participles, events and discourse structure in ancient greek · participles in ancient greek (1)...
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Participles, events and discourse structure in
Ancient Greek
Dag Haug1 (joint work with Corien Bary1)
1University of Oslo
1Radboud University Nijmegen
Oxford General Linguistics Seminar, March 1, 2010
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Participles in Ancient Greek
(1) kai gune ousa en rusei haimatos dodeka ete, kai polla
pathousa upo pollon iatron kai dapanesasa ta par’ eautes
panta, kai meden ofeletheisa alla mallon eis to kheiron
elthousa, akousasa ta peri tou Iesou, elthousa en toi okhloi
opisthen epsato tou himatiou autou.
And a certain woman, which had an issue of blood twelveyears, and had suffered many things of many physicians,and had spent all that she had, and was nothing bettered,but rather grew worse, when she had heard of Jesus, camein the press behind, and touched his garment (Mark5:25-27)
This is only about participles that are verbal adjuncts (predicativeparticiples).
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Outline
Corpus study and examples
The linguistic phenomena
Syntax
Syntax-semantics interface
Semantics
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The corpus
◮ The data in this talk all come from the Gospels
◮ Written in Hellenistic Greek in the first century AD
◮ 64529 words
◮ 3041 participles, 1604 of which are predicative (366 of whichare from lego ‘say’ and apokrinomai ‘answer’, which will beignored)
◮ Morphologically analysed, syntactically parsed and to a largeextent marked up for information status in the PROIEL corpus
Corpus link Local link
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The hypothesis
◮ A central claim in this talk is that not all predicativeparticiples are born alike
◮ In traditional accounts, it has been noted that they stand indifferent (adverbial) relations to the verb
◮ manner◮ means◮ condition◮ cause◮ time◮ . . .
◮ We claim that these relations are not only the result ofsemantic/pragmatic interpretation
◮ Participles are introduced by different syntactic rules thatimpose different constraints on the participle’s interactionwith the main verb and with the discourse context
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Where in the clause do participles occur?
◮ There are numerous ways to think about participles position
◮ They will be made precise in a syntactic analysis, but for themoment we will look at position relative to
◮ the initial position of the sentence◮ the matrix verb◮ the (shared) subject of the participle and the matrix
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The picture
ptcp−X ptcp−sub sub−ptcp left right
010
020
030
040
0◮ Almost half of the
participles occur insentence initial position
◮ Another large group arethose which occur insecond position, after theirsubject
◮ Of the remainder, mostparticiples occur to theright of the main verb
◮ These groups differaccording to severalparameters
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Aspect
Aor Fut Pres Perf
ptcp-X 0.875 0.000 0.118 0.007ptcp-sub 0.964 0.000 0.018 0.018sub-ptcp 0.790 0.000 0.182 0.028left 0.823 0.000 0.156 0.022right 0.122 0.004 0.784 0.090
Table: Aspect per position
◮ Position relative to the verb correlates with aspect usage
◮ Informally, postverbal participles give background to thematrix event
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Verb classes
Verb classes
ptcp-X movement uni, perception, acquisition, char speech, transferptcp-sub movement uni, perception, acquisition, cognition, transfersub-ptcp perception, movement uni, acquisition, transfer, cognitionleft movement uni, perception, acquisition, transfer, char speechright char speech, compulsive action, movement uni, oral comm, existence spatial
Table: Five most frequent verb classes by position
◮ Participles to the left of the main verb describe movement,perception and acquisition
◮ Participles to the right are clearly different: we findcharacterizing speech (‘call’, ‘teach’, ‘brag’, ‘cry’) andcompulsive action (‘tempt’, ‘sadden’, ‘loose’)
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Lexical variation
% belonging to top 10 lemmata
ptcp-X 0.391ptcp-sub 0.657sub-ptcp 0.489left 0.366right 0.281
Table: Lexical variation by position
◮ There is more lexical variation in the postverbal position
◮ Participles occurring in front of their subjects are particularlypredictable
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Length of participle constituents
Mean Std.dev
ptcp-X 3.00 2.29ptcp-sub 2.31 2.28sub-ptcp 3.03 2.45
left 3.03 2.58right 3.81 2.85
◮ Participle phrases occurring in front of their subjects areshorter than the average
◮ Participle phrases to the right of the verb are longer
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Assessing the corpus evidence
◮ The groups we are looking at are not defined by precisesyntactic positions and are likely to be heterogenous, butthere are still some clear tendencies:
right tend to be stative, long and lexically varied, suggesting thattheir main function is to elaborate on the main clause event
ptcp-sub perfective, short and lexically predictable, which suggests thattheir main function is to link the sentence to the precedingdiscourse
other mostly perfective, but longer and less predictable: we takethem to express new information on a par with the matrix verb
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Functions of predicative participles
Elaboration
(2) elalei
speak.pst.if.3s
eulogon
praising.if.p.nom
ton
the.acc
theon
god.acc
He was speaking praising god.
