pedestrian & bicycle safety: ensuring a safe alternative mode of transportation in florida
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PEDESTRIAN & BICYCLE SAFETY
ENSURING A SAFE ALTERNATIVE MODE OF TRANSPORTATION IN
FLORIDA
A paper prepared by the Paliwana-Guhdgrayd Policy Research Institutefor the Florida Department of Transportation
and David Plazaks Transportation Planning class (CRP545, Iowa State)
Brian A. Salmons
December 2007
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CHALLENGES
As the popularity of walking and bicycling for health, leisure or as an alternate mode of
transportation increases, so too does the risk for injuries and fatalities of pedestrians and
bicyclists involved in traffic accidents with motorized vehicles. Or at least one would think so.
The existing research on determinative factors in pedestrian and bicycle (PB) safety is generally
inconclusive, however some guideposts along the road towards PB safety can be discerned from
the literature. While PB fatalities do not necessarily increase as a percentage of population
(Dharmaratne & Stevenson 2004), travel demand does grow along with population. And because
automobiles are the predominant mode of transportation in Florida (as in the entire U.S.), an
increasing population means not only greater traffic congestion, but also more opportunities for
PB fatalities, whether or not the modal share of PB itself increases. As the fourth most populous
U.S. state, and likely the third most populous by 2011 (U.S. Census Bureau 2005), Florida is
currently in the position of dealing with the adverse effects of skyrocketing population growth
and will likely continue to deal with it in the long-range future. It is the purpose of this report to
provide a review of the existing literature on PB and to outline a vision for a multi-modal
transportation system promoting walking and bicycling as safe, alternative modes of
transportation in the State of Florida.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Safety is arguably the central issue in bicycling and walking as modes of transportation.
Discourse about pedestrian-friendly or bicycle-friendly communities inevitably focuses on the
communitys infrastructure and whether this provides a safe and efficient route to desired places
within the area. Communities without sidewalks, bicycle lanes or other PB improvements are
generally not characterized as friendly to PB users because, quite simply, they are not safe.
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With this in mind, a literature search on causative factors in PB safety was conducted, paying
equal attention to studies on reducing fatalities at the level of the intersection or roadway and to
studies on the effect of larger-scale land use and infrastructure in fostering the growth of PB-
friendly communities.
The literature search consisted of a web-based search for articles using keyword
combinations expected to produce relevant results (e.g. pedestrian AND fatalities in an
Internet search engine). In all, 36 articles were identified that addressed the issue of PB safety.
Much more material is available on the topic of PB safety, however due to space and time
constraints not all of it was considered for this study. Particularly, the literatures on the
effectiveness of helmet-use, and of technological improvements to automobile bodies, in
reducing injury severity were not considered for this study (e.g. Thompson & Rivara 2001;
Crandall, Bhalla & Madeley 2002). The reason for this is that these approaches are merely
palliative: they do not provide any guidance as to how to reduce the risk of collisions between
pedestrians or bicycles and motorized traffic in the first place1.
From the 36 articles identified that address curative approaches to PB safety, three broad
categories of approaches were identified:
Education
Technology (including enforcement)
Reorientation
The first two, Education and Technology, concern the modification of the behavior of
either pedestrians and bicyclists or automobile drivers, or both. Education, in turn, can be divided
1On a side note, a study comparing safety practices in Boston, Paris and Amsterdam found that low rates of helmet
use do not necessarily lead to higher fatalities (Osberg & Stiles 1998). Similarly, a study in Australia determined
that PB safety is higher when pedestrians and bicyclists are abundant (i.e. safety in number) and suggested that
helmet laws may actually increase the safety risk for bicyclists by discouraging bicycle use (Robinson 2005).
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into two sub-approaches: education for pedestrians and bicyclists and education for automobile
drivers. Much of the research reviewed concludes that enforcement of traffic regulations (e.g.
speed limits, crossing at crosswalks, road-sharing with bicycles) is another, separate approach to
PB safety. However, in this study enforcement is classified in the Technology category based on
the understanding that technological improvements at intersections and on roadways are mainly
enforcement mechanisms. While the Education and Technology/Enforcement categories both
aim to modify behavior, they differ in the manner in which they effect behavior modification: the
former effects safety through deliberative behavior (e.g. knowledge of the rights of bicyclists to
share the roadway) while the latter relies on reactive behavior (i.e. placing structural
impediments in the roadway to decrease speed, or reducing red-light running through the
placement of cameras at intersections). Some of the literature puts forth holistic solutions that
are a combination of the Education and Technology/Enforcement approaches (e.g. van Vuuren
2004).
