participatory action reseach. have we got sufficient understanding to hypothesize - to start the...
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PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEACH
• Have we got sufficient understanding to hypothesize - to start the research?
• Who controls the process?
• When is the right time to stop?
• Teen age mums and contraception
Ethical context – What are the effects of:
1.raising some questions and not others, 2.involving some people in the process (or even apparently only one) and not others, 3.observing some phenomena and not others, 4.making this sense of it and not alternative senses, and 5.deciding to take this action (or ‘no’ action) as a result of research rather than any other action and so on.
Participation• ‘...action research is the way groups of people
can organise the conditions under which they can learn from their own experiences and make this experience accessible to others.’’
• All research involves a social context.
• How would it improve the research if the participants, the community it might impact on and the audience for the research had a role in the planning, doing, reviewing and dissemination of the research?
Key details
• Participation, action and research are not exclusive and permeate all stages of the PAR cycle
• Hard to plan for initially, because you don’t know what is going to happen – the focus often changes over time
• It can involve a wide variety of research methods
Participants1. The researcher/s – the people with
research skills
2. The researched – the people, environments, animals or objects from whom information is gathered
3. The researched for – the people whose lives will be affected by the research. This is called the critical reference group
4. The research users – the people who will use the findings of the research
Action
• Any research process that seems appropriate – qualitative or quantitative
• Will include focus groups, interviews, surveys, case studies, experiments
• Will frequently move from one type of research method to another on different stages of the PAR spiral
• Can involve many methods simultaneously
Benefits• improved relevance to the community; • sharper questions; • enhanced relevance service providers and
funders• better research design (what is asked, by whom,
of whom, when, where and how); • information gained more meaningful (and in
the right language)• better theory developed, greater innovation• higher commitment, better, longer follow up
Challenges• Getting access to the community that
should be the focus of research• Being able to accept that the research
process may be slower than you would like it to be
• Being limited in what you can do or being removed from the project after you have served your usefulness
• Not being acknowledged for the work you have done.
METHODS OF OBSERVATION
Observation: noticing what’s really there
Observational dimensions• Perspective (Degree of training) - unless we
prepare we won’t observe• System level - macro to micro. System -
interaction - behaviour - physiological event• Aspect - presence/absence, quantitative
(duration, frequency, intensity), qualitative (beauty, likeability, skilfulness), meaning.
• Analysis level - one small feature/moment of time through to ongoing total picture
• Context in time - antecedents, behaviours, consequences
Methods of observation• Narrative recording - record everything - text
record, tape, video tape. “I just wanted to talk about the transition through
this hump [in the development of groups] here, which happens at around about the one year period. To work out what these groups are doing over here which is more about service and being there for people who might come and go. Umm, which resonates for me because um ……”
Methods of observation• Event recording - record all instances of a
particular behaviour or eventWord category CountI (or) {me, my, myself, own, mine. . . } 133group (or) {groups, member. . . teams} 113man (or) {men,men/s, guy, he, male. . .} 96people (or) {person, anyone, both.. . } 61children (or) {boy, family, divorce, schools} 18friend (or) {buddy, gunners, mate. . .} 13women alias (or) {she, girls, postnatal} 6
Methods of observation• Interval recording. Count of specified
events/ interval over a a set number of intervals
counsellor/client interaction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 11 21 31 41 51
minutes
culm
ula
tive
in
terv
als
w
he
n t
alk
ing
ob
serv
ed
client
counsellor
Cumulative record of talking
Methods of Observation • Time sampling - Instead of recording over
the whole period of interest observation is done over one or more short periods
Counsellor/client interaction
012345
beginning middle end
5 min time sample interval
min
ute
s ta
lkin
g
pre
sen
t
client
counsellor
Methods of Observation
• Sequential act coding - Behaviours are defined and behavioural sequences are recorded.