◮ In such cases the participle seems to be temporally dependenton the main verb
◮ Sometimes there is an intuition that the participle describes‘the same’ event as the main verb
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Functions of predicative participles
Independent rhemes
(3) dramon
run.a.p.nom
de
buttis
some.nom
kai
andgemisas
fill.a.p.nom
spoggon
spunge.acc
oxous
vinegar.gen
peritheis
put.a.p.nom
kalamoi
reed.dat
epotizen
give to drink.pst.if.3s
auton
him.acc
Someone ran and filled a sponge with sour wine, put it on areed, and was giving him a drink. . .
◮ Independent rhemes express new information which isinformation structurally on a par with the matrix verb
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Functions of predicative participles
Frames
(The devil has tempted Jesus in various ways. . . )
(4) kai
andsuntelesas
finish.a.p.nom
panta
whole.acc
peirasmon
temptation.acc
ho
the.nom
diabolos
devil.nom
apeste
step.away.pst.a.3sg
ap’
fromautou
him.gen
And when the devil had ended all the temptation he steppedaway from him
◮ This participles typically refer to old or predictable information
◮ They link the sentence to the previous discourse
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Functions
Frames make salient old information
(5) (Alyattes died) . . .
Teleutesantos
die.a.p.gen
de
prt
Aluatteo
Alyattes.gen
exedexato
receive.pst.a.3sg
ten
the.acc
basileien
reign.acc
Kroisos
Croesus.nom
After Alyattes died Croesus received the reign
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Functions
Frames under operators
(6) Proseukhomenoi
Praying.if.p.nom
de
ptcme
notbattalogesete
babblehosper
likehoi
the
ethnikoi
gentiles
When you pray, do not babble like the gentiles
◮ Outscopes both imperative mood and negation (which is hereto the right anyway)
◮ ‘X-ing, do Y!’ is generally ambiguous in Greek◮ When X-ing, do Y! (framing)◮ Do X and Y! (independent rheme)
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Issues involved
◮ Clause linkage
◮ Temporal anaphora & narrative progression
◮ The interpretation of aspect
◮ Interactions between information structure, word order andsemantics
◮ Presuppositions
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Clause linkage
Asher & Lascarides (2003)
(7) a. Max had a great evening yesterday.b. He had a great meal.c. The waiter served an excellent wine with it.d. He then won a dancing competition.
(8) a. Max had a great evening yesterday.b. He had a great meal.c. When the waiter served an excellent wine with it, he
won a dancing competition.
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Temporal anaphora & narrative progression
(9) Mary owns a donkey. She likes it.
(10) Mary had a party on Monday. John got drunk.
(11) Mary walked into the room. She sneezed.
Partee (1973, 1984)
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Aspect
(12) Mary came in. John phoned his mother.
(13) Mary came in. John was phoning his mother.
Kamp & Rohrer (1983)
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Information structure, word order and semantics
(14) He was deeply asleep when the bomb exploded.
(15) When the bomb exploded, he was deeply asleep.
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Presuppositions
(16) John knows that it is raining.
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The ingredients of the framework
◮ LFG - suitable treatment of free word order
◮ CDRT - adequate treatment of cross-sentential temporalanaphora while allowing for a more deterministic,compositional account of sentence-internal relations
◮ Glue semantics to combine syntax and semantics
◮ Three-valued logic for a compositional treatment ofpresuppositions
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Challenge
What is it what we would like to account for?