The third approach to PB safety identified in the literature is termed here Reorientation.
While not eschewing the Education and Technology approaches, the Reorientation approach
nonetheless sees these as only a part of the solution. As the name suggests, the Reorientation
approach takes the current world-view of the transportation planning profession, and the auto-
centric infrastructure that it has helped to produce, as the overarching problem in PB safety. The
Education and Technology approaches differ from Reorientation mainly in that they propose
solutions aimed at accommodating pedestrians and bicyclists within the existing auto-centric
framework, rather than reorienting transportation planning priorities so as to better accommodate
all modes of transportation. The practicality of Education and Technology is the primary reason
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these two approaches are used by transportation planning officials, while sustainability, social
equity and health benefits constitute the allure of the Reorientation approach.
EDUCATION
Education approaches to PB safety can be divided into two types: those directed towards
PB users and those directed towards automobile drivers. An example of PB-oriented education is
Florida Bicycling Street Smarts (2003), a pamphlet prepared by the Florida Bicycle Association.
It provides excerpts from the Florida Uniform Traffic Control Law relevant to bicycle use and
verbally and graphically describes safety precautions and rules, much as a drivers manual does
for automobile users. Driver-oriented PB education can take the form of television or radio
public service announcements, billboards, published material or activism. A unique example of
an activist approach to educating the driving public about bicycling is Critical Mass (Blickstein
& Hanson 2001). What started as a monthly rush hour bike ride through [San Francisco] to
increase the visibility of bicycling has become a global pattern of protest, an urban
sustainability movement, that has as its purpose a shift in the public consciousness about what
transportation is. In this regard, Critical Mass brings the Education approach to PB safety into
the realm of Reorientation.
The problem of drivers education in PB safety is apparently one felt around the world.
Downing (1991) describes road user behavior in developing countries as less disciplined
than that in developed countries and believes this is one factor contributing to high pedestrian
fatality rates in developing countries. Drivers in Washington D.C. neighborhoods who were
unfamiliar with PB conditions in the city were involved in 55% of bicycle collisions, suggesting
that driver's education should target regional populations rather than just local ones (Goodno
2004). Driver education about PB safety is as much about learning the rules of the road as it is
about understanding the place of bicycles and pedestrians in the urban environment. Pucher &
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Dijkstra (2000) call for a change in attitude among Americans effected through driver-oriented
education. Drawing on the experience of the Netherlands and Germany, they suggest that
"instead of being viewed as punitive measures aimed against motorists, [safety-enhancing
policies] should be presented as new opportunities for all segments of the population". In
Kuwait, Koushki & Ali (2003) found attitudes similar to those of Americans regarding
pedestrians. A "lack of identity" regarding who pedestrians are and a "lack of recognition of
pedestrian travel characteristics" exacerbates the problem of poor PB safety in that country.
Driver-oriented education has also been advocated for a small subset of the driving population:
political decision-makers. Sisiopiku & Papaioannou (2000) consider this to be a key component
of any successful PB campaign.
A good part of the literature on the Education approach concerns itself with PB-oriented,
as opposed to driver-oriented, education. One of the factors most often cited as a cause of
pedestrian fatalities is alcohol consumption and the presence of liquor establishments on high-
fatality roads (CDC 1999; LaScala, Johnson & Gruenewald 2001; Noland & Quddus 2004;
Spainhour, Wootton, Sobanjo & Brady 2006; van Vuuren 2001). Other factors that have been
recommended as the subject of PB-oriented education include jaywalking and not crossing at the
intersection (Lau, Seow & Lim 1998; Downing 1991), exiting a vehicle in the roadway (CDC
1999), bad habits and/or negative attitudes of pedestrians (van Vuuren 2001), and the need to
tailor safety messages to specific demographic groups (Reed & Sen 2005; Goodno 2004; Cahill,
Thill & Delmelle 2007; Ziari & Khabiri 2005).
TECHNOLOGY
A California study found that high incidence of pedestrian injuries is related to aspects
of community structure that are not easy or even necessarily desirable to change, such as dense,
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urban neighborhoods with a predominance of young or older people (LaScala, Johnson &
Gruenewald 2001). Consequently, technological improvements such as pedestrian walkways and
reduced speed zones might serve these areas needs better than just targeted education would.
