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Part 2: Category Summaries

Reducing the environmental and

cost impacts of electrical products

Category summaries identifying environmental hotspots and reduction opportunities for 23 electrical product categories, resulting from research for the Product Sustainability Forum to identify, quantify and understand the environmental impacts of electrical products sold on the UK market.

Project code: RNF200-001 Research date: July – October 2011 Date: November 2012

The PSF is a collaboration of 80+ organisations made up of grocery and home improvement retailers and suppliers, academics, NGOs and UK Government representatives. It’s a platform for these organisations to measure, reduce and communicate the environmental performance of the grocery and home improvement products bought in the UK. Further information about the Forum can be found at www.wrap.org.uk/psf. Document reference: [e.g. WRAP, 2006, Report Name (WRAP Project TYR009-19. Report prepared by…..Banbury, WRAP]

Written by: Will Schreiber, Richard Sheane, Leigh Holloway

Analysis by: Kevin Lewis, Aida Cierco, Dr. Andrew Bodey, Xana Villa Garcia, Sam Matthews

Edited by: Justin French-Brooks and Anthea Carter

Front cover photography: [Add description or title of image.]

While we have tried to make sure this [report] is accurate, we cannot accept responsibility or be held legally responsible for any loss or damage arising out of or in

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suggest we have endorsed a commercial product or service. For more details please see our terms and conditions on our website at www.wrap.org.uk.

http://www.wrap.org.uk/psf

Reducing the environmental and cost impacts of electrical products 3

Contents

Category 1 Televisions/monitors .................................................................................................................... 6

Category 2 Laptops .................................................................................................................................... 10

Category 3 Other display-based electronics .................................................................................................. 14

Category 4 Complex processing electronics .................................................................................................. 18

Categories 5 & 6 Simple processing electronics ............................................................................................. 22

Category 7 External power supplies ............................................................................................................. 25

Categories 9 & 10 Single function pumps and motors .................................................................................... 27

Category 11 Battery-powered pumps and motors ......................................................................................... 30

Category 12 Spatial cooling ......................................................................................................................... 33

Category 13 Spatial heating ........................................................................................................................ 37

Categories 14 & 15 Multi-function heating and cooling appliances .................................................................. 40

Categories 16 & 17 Heating and cooling other appliances .............................................................................. 43

Category 18 Microwaves ............................................................................................................................. 46

Categories 19 to 22 Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 49

Category 23 Solar PV ................................................................................................................................. 53

Category 24 Household wind turbines .......................................................................................................... 57

Acronyms and abbreviations

B2B business-to-business

CCFL cold-cathode fluorescent lamp

CE consumer electronics

CFL compact fluorescent lamp

CHP combined heat and power

CRT cathode ray tube

EP electrical product

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

EPEAT electronic product environmental assessment tool

ErP energy-related products

EST Energy Saving Trust

EuP energy-using product

FIT feed-in tariff

GHG greenhouse gas

GWP global warming potential

HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning

ICT information and communications technology

LCA lifecycle assessment

LCD liquid crystal display

LED light emitting diode

lm/W lumens per Watt

MCS Microgeneration Certification Scheme

MTP Market Transformation Programme

OLED organic light emitting diode

PC personal computer

PC-ABS polycarbonate-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

PCB printed circuit board

PCBA printed circuit board assembly

PDP plasma display panel

PHB polyhydroxybutyrate

PLA polylactic acid

PV photovoltaic

RoHS restriction of hazardous substances

STB set-top box


USB universal serial bus (flash drive)

VSD variable speed drive

WEEE waste electrical and electronic equipment

Acknowledgements

Stakeholders contributed from a range of industry sectors, including manufacturers, facility managers and e-

waste handlers. The following organisations supported the project by providing their knowledge, guidance and

data to improve the analysis and recommendations presented in this document:

B&Q

Computer Aid

Inman

Interserve

ISE

Morphy Richards

MITIE

Panasonic

Reliance FM

Panasonic

Sainsbury’s

Skanska

Sony


Category Summaries

Summary documents have been produced for each of the electrical product (EP) categories used for the purposes

of this research. Further information can be found in Part 1, which presents the research results, and Part 3,

which explains the methodology behind the research.