◮ Explain how the temporal relations between the participlesand the finite verb arise, using a theory which
◮ has a consistent semantics of aspect◮ can deal with multiple occurrences of independent rhemes◮ is compositional
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Greek word order
◮ Very free: all six permutations of SVO occur with more than5% frequency in the NT
◮ Does not signal grammatical relations, but pragmatic roles
◮ Although word order is free inside clauses, it is very restrictedbetween clauses
◮ A ‘flat’ phrase structure
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A simple Greek main clause
IP
Spec,IP I’
XP . . . I . . . XP
◮ One distinguished position with IS-related effects
◮ A ‘flat’ unordered sentence domain
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Elaboration
IP
Iheuron
VP
Vkathemenon
NP
ton anthropon
VP
V
imatismenon
PP
para ton podas tou Iesou
(17) heuron
find.pst.a.3pl
kathemenon
sitting.a.p.acc
ton anthropon
the man.acc
imatismenon
clothed.pf.p.acc
para ton podas tou Iesou
at Jesus’ feet
They found the man sitting clothed at Jesus’feet
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Participle in the specifier of IP. . .
IP
VP
V NP
I’
NP I PP
(18) idon
seeingauten
herho kurios
the lordesplangkhniste
felt compassionep’ auten
for her
When he saw her, the lord felt compassion for her.
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. . . or adjoined to I’?
IP
I’
VP
V NP
I’
NP I PP
(19) idon
seeingauten
herho kurios
the lordesplangkhniste
felt compassionep’ auten
for her
‘When he saw her, the lord felt compassion for her.’
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Both
IP
VP
V NP
I’
VP I’
I PP
(20) genomenes de hemeras
becoming dayexelthon
going outeporeuthe
he went
eis eremon topon
to a deserted place
‘When it became day, hew went out and travelled to adeserted place
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Relations between syntax and information structure
◮ Three basic positions: inside I’, adjoined to I’ and in thespecifier of IP
◮ We’ll argue that they correlate with information structure inthe following way:
◮ Part of IP: elaboration on the rheme expressed by the I◮ Adjoined to the IP: expressing a rheme independent of that of
the I◮ Spec, IP - topic/frame setter
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Some complications
◮ Adjunction can be to the left or to the right, but the first ismore common (especially with multiple participles)
◮ Participles inside the IP can appear to the left and the right ofthe main verb, but the latter is more common
◮ There is a systematic ambiguity between the Spec,IP positionand left adjunction to I’ (the left-most adjunction in case ofseveral participles)
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Aside: backward controlIP
I’
VP
VP
V
labon
NP
DP
ho
N
Iesous
NP
arton
kai VP
eulogesas
I’
I
eklasen
(21) labon
take.a.p.nom
ho
the.nom
Iesous
Jesus.nom
arton
bread.acc
kai
and
eulogesas
bless.a.p.nom
eklasen
break.pst.a.3sg
‘Jesus took the bread, blessed it and broke it.’
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Semantics for f-structures
f
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
pred ‘speak
D
subj
E
subj
g
"
pred ‘pro’
case nom
#
xadj
h
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
pred ‘praiseD
subj, objE
case nom
subj —
obj
"
pred ‘god’
case acc
#
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
◮ f-structures are intuitively‘closer’ to semantics than phrasestructure trees
◮ But binary trees have a naturalconnection to meaningcomposition by functionalapplication
◮ We need a categorial logic toguide the composition
◮ Eg denotes a semantic resource of the type of individualsassociated with the f-structure
◮ Eg ⊸ Cf is a function from such resources to a clause typeresource (truth value) belonging to f
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Intransitives
f
pred ‘speak
⟨
subj
⟩
’
subj
g
[
pred ‘Jesus’
case nom
]
j : Eg λx .speak(x) : E(g) ⊸ Cf
speak(j) : Cf
◮ A type e (individual) resource associated with g
◮ From a type e resource belonging f ’s subject I can create aclause type resource for f
◮ The glue language operations map straightforwardly tolambda calculus
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Where do meaning constructors come from
◮ From lexical items and their morphology
◮ From constructions flagged by lexical items, by phrasestructure rules or by subcategorization templates
◮ The recipient in bake someone a cake adds a (intended)transfer meaning
◮ In the same way, the different phrase structure rules thatintroduce participles are associated with different meaningconstructors
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Topic time
(22) I didn’t turn off the stove Partee (1973)
◮ ¬∃tP(t)
◮ ∃t¬P(t)
◮ But there is a specific time about which the speaker claimsthat he did not turn off the stove at that time: the topic time.
