropped a note to one of the [nation’s high performance sportsagency] administrators, and I said, ‘‘Well, could you give me a list of the NPD contactsand telephone numbers?’’ They said ‘‘No, it’s confidential information’’. So I am aNPD, I am a member of a club, and I don’t know who all the fellow members are. It isabsolutely essential that this information is made available if we are to build networks inelite sport.
In order to provide appropriate support to a NPD, it is important that sport
organisations have a Chairman and/or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) whose
understanding is aligned to that of the leader or manager. In addition, the NPDs
recommended that organisations understand that it takes time to achieve success,
provide the leader or manager with the opportunity to work with a mentor, be
sensitive in understanding that sports of different sizes often encounter dissimilar
demands and ensure that an optimal amount of support is provided by offering
NPDs independence and avoiding unnecessary interference with their work.Furthermore, as the following quote illustrates, organisations should provide support
for NPDs and their Olympic programmes not only before, but also after an Olympic
Games:
I do worry, particularly with the economic circumstances and everything that thefunding of elite sport will fall off a cliff after [the] 2012 [Olympic Games]. I mean at themoment I think they [the government] want to win lots of medals, but I think after thatthe money will disappear very quickly . . . I just cannot see the government continuing tofund elite sports. So we [the sport organisation] need to look beyond the Olympics andput longer-term sustainable plans in place that will allow us to run elite sport on enoughmoney.
Discussion
To generate more favourable results in elite sport, policy-makers need to better
understand how their structures and programmes may enable or hinder positive
outcomes (De Bosscher et al., 2011). One factor which can help to explain this link
between process and outcome is the way in which programmes are led and managed.
European Sport Management Quarterly 327
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
The data reported here contributes to research on performance leadership and
management in elite sport by outlining a wide array of recommendations, advice and
suggestions that leaders, managers and sport organisations should consider if they
wish to maximise their success in elite sport. More specifically, the findings advise
leaders and managers to focus on establishing an approach, understanding roles,
developing contextual awareness, enhancing personal skills and strengthening
relationships. With regards to the recommendations provided for sport organisa-tions, these include employing the most appropriate individual, creating the optimal
environment, implementing systems and structures, developing an inclusive culture
and providing appropriate support. It is hoped that the findings of this study will
help enhance leaders’, managers’ and sport organisations’ awareness and knowledge
of the factors that need to be addressed in their pursuit of success.
Taking first the recommendations, advice and suggestions provided for leaders
and managers, the results revealed five higher-order themes which need to be taken
into consideration. The first of these is establishing an approach and the data
suggests that although leaders and managers might draw on previous experience to
develop an approach (Canella & Rowe, 1995; Hannah, Woolfolk, & Lord, 2009),
they should also recognise potential barriers and opportunities in the current
situation that may help or hinder with the execution of this approach. This finding
is in line with the principles of situational leadership (cf. Hersey, 1986), which
encourages leaders to consider the situation in which they are operating, including
any barriers or opportunities such as subordinates’ levels of maturity andreadiness for self-direction. To assess this, instruments have been developed in the
workplace to measure the degree to which a leader or manager uses his or her
situational judgement to determine the best course of action based on any barriers
and opportunities that they identify (cf. Salter & Highouse, 2009; Stemler &
Sternberg, 2006).
The second higher-order theme in this dimension refers to understanding the
roles within the team. The findings reported in this higher-order theme go beyond
sport management research, which has identified the roles of the board in sport
organisations (cf. Inglis, 1997; Kihl et al., 2010; Shilbury, 2001), to outline the
specific roles that leaders or managers of Olympic programmes are advised to
uphold. These roles include protecting those that deliver at the forefront of elite
sport, enhancing knowledge of the NGB and maintaining a work-life balance.
This higher-order theme forms an important part of performance leadership and
management, since clearly defined roles, responsibilities and boundaries in elite
sport can help to enhance team atmosphere, functioning, productivity and reduce
social loafing (Chelladurai, 2006; Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004). If roles are noteffectively led and managed, individuals can experience role stress, tension,
frustration, dissatisfaction and communication and interpersonal relationship
difficulties (Mullins, 2004).