Counsellor: l=listening, r=reflecting, o=offering options, i=interrupting, f=affirming
client: d=describing, q=questioning, p=repeating, t=tearful,
Possible sequence: dlqrdrtfqlprpiqo……
t f 80%, q o 25%, p i 15%
Methods of observation
• 1st level: counts presence or absence of an event
• 2nd level quantitative recording – focus measurable aspect such as duration or intensity.
~ Counsellor talks for 13/55 minutes
~ Client talks for 40/55 minutes
~ 2/55 minutes silence
• 2nd level qualitative - degree of engagement
Looking at the people you see on the way to Unitec tomorrow morning
• Find someone you feel is satisfied with life at the moment.
• Observe them and try to identify what features they have that make you think they are satisfied.
• Find someone you feel is not satisfied with life at the moment.
• Observe them and try to identify what features they have that make you think they are not satisfied.
Definition of violenceA violent act is an act of force that physically harms a human
or other animate being. The act may be carried out or just be a credible physical threat
of violence. It may or may not result in visible harm.It may be intentional or accidental. It may be an act of nature or of an animate being.It may involve natural or supernatural beings or force. It may be a credible verbal threat of violence, or verbal
behaviour which increases the probability of physical violence.
The violent act itself may be shown, or only the consequences of the act.
Included are beings that are animate but not ‘human-like’.
Excluded from this definition are:
attempted but unsuccessful acts of violence,
acts which cause psychological but not physical harm,
offensive language which does not increase the threat of physical harm
violent acts against inanimate objects unless the acts increase the threat of physical harm
Type of incident coding
Assault: I intentional
S sexual
Accidents: U unintentional
ND natural disaster/act of God
Threats: CV clear verbal
NV non-verbal
II indirect inciting
DK don’t know whether act was intentional or not
NZ2003 TV Violence study
0
3
6
9
12
15
NTVS (US)1997
NTVS (US)simulation
BSC (UK)2001
BSC (UK)simulation
CMPA (US) 2002
CMPA (US)simulation
NZ2003
International Content Analyses
Inci
den
ts/h
our
NZ2003 TV Violence study• Environmental mapping - measuring an
aspect of environment as a predictor of behavioural patterns
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Massey drama1991
Massey dramasimulation
2003
Media Watch1990
Media Watch1992
Media Watch1995
Media watchsimulation
2003
New Zealand Drama Content Analyses
Inci
dent
s/ho
ur
Graphicness of the violence
Presence of blood Close-up of injuries Close-up of action Slow motion used with the fightingDrawn out fight sequences.Drawn out aftermath Replays of violence Sounds of injury occurring Powerful presentations of pain Threatening, frightening music Threatening, frightening lightening or visual environment Accompanying narration that describes pain, injury, fear,
etc
NZ2003 TV Violence study
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Channels
% o
f p
rogr
amm
es
adult viewing time
children's viewing timeAt least 10 instances of graphicness
% of programmes with moderate to extreme pain
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
TV1TV2
TV3TV4
Prime
Sky1
Sky M
ovies
Nickelo
deon
Total
Channels
%
of
pro
gram
mes
adult viewing time
children's viewing time
Moderate to extreme pain
Key surveys into the impact of TV
• Infant TV watching and ADHD at age 7
• Infant TV watching and Autism in childhood
• TV watching in children and violence in adulthood
• TV watching in children and obesity and diabetes in adulthood
• TV watching in children and low educational achievement in adulthood.
Environmental mapping
Strengths of Observational Data
• Allow one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they say they do
• Allow relatively objective measurement of behavior • Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills • Good for description • Can give access to contextual factors operating in natural
social settings • Moderate degree of realism (when done outside of the
laboratory)
• Reasons for behavior possibly unclear
• Possible reactive and investigator effects when respondents know they are being observed
• Possibility of observer being biased (e.g., selective perception)
• Possibility of observer "going native" (i.e., over identifying with the group being studied)
• Interpretive validity possibly low
Weaknesses of Observational Data-1
Weaknesses of Observational Data-2
• Cannot observe large populations
• Unable to observe some content of interest Dross rate possibly moderately high
• More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and tests
• Data analysis sometimes time-consuming