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Semantics of tense
present past
utterance time
topic time
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Semantics of aspect
aorist imperfective
topic time
eventuality time
‘completed’ ‘going on’
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Combining tense and aspect: imperfective aspect
(23) eikhon
had.pst.if.3pl
de
ptc
tote
thendesmion
prisonerepisemon
notablelegomenon
called
Barabban.
Barabbas
They had a notable prisoner called Barabbas.
n
tTT : ‘then, that time’
τ(e): the time of them
having Barabbas
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Combining tense and aspect: aoristic aspect
(24) ekhthes
yesterdayhoran
hourebdommen
ninthafeken
leftauton
himho
thepuretos
fever
Yesterday at the seventh hour the fever left him
n
tTT : the seventh hour
of the day before n
τ(e): the fever leaving
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CDRT: The best of two worlds
Montague semantics
◮ clear compositional treatment
PAST(IPFV(λe[have b(e)]))≡ λQ[tTT ≺ n ∧ Q(tTT](λPλt∃e[τ(e) ⊇ t ∧ P(e)](λe[have b]))
≡ ∃e[τ(e) ⊇ tTT ∧ have b(e) ∧ tTT ≺ n]
Discourse Representation Theory
◮ Dynamics for intersentential anaphora
e
τ(e) ⊇ tTThave b(e)
∂tTT
tTT ≺ n
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CDRT: The best of two worlds
Compositional DRT (Muskens (1996))
◮ clear compositional dynamic theory
λQ[tTT ≺ n
⊕ Q(tTT)](λPλt[e
τ(e) ⊇ t⊕ P(e)](λe
have b(e)))
≡
e
τ(e) ⊇ tTThave b(e)tTT ≺ n
◮ formalism: classical type logic
◮ DRSs are abbreviations of expressions in this language
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CDRT and Glue semantics
◮ The language of CDRT and of the meaning representations inGlue semantics is type logic
◮ So these two can be combined (van Genabith & Crouch1997): glue semantics with CDRSs.
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The semantic building blocks
AOR λP .λt.∃e.P(e) ∧ τ(e) ⊂ t
(EVm ⊸ Cm)IPFV λP .λt.∃e.P(e) ∧ τ(e) ⊇ t
(EVm ⊸ Cm)PAST λP .λt.P(t) ∧ t ≺ n
(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tm ⊸ Cm)ELAB λP .λQ.λem .P(τ(em)) ∧ Q(em)
(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ [(EVm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (EVm ⊸ Cm)]FRAME λP .∂P
(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cp)NARR-PROG λP .λQ.λtp .∃tm.P(tp) ∧ Q(tm) ∧ tp ⊃≺ tm
(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ [(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)]PICKUP λP .λQ.λtp .Q(tp) ∧ P(tp)
(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ [(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)]SENTENCE λP .P(a)
∀α(TTα ⊸ Cf ) ⊸ Cf
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Where the building blocks come from
◮ AOR, IPFV and PAST come from the morphology
◮ NARR-PROG, ELAB, FRAME, PICKUP come from thephrase structure rules
I’ → VP I’narr-prog ∨ pickup
I’ → VP , I , XP*elab
IP → VP I’frame
narr-prog ∨ pickup
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Interaction with the context
◮ Composing a meaning for a sentence will typically leave alambda bound time variable
◮ ‘John left’ denotes the set of times which includes a leaving ofJohn
◮ However, in the final interpretation this should be bound to aspecific time in the narrative context
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The sentence construction
SENTENCE
λP .P(a) : ∀α(TTα ⊸ Cf ) ⊸ Cf
◮ The (declarative) sentence construction comes with asemantic resource which ‘frees’ a lambda bound time variable
◮ If you need a time resource to produce a sentence meaning,you can get it in the form of a free variable
◮ The free variable is interpreted as an anaphor in CDRT
◮ The meaning constructor can be generalised to other caseswhere we need to combine intersentential, compositionalconstraints with intrasentential binding
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Elaboration
em, ep
speak(em)τ(em) ⊇ tmtm ≺ n
praise(ep)τ(ep) ⊇ τ(tm)
∂tm
◮ Notice that only the mainclause verb needs to find atopic time in the context
◮ The participle temporallyinteracts only with themain verb
◮ If the meaning of aspectshould remain constant itis impossible to have adirect relation between thetwo events
◮ But we also believe thereshouldn’t be one in thesemantics
He was speaking praising the lord
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Independent rheme
Independent rhemes
(25) peritheis
put.a.p.nom
kalamoi
reed.dat
epotizen
give to drink.pst.if.3s
Someone ran and filled a sponge with sour wine, put it on
a reed, and was giving him a drink, saying. . .