Thirdly, since performance leadership and management are dependent on the
context in which leaders and managers operate, the NPDs suggest that leaders and
managers develop contextual awareness. This involves assessing the initial situation,
tailoring advice to the sport or culture that they are working within, displaying
patience in developments, exerting a readiness for change and constantly evaluating
and reviewing the circumstances. This higher-order theme is in accordance with sport
management research at governmental level (cf. Oakley & Green, 2001), which has
328 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
identified that despite the growing trend towards similarity in national elite
development strategies, there remains a need for policy-makers to display contextual
awareness and develop programmes to suit the specific environment and circum-
stances of each respective country and sport.
In addition to establishing an approach, understanding roles and developing
contextual awareness, the NPDs also recommend that leaders and managers enhance
their own personal skills. More specifically, and in line with previous research
(cf. Depree, 1992; Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, & Marks, 2000; Zaccaro, 2007), it is
suggested that leaders and managers should develop a constellation of traits and
skills. Indeed, by having a toolbox of personal skills and qualities from which to
draw, leaders can select and display certain traits dependant on the situations or
circumstances that they find themselves in or the requirements of the individuals that
they are leading or managing (Judge & LePine, 2007; Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka,
2009). For leaders and managers in elite sport, the suggested personal skills and
qualities include passion, motivation, integrity, confidence, organisation, conflict
management and strategic and critical thinking.The final higher-order theme of recommendations, advice and suggestions for
leaders and managers in elite sport relates to strengthening relationships with a
number of personnel who are both internal and external to the sport organisation.
While sport psychology research has established the components of effective coach�athlete relationships (cf. Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007), and sport management
research has examined the relations between members of a board (cf. Taylor &
O’Sullivan, 2009), the findings of this study extend understanding in this area by
providing advice for those leading and managing Olympic sports on how to build
and strengthen optimal relationships with a variety of personnel. These personnel
include individuals across all areas of the NGB, athletes and their support personnel
and external partners. Within these relationships, the results emphasise the importance
of teamwork, communication and finding an optimal balance in the level of control or
influence that leaders and managers have over others. It is fundamental that these
relationships with various stakeholders are built and strengthened, since this can have
an influence on the operation of Olympic programmes (Ferrand & McCarthy, 2009;
Sotiriadou, 2009) and success of person-organisation dynamics (cf. Wagstaff, Fletcher,
& Hanton, 2012).
Turning to the recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations,
the results revealed five higher-order themes that they should consider when working
with leaders and managers in elite sport. The first of these relates to recruiting and,
ultimately, employing the most appropriate individual for the leader or manager role.
To achieve this, NPDs suggest that organisations remain clear on the full extent of
the role and what they specifically require in a leader or manager. This is in line with
occupational and organisational psychology research (Hough & Oswald, 2000;
Robertson & Smith, 2001), which highlights that organisations should adopt a task-
oriented job analysis to clearly identify what skills are required for each job, and a
worker-oriented analysis to elicit the competencies that candidates will need. In
addition, with specific reference to employing a leader or manager in elite sport, the
NPDs advised that organisations encourage candidates to reflect on their past
experiences and then assess them on a range of personal, leadership and managerial
skills, rather than simply on their sporting background.
European Sport Management Quarterly 329
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Once a leader or manager has been employed, the NPDs encourage organisations
to create an optimal environment for these individuals to function effectively. Similar
to minimising any distractions from various personnel for individual athletes (cf.
Gee, 2010; Martens, 2004), the NPDs recommend that organisations reduce any
interference from senior management that might hinder their performance. In
addition, the NPDs advise organisations to make quick decisions, determine
accountability when decisions are made and remain positive and ambitious. In linewith this latter point, research on personnel selection (e.g. Robertson & Smith, 2001)
has identified that the appearance of an ambitious organisation can attract individuals
to apply for a role. Therefore, in order to attract a number of candidates to apply for
jobs in elite sport, organisations should remain ambitious and positive in their image
so that they can, subsequently, select the most appropriate individual for the role.