Another reason for approaching PB safety from the Technology viewpoint is that the PB
populations most vulnerable to injury and fatality, and hence the target of PB safety educational
campaigns, possess a high degree of safety consciousness and believe that their own behavior as
pedestrians and bicyclists conforms to the rules (Reed & Sen 2005). Thus, there is a mismatch
between those pedestrians and bicyclists who are at a higher risk and those who believe they act
safety and follow the proper rules of PB safety. This suggests that Education approaches to
reducing risk in these populations are examples of preaching to the choir; it also suggests that
PB behavior is not a major contributor to PB collisions with motorized traffic where a person
belonging to one of these high-risk populations is involved. It is possible that the underlying
cause of collisions is the intersection of two modes of transportation that are mutually hostile and
perceived as indifferent to each other rights and needs.
The Technology approach to PB safety shifts the mechanism from a deliberative one
(conscious decisions about the rights of road users and rules to follow) to a reactive one (reacting
to technological improvements of the roadway or intersection, where the reaction is designed to
be safe) so as to bypass the hostility and mutual disregard that often substitutes for deliberation
in PB-automobile encounters. Much of the literature on PB safety emphasizes the importance of
education in conjunction with technological improvements and enforcement of traffic
regulations. For example, van Vuuren (2004) refers to this combination alliteratively as
Education, Engineering and Enforcement. A study done by the Centers for Disease Control in
metropolitan Atlanta proposed a similar cocktail of solutions. The engineering component would
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provide for separation of pedestrians from motorized traffic, traffic-calming, and improved street
lighting, while the enforcement component would focus on curbing both drivers behavior
(speeding, red-light running, yielding to pedestrians) and jaywalking by pedestrians (CDC 1999).
The notion that PB and motorized traffic should be kept separate to provide for maximum
safety is a relatively popular one, although impractical. The need for networks of different modes
inevitably means a need for intersections where the different modes meet. Many attempts to
circumvent this have proven unsuccessful. For example, following World War II the City of
London began constructing high-level pedestrian walkways in the Central Business District
(Hebbert 1993). This type of vertical segregation of pedestrians from roadways was ultimately
abandoned as a large-scale project, although parts of the walkway are apparently still in use in
the city. Unlike the London experiment, the closing off of streets to traffic so as to form
pedestrian malls has proven quite popular in many cities (e.g. Denver). The view that PB users
should be separated from automobiles remains a popular one (Koushki & Ali 2003).
Countering this viewpoint are studies that show integration of transportation modes leads
to increased PB safety. Thus, road sharing (dedicated bicycle lanes in the roadway) counter-
intuitively leads to safer traffic flows. Again, noting that intersections are the major points of
conflict between bicycles and motor vehicles, Wachtel & Lewiston (1994) conclude that when
separated modes of transportation converge at an intersection they seem to come from out of
nowhere into each others right-of-way, an occurrence they term blind conflicts. One
innovative concept in that promotes safety through integration to a degree unthinkable to most
people. In the Netherlands, the woonerf (Dutch for residential yard) concept was developed
as a traffic calming measure for residential neighborhoods. Ben-Joseph describes the woonerf
as a physical designthat integrated sidewalks and roadways into one shared surface, creating
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the impression of a yardenhanced by trees, benches, and small front gardens. He concept
has since caught on in other countries (Japan, Australia, Israel) and has been proven successful at
reducing pedestrian-automobile accidents.
Whether they value separation or integration of modes, many studies stress the
importance of applying the Technology approach to intersections. Advance pavement markings
and yield signs were found to be associated with higher levels of PB safety at intersections in a
Canadian study (Huybers, Van Houten & Malenfant 2004). In California, one study determined
that traffic control devices to regulate yielding to pedestrians were needed in areas around
schools (Boarnet, Day, Anderson, McMillan & Alfonzo 2005). Rural areas have also been found
to benefit from technological improvements like walkways, crosswalks and advance warning
signs to drivers (Hall, Kondreddi & Brogan 2004). Variations in infrastructure along road lengths
have also been found determinative in collision location. Cahill, Thill & Delmelle (2007), in a
study of bicycle crashes in Buffalo, New York, concluded that road infrastructure plays the
most important role in determining the physical location of bicycle accidents. Echoing earlier
studies about the need for integration, Sisiopiku & Papaioannou (2000) believe that the
provisioning of facilities that serve the needs of mixed traffic are necessary to effect PB
safety, as is enforcement of regulations on sharing the road. Many other studies concur in the
need for better enforcement of traffic regulations, like speed limits (Noland & Quddus 2004),
illegal crossing of freeways and highways (van Vuuren 2001), and red-light running (Goodno
2004). A more exhaustive search of the literature would likely turn up many more studies on the
effects of a Technology approach on PB safety worldwide. This search identified Technology
approach applications in places as far flung as Croatia (Missoni & Kern 2003) and Iran (Ziari &
Khabiri 2005).