Skip composition
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Independent rhemes
PTCP+AOR:λtp.∃ep .put(ep)∧
τ (ep) ⊂ tp :Tp ⊸ Cp
NARR-PROG:λP.λQ.λtp.∃tm.P(tp) ∧ Q(tm)∧
tp ⊃≺ tm:(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸
[(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)]
λQ.λtp.∃tm.∃ep .put(ep) ∧ τ (ep) ⊂ tp∧
Q(tm) ∧ tp ⊃≺ tm:(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)
MAIN+IMPF:λtm.∃em.makedrink(em)∧
τ (em) ⊇ tm :Tm ⊸ Cm
λtp.∃tm.∃ep.∃em.makedrink(em)∧τ (em) ⊇ tm∧put(ep)∧τ (ep) ⊂ tp∧tp ⊃≺ tm:Tp ⊸ Cm
◮ Again we start with a set of times which serves as input to NARR-PROG
◮ NARR-PROG turns the participle into something which looks for adependency on main clause times . . .
◮ . . . and returns a dependency of participle times
◮ This is done by relating tm and tp so that tp abuts on tm and existentiallyquantifying over tm
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Recursive application
◮ Since we can have several independent rheme participles, it isimportant that this process can be applied several times
◮ We need to see how the m and p-variables arise in the glueside (Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ [(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)]
◮ The participle applies to the verb to its right to produce asentence meaning, but in this case the verb to the right is themain verb
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Independent rhemes
Instantiating NARR-PROG
(T↑ ⊸ C↑) ⊸ [(T→ ⊸ CADJ∈↑) ⊸ (T↑ ⊸ CADJ∈↑)]
(Tp ⊸ Cp) ⊸ [(Tm ⊸ Cm) ⊸ (Tp ⊸ Cm)]
◮ ↑ refers to the f-structure of the participle
◮ adj∈↑ refers to the f-structure of the main clause
◮ → refers to the f-structure of the following independent rheme(various implementations are possible)
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Independent rhemes
ep, em, tm
make drink(em)τ(em) ⊇ tmtm ≺ n
put(ep)τ(ep) ⊂ tptp ⊃≺ tm
∂tp
◮ Again, the sentence isdependent on one timewhich must be provided bythe context, but this time itis the time of the participle
◮ The time of the participleand the time of the matrixevent are related through arelation of abutment
Putting the sponge on a reed, he was making him drink
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Frame
em, tm
make drink(em)τ(em) ⊇ tmtm ≺ n
tp ⊃≺ tm
∂
ep, tp
put(ep)τ(ep) ⊂ tp
◮ This time, the context hasto provide not only asuitable time for theparticiple event, but asuitable event
Putting the sponge on a reed, he was making him drink
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Summing up
◮ in sentences without framing/independent rheme participles,the topic time is provided by the context
◮ in sentences with framing/independent rheme participles, thetopic time is provided by the participle clause, which is in itsturn related to the context (in different ways)
◮ elaboration participles have a different function:
◮ they do not locate the event in time, but provide additionalinformation about the event
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Conclusion
◮ Corpus data clearly show that participles behave differently indifferent sentence positions
◮ A precise account of these differences requires thecombination of several frameworks
◮ Combining LFG and CDRT using Glue semantics we canaccount for
◮ the different functions of Ancient Greek adjunct participle◮ how these functions are coded in the word order◮ their temporal relations to each other, the main verb, and the
context
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Slides available athttp://www.hf.uio.no/ifikk/proiel
Data from the PROIEL corpushttp://foni.uio.no:3000