Turning to the third higher-order theme, NPDs advise organisations to
implement systems and structures that are congruent with what leaders and
managers are trying to accomplish. In accordance with sport management research
on elite sport development systems, the findings of this study illustrate that an
organisation’s systems and structures should involve effective coach provision,
appropriate funding and salaries and a simplicity of administration (De Bosscher
et al., 2006, 2008, 2011; Oakley & Green, 2001). In addition, the NPDs also advise
organisations to implement sustainable policies and provide development opportu-
nities for leaders and managers. It is crucial that sport organisations heed this advice
from NPDs, since many sporting organisations operate within continually changingsocio-economic conditions and an effective elite sport structure and system of
governance can help to safeguard against any misappropriation of funds and ensure
the long term viability of a sport (Scissons, 2002; Taylor & O’Sullivan, 2009).
Alongside implementing these systems and structures, organisations should also
consider the fourth higher-order theme which involves developing an inclusive
culture. While previous research in sport has elicited athletes’ (e.g. Hardy & Crace,
1997; Yukelson, 1997) and coaches’ (Bloom, Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003; Newin,
Bloom, & Loughead, 2008) perceptions of building a team and culture, this study
provides additional knowledge in this area by establishing advice from NPDs for
sport organisations. More specifically, the findings reveal that creating a culture
involves generating a team ethos, integrating a team, formalising links, developing
role awareness, effectively listening and communicating and demonstrating respect
for employees to ensure that they feel valued.
In terms of providing appropriate support to leaders and managers, which was
the fifth higher-order theme in this dimension, the NPDs suggest that in addition toproviding leaders and managers with support before an Olympic Games and a
sustainable legacy after it (cf. Gold & Gold, 2009), and offering them a mentor
(cf. Chun, Sosik, & Yun, 2012; Oliver, Church, Lewis, & Desrosiers, 2009; Raso,
2011), sport organisations should also be sensitive, understand the temporal nature
of success, offer NPDs an optimal balance of support and ensure that the CEO and
Chairman have an aligned understanding with the NPD.
Regarding the practical applications of this study, it is anticipated that the
findings can maximise the likelihood of success in elite sport in two main ways.
Firstly, by providing recommendations, advice and suggestions to leaders and
managers, this study can help them to recognise and address the daily challenges
inherent in preparation for an Olympic Games. Secondly, the recommendations,
330 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
advice and suggestions provided to sport organisations can assist them in creating,
optimising and maintaining a supportive environment that enables leaders and
managers to flourish in their roles. To disseminate these findings to leaders, managers
and sport organisations, a manual could be developed to outline and explain the
performance leadership and management recommendations, advice and suggestions
that have emerged in this study. In addition, based on the findings of this study, a
competency framework could be established that outlines the specific leadership andmanagerial qualities and skills that individuals should seek to develop (e.g.
Dalakoura, 2010; Hannah et al., 2009). Since the appropriateness of leadership
and management approaches are somewhat contingent on the surrounding context,
the domains of the competency frameworks will likely be shaped by particular
configurations of the parameters of practice (cf. Rodolfa et al., 2005). For NPDs,
such parameters might include the sport, context and system in which the NPD
operates, the individuals with whom they work and the challenges that they
encounter. For sport organisations, a number of sport management frameworks
have been developed to identify the systems and structures that influence elite athlete
development at a governance level (e.g. De Bosscher et al., 2011; Houlihan & Green,
2008; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). However, these frameworks could be expanded
to both incorporate the findings that have emerged from this managerial level study
and illustrate the competencies that leaders and managers require in elite sport. With
regards to the best context in which to disseminate the findings, UK Sport (the high
performance sports agency in the UK), has emphasised that its quarterly NPD
forum is well positioned to share good practice (National Audit Office, 2005).Indeed, a leadership and management development initiative or programme could be
developed to disseminate the findings of this study at such forums (e.g. Amagoh,
2009). Alternatively, individuals that act in an advisory capacity to either sport
organisations (e.g. organisational consultants) or leaders and managers (e.g. sport
psychologists) could deliver the findings via an individually tailored intervention. Since
there are likely to be differences in a NPD’s role dependant on the context and sport in
which they operate, such bespoke provisions are particularly encouraged. When
implementing the intervention, these advisory individuals should draw lessons and
techniques from executive coaches since there appears to be considerable overlap in the
remit of these roles (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011). More specifically, executive coaches are
often employed to improve individuals’ relationships with others and help them to
manage their daily challenges and demands (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kilburg, 2000;
Miller & Hart, 2001), both of which are evident in the findings of the present study.