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REORIENTATION
The Reorientation approach to PB safety is deeply concerned with ensuring the equitable
allocation of transportation resources to all members of society, particularly low-income persons.
It comes as no surprise then that developing countries like India, where walking and bicycling as
alternative modes of transportation have a majority modal share (Mohan 2002a), have found
applications of the Reorientation approach useful as a part of their transportation planning goals.
Mohan (2002b) states that a sustainable transport system must provide mobility and
accessibility to all urban residents in a safe and environment [sic] friendly mode of transport.
Mohan & Tiwari (1999) explain the high percentage of PB traffic in developing countries as
resulting from a large proportion of the population [that] cannot afford to use motorized
transport. For some, even bicycles are expensive investments beyond their economic reach. To
ensure that the transportation needs of all users are able to be met in countries like India, priority
must be given to the common denominator of all transportation use: walking (all users are
pedestrians at some point in their travels, however not all pedestrians use bicycles, public transit
or private transit). Once the needs of pedestrians have been met, the needs of bicyclists and
public transit users should then be formulated. Tiwari (2001) explicitly endorses this order of
priority (pedestrians, bicyclists, public transit) as the key to a sustainable transportation system.
Curiously, he neglects to address the needs of automobile drivers, although one would assume
these would be given the lowest priority in such a scheme.
The physical re-designing of transportation infrastructure is central to the Reorientation
approach to PB safety. Hence, technological improvements such as woonerfs and dedicated
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bicycle lanes would have a large role to play. The physical layout of communities is widely
assumed to be a determining factor in choice of transportation mode. For example, suburban
neighborhoods have been criticized as early as the 1950s (Riesman 1958) for isolation they
imposed on residents who must travel long distances by car to run errands, or commute to work
or school. Recent studies on the effect of neighborhood layout on PB modal share have offered
mixed results. Cao, Mokhtarian & Handy (2007) showed that neighborhood design that put
residents closer to destinations might actually lead to more walking and less driving, while
suburbs of the sprawl variety tend to lead to the reverse. Kitamura, Mokhtarian & Laidet
(1997) found that while neighborhood design positively affects transport choice, however,
significant shifts in transportation modal share might not occur unless residents attitudes
regarding the desirability of walking and bicycling as valid modes of transportation also change.
Other problems in the application of a Reorientation approach to PB safety have also
been identified in the literature. Ishaque & Noland (2006) researched the history of PB safety
measures in Britain and determined several consequences of this history for current
transportation planning efforts in PB safety, the most important of which are the long history of
prioritizing automobile traffic of over PB traffic and, as a contributing factor to that, the
difficulty resulting from the publics emotional debates over the competing goals of pedestrian
mobility and safety versus maintaining traffic flow. Additionally, existing infrastructure, as a
legacy of then history of transportation planning, poses a significant obstacle to a Reorientation
of planning priorities.
Piecemeal attempts to redesign the urban environment, while in the spirit of
Reorientation, are not always effective. Cervero & Gorham (1995) concluded a study in
California with the cautionary note that islands of neotraditional development in a sea of
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freeway-oriented suburbs will do little to change fundamental commuting habits. And a little
closer to home, Miles-Doan & Thompson (1999), in their study of pedestrian fatalities in
Orlando, cautioned about an institutional blindspot in planning for the safety of pedestrians on
arterial roads. They call for a revision of highway design manuals to recognize that "right-of-way
space used by arterial roads is subject to competing demands". Because most of the problems
identified in the literature on Reorientation are primarily ones of public perception and
acceptance of PB issues as legitimate transportation issues, it is reasonable to assume that the
continued analysis and promoting of the Reorientation approach, along with a coordinated
application of Education approaches about PB issues in general, will be able to overcome these
problems.
ANALYSIS
Planning for walking and bicycling as modes of transportation encompasses a variety of
disparate activities, policies and viewpoints. Education ranges from specific messages about
local ordinances to large-scale campaigns promoting PB as an alternate mode of transportation.
Similarly, technological solutions are applied at many different levels, from the individual
intersection or roadway to neighborhoods and metropolitan regions. As a result, many
applications of the Education and Technology approaches may actually effectuate change more
like desired in the Reorientation approach, while Reorientation inevitably requires the
application of Education and Technology approaches. The approaches as defined in this paper
are not exclusive by any means. That being said, the Education and Technology approaches in
general are less effective as achieving meaningful, long-term change in the issue of PB safety.