This study has methodological strengths and limitations that must be acknowl-
edged when interpreting the findings. The strength of this research is the participants
that were sampled. More specifically, by occupying senior leadership and managerialpositions in elite sport, the participants were able to provide insightful and extensive
information for leaders, managers and sport organisations. The semi-structured
format of the interview was a further strength of the research, since the set-up and
flexibility enabled the NPDs to be open, honest and comfortable in their dialogues,
which resulted in a broad array of stakeholder-driven recommendations, advice and
suggestions. A common concern in investigations utilising qualitative methods and
purposive sampling is the issue of generalisability (cf. Gobo, 2007). Indeed, while the
present study can offer analytic generalisation (cf. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007),
where its findings can contribute conceptually and theoretically to research and
European Sport Management Quarterly 331
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
theory on performance leadership and management, the relatively small sample size
constrains the more statistical generalisation that is commonly associated with more
quantitative methods. Regarding the composition of the sample, participants in the
present study were recruited from a range of sports and were of varying age and
experience; however, logistical and financial constraints precluded more extensive
sampling of participants working in other nations. While this restricted focus may be
considered a limitation of this research, Oakley and Green (2001) have suggested that
there is a growing trend towards similarity in national elite development strategies.
Nonetheless, future research is required to further explore the presence and extent of
cultural differences in the performance leadership and management recommenda-
tions, advice and suggestions provided by NPDs from a range of nations.
In addition to the aforementioned suggestions, further research in this area could
seek information from personnel other than NPDs. Indeed, while sampling NPDs
was appropriate for the purpose of this study, it is important to acknowledge that the
recommendations, advice and suggestions provided are the views and opinions of one
group of stakeholders within elite sport. Therefore, it would be beneficial to involve
other stakeholders in future research so that a more holistic view of performance
leadership and management can be developed. For example, gathering data from
other members of the organisation in addition to NPDs, including the board, team
managers, athletes and support and administrative staff will have a methodological
advantage over the present study, since individuals’ perspectives can be triangulated
(Solansky, 2010). To collect this triangulation data, a 360 degree study could be
conducted (Fletcher, 2001). In addition to providing an array of perspectives of
performance leadership and management within a sport organisation, a 360 degree
study can offer valuable feedback to the leaders and managers themselves, identify areas
for performance development and evaluate the effectiveness of the individually tailored
interventions previously discussed (Bailey & Austin, 2006; Conger & Toegel, 2003).To conclude, this study has provided performance leadership and management
recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders, managers and sport organisa-
tions. It is anticipated that this information will enable issues, challenges and debates
that accompany the leadership and management of Olympic programmes to be more
effectively recognised and addressed. Furthermore, as governments place heightened
importance on international success in the sporting arena, this study provides a
timely resource for sport management scholars and consultants. Indeed, it is hoped
that as a result of this research, Olympic programmes will begin to be more
successfully led, managed and supported to, ultimately, produce more positive
performance outcomes in elite sport.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported in part by funding from Lane4 Management Group Ltd.
Notes
1. Due to space restrictions, the interview guide is not reproduced in full here. For a copy ofthe guide, please contact the corresponding author.
2. Due to space restrictions, only a selection of the raw data quotes is presented in this study.For a complete copy of this data, please contact the corresponding author.
332 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
References
Amagoh, F. (2009). Leadership development and leadership effectiveness. ManagementDecision, 47, 989�999.
Armstrong, M., & Baron, A. (1998). Performance management: The new realities. London,UK: The Institute of Personnel and Development.
Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis. The Qualitative Report, 2, 1�4.Bailey, C., & Austin, M. (2006). 360 degree feedback and development outcomes: The role of
feedback characteristics, self-efficacy, and importance of feedback dimensions to focalmanagers’ current role. International Journal of Selection & Assessment, 14, 51�66.
Basit, T. (2003). Manual or electronic? The role of coding in qualitative data analysis.Educational Research, 45, 143�154.
Bloom, G.A., Stevens, D.E., & Wickwire, T.A. (2003). Expert coaches’ perceptions of teambuilding. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 129�143.
Bowen, G.A. (2008). Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: A research note.Qualitative Research, 8, 137�152.
Brown, G. (2000). Emerging issues for Olympic sponsorship: Implications for host cities. SportManagement Review, 3, 71�92.
Cannella, A.A., & Rowe, W.G. (1995). Leader capabilities, succession, and competitivecontext: A study of professional basketball teams. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 69�88.
Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (2004). Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizationalresearch. London, UK: Sage.
Chelladurai, P. (2006). Human resource management in sport and recreation (2nd ed.).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chelladurai, P., & Madella, A. (2006). Human resource management in Olympic Sport.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chun, J.U., Sosik, J.J., & Yun, N.Y. (2012). A longitudinal study of mentor and protegeoutcomes in formal mentoring relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Advanceonline publication. doi: 10.1002/job.1781.
Collins, A., Jones, C., & Munday, M. (2009). Assessing the environmental impacts of megasporting events: Two options? Tourism Management, 30, 828�837.
Conger, J., & Toegel, J. (2003). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadershipdevelopment interventions: Popular but poorly developed. Journal of Change Management,3, 332�349.
Cottrell, M.P., & Nelson, T. (2012). Not just the games? Power, protest, and politics at theOlympics. European Journal of International Relations, 17, 729�753.
Dalakoura, A. (2010). Differentiating leader and leadership development: A collectiveframework for leadership development. Journal of Management Development, 29,432�441.
De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibli, S., van Bottenburg, M., & De Knop, P. (2008). The globalsporting arms race: An international comparative study on sports policy factors leading tointernational sporting success. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S. (2006). A conceptualframework for analyzing sports policy factors leading to international sporting success.European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, 185�215.
De Bosscher, V., Shilbury, D., Theeboom, M., Van Hoecke, J., & De Knop, P. (2011).Effectiveness of national elite sport policies: A multidimensional approach applied to thecase of Flanders. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11, 115�141.
Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). The sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Depree, M. (1992). Leadership jazz. New York, NY: Dell.Edwards, A., & Skinner, J. (2009). Qualitative research in sport management. Oxford, UK:
Elsevier.Feldman, D.C., & Lankau, M.J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future
research. Journal of Management, 31, 829�848.Ferrand, A., & McCarthy, S. (2009). Marketing the sport organisation: Building networks and
relationships. Madison, NY: Routledge.
European Sport Management Quarterly 333
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Fletcher, C. (2001). Performance appraisal and management: The developing research agenda.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 473�488.
Fletcher, D., & Arnold, R. (2011). A qualitative study of performance leadership andmanagement in elite sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23, 223�242.
Fletcher, D., & Wagstaff, C.R. (2009). Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence,application and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 427�434.
Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research. London, UK: Sage.Gee, C.J. (2010). How does sport psychology actually improve athletic performance? A
framework to facilitate athletes’ and coaches’ understanding. Behavior Modification, 34,386�402.
Gibbs, G. (2007). Analyzing qualitative data. London, UK: Sage.Gibson, H., Qi, C.X., & Zhang, J.J. (2008). Destination image and intent to visit China, and
the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Journal of Sport Management, 22, 427�450.Girginov, V., & Hills, L. (2008). A sustainable sports legacy: Creating a link between the
London Olympics and sports participation. The International Journal of the History ofSport, 25, 2091�2116.
Gobo, G. (2007). Sampling, representativeness, and generalizability. In C. Searle (Ed.),Qualitative research practice (pp. 435�456). London, UK: Sage.
Gold, J., & Gold, M. (2009). Future indefinite? London 2012, the spectre of retrenchment, andthe challenge of Olympic sport legacy. The London Journal, 34, 179�196.