A bias towards automobiles in most of the Education and Technology segment of PB
safety literature is evident in the explanations and solutions it puts forth. For example, Spainhour
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et al. (2006) state that the most significant causes of pedestrian crashes are pedestrian
behavior, in spite of evidence for the widespread disregard of pedestrians by motorists and the
inherent safety risk in the convergence of pedestrians, bicycles and automobiles at intersections.
Lau, Seow & Lim (1998) recommend reminding pedestrians of the rudiments of crossing the
roadlike look right, then left, then right again and that special care must be taken by the
elderly. Many of the recommendations from the Education and Technology approaches have a
similar hollow ring. In fact, with regard to the recommendation for the elderly, evidence shows
that elderly pedestrians are already very safety conscious, however being mindful of the rules
does not apparently decrease their risk for fatal injury as pedestrians (Reed & Sen 2005).
In the attempt to evaluate the relative effectiveness of the various solutions to PB safety,
it may prove useful to apply a second layer of analysis beyond the Education-Technology-
Reorientation conceptualization. Vuchic (1999) provides just such a framework. In
Transportation for Livable Cities, he analyzes the current state of transportation planning and
devises a tiered classification system based on the scopes and objectives of transportation
management plans:
Level IV: Individual facilities
Level III: Single mode network or system
Level II: Multi-modal coordinated system
Level I: City-transport relationship
At Level IV, decisions regarding single transportation facilities (a road, an intersection, a
bus route) are made with little regard for their relationship to other facilities, networks, the
transportation system as a whole, or the other needs of the transportation user. Level III planning
takes the different modes of transportation and plans for them independently of one another.
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Hence, the public transportation planners do not coordinate with road and highway planners to
the degree necessary to achieve a multi-modal transportation system. Level II, by contrast, does
try to coordinate transportation planning across modes and throughout an entire geographic
region. Level I perfects the multi-modal system of Level II by integrating transportation planning
into all of a citys other needs and services, like housing. As such, Level I is the highest level
ofoperational integration in transportation planning.
Vuchics Four Levels of Transportation Planning not only provide another way to
conceptualize the multitude of PB safety strategies discussed in the literature, they also provide a
way to evaluate the desirability of the Reorientation approach versus the Education and
Technology approaches. While there is not a direct correlation between Vuchics Levels and this
studys tripartite conceptualization of PB safety approaches, on the whole, the Education and
Technology approaches cluster within Levels IV and III. Technological improvements to
intersections and roadways are Level IV and Level III strategies, respectively. Both driver-
oriented and PB-oriented Education approaches can have consequences at Levels II and I, but if
the education is primarily about traffic rules then the effect is limited in scope and objective and,
thus, would probably fall under Level IV. The Reorientation approach to PB safety falls squarely
within Levels II and I, the highest levels of transportation planning in terms of organization, as
well as in terms of benefits to users of alternate modes of transportation and, arguably, all of a
citys population.
CONCLUSION
Planning for PB safety is necessarily a multifaceted and complicated undertaking.
Addressing just one aspect of such a complex problem is an ineffective way of going about the
task. Driver-oriented and PB-oriented educational campaigns are a significant part of the solution
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to PB injury and fatalities on Floridas roads, as mostly certainly are technological improvements
like pedestrian markings and signs and red-light running cameras. These measures have been
proven highly effective at reducing PB fatalities and should not be underestimated as a part of
the solution to PB safety. However, to focus solely on education and technology within the
existing policy framework of land use and development, and without attempting to address the
infrastructural legacy of the 20th
centurys love affair with the automobile, is to ignore the most
important part of any comprehensive, long-term solution to PB safety. It is within the best
interest of the citizens and elected officials of Florida to reexamine the current configuration of
transportation priorities and to become cognizant of the complex interrelations between
transportation choices and other quality-of-life issues. Everything from where to live, to how
much time to spend with ones family, to how much disposable income one wants are affected
by the transportation choices made by people everyday. Education and technological
improvements are merely band-aids on a boxer: they cover up the problem but do not address the
behavior that caused the problem in the first place. To improve the safety, efficiency and
performance of our transportation choices, and the quality of life we experience as a result of
these choices, we must step up to a higher level of analysis, both in policy formulation and in
personal choices, to effect change in those behaviors that are at the root of the problem. Only
through such a holistic, multi-pronged and integrated approach to transportation planning can the
issue of pedestrian and bicycle safety be adequately addressed.
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