Green, M., & Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development: Policy learning and politicalpriorities. London, UK: Routledge.
Greenleaf, C., Gould, D., & Dieffenbach, K. (2001). Factors influencing Olympic perfor-mance: Interviews with Atlanta and Nagano US Olympians. Journal of Applied SportPsychology, 13, 154�184.
Hannah, S.T., Woolfolk, R.L., & Lord, R.G. (2009). Leader self-structure: A framework forpositive leadership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 269�290.
Hardy, C.J., & Crace, R.K. (1997). Foundations of team building: Introduction to theteambuilding primer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 1�10.
Hersey, P. (1986). The situational leader (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Holloway, J. (2009). Performance management from multiple perspectives: Taking stock.
International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 58, 391�399.Hough, L.M., & Oswald, E.L. (2000). Personnel selection: Looking forward to the future-
remembering the past. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 631�664.Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). Comparative elite sport development: Systems, structures
and public policy. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.Inglis, S. (1997). Roles of the board in amateur sport organizations. Journal of Sport Management,
11, 160�176.Jowett, S., & Poczwardowski, A. (2007). Understanding the coach-athlete relationship. In
S. Jowett & D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp. 3�15). Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics.
Judge, T.A., & LePine, J.A. (2007). The bright and dark sides of personality: Implicationsfor personnel selection in individual and team contexts. In J. Langan-Fox, C. Cooper, &R. Klimoski (Eds.), Research companion to the dysfunctional workplace: Managementchallenges and symptoms (pp. 332�355). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F., & Kosalka, T. (2009). The bright and dark sides of leader traits: Areview and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. The Leadership Quarterly, 20,855�875.
Kasimati, E. (2003). Economic aspects and the summer Olympics: A review of relatedresearch. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5, 433�444.
Kihl, L.A., Leberman, S., & Schull, V. (2010). Stakeholder constructions of leadership inintercollegiate athletics. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10, 241�275.
Kilburg, R.R. (2000). Executive coaching: Developing managerial wisdom in a world of chaos.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. AmericanJournal of Occupational Therapy, 45, 214�222.
334 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage.
Martens, R. (2004). Successful coaching. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Miller, K.K., & Hart, W. (2001). Choosing an executive coach. Greensboro, NC: CCL Press.Mullins, L.J. (2004). Management and organizational behaviour (8th ed.). Essex, UK: Pearson
Education Limited.Mumford, M.D., Zaccaro, S.J., Connelly, M.S., & Marks, M.A. (2000). Leadership skills:
Conclusions and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 11, 155�170.National Audit Office. (2005). UK Sport: Supporting elite athletes (No. HC182�SE/2005/9).
Retrieved from http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/04-05/0405182.pdfNeuendorf, K.A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London, UK: Sage.Newin, J., Bloom, G.A., & Loughead, T.M. (2008). Youth ice hockey coaches’ perceptions of a
team-building intervention program. The Sport Psychologist, 22, 54�72.Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Oakley, B., & Green, M. (2001). The production of Olympic champions: International
perspectives on elite sport development systems. European Journal for Sport Management, 8,83�105.
Oliver, D.H., Church, A.H., Lewis, R., & Desrosiers, E.I. (2009). An integrated framework forassessing, coaching, and developing global leaders. In W.H. Mobley, M. Li, & Y. Wang(Eds.), Advances in global leadership (pp. 225�250). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group.
Onwuegbuzie, A.J., & Leech, N.L. (2007). Sampling designs in qualitative research: Makingthe sampling process more public. The Qualitative Report, 12, 238�254.
Porter, S. (2007). Validity, trustworthiness and rigour: Reasserting realism in qualitativeresearch. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60, 79�86.
Preuss, H. (2004). The economics of staging the Olympics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Raso, R. (2011). How to assess for management readiness, find a mentor. Nursing Management,
42, 56.Ratten, V. (2009). The impact of sports on team performance management. Team Performance
Management, 15, 97�99.Reid, C., Stewart, E., & Thorne, G. (2004). Multidisciplinary sport science teams in elite
sport: Comprehensive servicing or conflict and confusion? The Sport Psychologist, 18,204�217.
Ritchie, J., & Lewis, J. (2003). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science studentsand researchers. London, UK: Sage.
Robertson, I.T., & Smith, M. (2001). Personnel selection. Journal of Occupational andOrganizational Psychology, 74, 441�472.
Rodolfa, E., Bent, R., Eisman, E., Nelson, P., Rehm, L., & Ritchie, P. (2005). A cube model forcompetency development: Implications for psychology educators and regulators.Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 347�354.
Rose, A.K., & Spiegel, M.M. (2011). The Olympic effect. The Economic Journal, 121, 652�677.Salter, N.P., & Highouse, S. (2009). Assessing managers’ common sense using situational
judgement tests. Management Decision, 47, 392�398.Scissons, E.H. (2002). All numbers are not created equal: Measurement issues in assessing
board governance. Corporate Governance: International Journal of Business in Society, 2,20�26.
Shilbury, D. (2001). Examining board members roles, function, and influence: A study ofVictorian sporting organizations. International Journal of Sport Management, 2, 253�281.
Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, andinteraction. London, UK: Sage.
Solansky, S.T. (2010). The evaluation of two key leadership development programcomponents: Leadership skills assessment and leadership mentoring. Leadership Quarterly,21, 675�681.
Sotiriadou, K. (2009). The Australian sport system and its stakeholders: Development ofcooperative relationships. Sport in Society, 12, 842�860.
Sotiriadou, K., & Shilbury, D. (2009). Australian elite athlete development: An organizationalperspective. Sport Management Review, 12, 147�148.
European Sport Management Quarterly 335
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014
Sparkes, A.C., & Smith, B. (2009). Judging the quality of qualitative inquiry: Criteriology andrelativism in action. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 491�497.
Starkey, K., & Madan, P. (2001). Bridging the relevance gap: Aligning stakeholders in thefuture of management research. British Journal of Management, 12, 3�26.
Stemler, S.E., & Sternberg, R.J. (2006). Using situational judgement tests to measure practicalintelligence. In J.A. Weekley & R.E. Ployhart (Eds.), Situational judgement tests: Theory,measurement, and application (pp. 107�131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Taylor, M., & O’Sullivan, N. (2009). How should national governing bodies of sport begoverned in the UK? An exploratory study of board structure. Corporate Governance: AnInternational Review, 17, 681�693.
Thorpe, R., & Beasley, T. (2004). The characteristics of performance management research:Implications and challenges. International Journal of Productivity and PerformanceManagement, 53, 334�344.
Thorpe, R., & Holloway, J. (Eds.) (2008). Performance management: Multidisciplinaryperspectives. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tien, C.L., Lo, H.C., & Lin, H.W. (2011). The economic benefits of mega events: A mythor reality? A longitudinal study on the Olympic Games. Journal of Sport Management, 25,11�23.
Toohey, K.M., & Taylor, T.L. (2008). Mega events, fear, and risk: Terrorism at the OlympicGames. Journal of Sport Management, 22, 451�469.
Tranfield, D. (2002). Future challenges for management research. European ManagementJournal, 20, 409�413.
Wagstaff, C., Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2012). Positive organizational psychology in sport:An ethnography of organizational functioning in a national sport organization. Journal ofApplied Sport Psychology, 24, 26�47.
Watt, D. (2007). On becoming a qualitative researcher: The value of reflexivity. The QualitativeReport, 12, 82�102.
Xu, X. (2006). Modernizing China in the Olympic spotlight: China’s national identity and the2008 Beijing Olympiad. The Sociological Review, 54, 90�107.
Yukelson, D. (1997). Principles of effective team building interventions in sport: A directservices approach at Penn State University. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 73�96.
Zaccaro, S.J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62, 6�16.Zaccaro, S.J., & Klimoski, R.J. (Eds.) (2001). The nature of organizational leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
336 R. Arnold et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Kun
glig
a T
ekni
ska
Hog
skol
a] a
t 18:
34 0
7 O
ctob
er 2
014