The brief overviews in this document have been designed to engage both expert and non-expert audiences in

understanding the impacts associated with EPs, and to highlight potential environmental reduction opportunities.

Each summary has been produced at the technology group-level to facilitate the sharing of information between

product types that may have not historically been associated with one another (e.g. hair dryers and irons).

The following EP categories have a summary:

Category 1 – Televisions/monitors;

Category 2 – Laptops;

Category 3 – Other display-based electronics;

Category 4 – Complex processing electronics;

Categories 5 & 6 – Simple processing electronics;

Category 7 – External power supplies;

Categories 9 & 10 – Single function pumps and motors;

Category 11 – Battery-powered pumps and motors;

Category 12 – Spatial cooling;

Category 13 – Spatial heating;

Categories 14 & 15 – Multi-function appliances;

Categories 16 & 17 – Other appliances;

Category 18 – Microwaves;

Categories 19 to 22 – Lighting;

Category 23 – Solar PV; and

Category 24 – Household wind turbines.

A summary document was not produced for Category 8, multi-function pumps and motors (e.g. aquariums), due

to limited data availability.


Category 1 Televisions/monitors

Products

Data found PDP, LCD, CRT televisions

WEEE Category 3 – ICT, 4 – Consumer Electronics, 11 – Display equipment (UK only)

No/limited studies LED screens

Industry info

Relevant environmental

regulations

ErP Eco-design Directive

Requirements for power consumption in standby and off-mode. Additional targeting

of external power supplies will have an impact on this category.

RoHS Directive

Limits the presence of heavy metals and certain flame retardants.

WEEE Directive

Covers the financing and disposal of end-of-life electrical products.

EU Energy Efficiency Minimum Standards

All TVs to comply with mandatory energy efficiency standards by mid-2012.

Use-phase initiatives From December 2011 all televisions will be required to show energy efficiency

labels at the point of sale using the A+ to G rating system.

Product category

environmental initiatives

Version 5.0 of the ENERGY STAR Display specification was finalised in March 2009

with tier I requirements implemented in October 2009 and tier II requirements

implemented in October 2011.

The Energy Saving Trust endorses a range of energy efficient TVs & ICT products

under their Energy Saving Trust Recommended (ESTR) label.

Summary

A TV or monitor is generally made up of a power supply (transformer), power control board, picture control board,

the screen, backlights to illuminate the screen and the casing/stand. Standard backlights are mercury containing

cold-cathode fluorescent tubes whilst newer models have more efficient, longer lasting and less hazardous light

emitting diode (LED) backlights. An organic LED (OLED) display functions without a backlight. It can display deep

black levels and can be thinner and lighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such

as darkened rooms, an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD - whether the LCD uses either

tubes or LED backlights. OLED is currently only used on small devices such as some mobile phones but is likely to

become the norm for all displays.1 Televisions account for the largest share of the energy used by the consumer electronics (CE) group of products (40% of total CE consumption in 2009). The number of televisions in households is expected to rise from 59.5 million to 72.2 million (21%) between 2009 and 2020. Average on-time for the main television in the home is expected to decrease from 4.9 hr/day to 4.2 hr/day, due to improvements in auto power down.2 In addition, there is an increasing demand for larger screens, which are made possible by improvements in picture quality (such as high definition) and are gradually becoming more affordable. The increase in energy consumption resulting from larger screens and more stock, is offset by improvements in screen efficiencies and shorter on-times. Over the next few years, new backlighting technologies, such as LED, and variable brightness control are expected to double efficiency of LCD televisions. This will also result in further material savings as television weight continues to decline, year-on-year, as technology improves. For example, a 2006 mid-range LCD TV from Sony weighed approximately 27kg while a comparable model today weighs roughly 45% less than this.

1 Defra: Saving Energy Through Better Products and Appliances 2 Also see http://www.tvlicensing.co.uk/resources/library/BBC/MEDIA_CENTRE/TeleScope_report.pdf for usage patterns and assumptions surrounding the migration of programme watching from TVs to other devices (e.g. computers).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backlight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_ratio

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display

http://www.tvlicensing.co.uk/resources/library/BBC/MEDIA_CENTRE/TeleScope_report.pdf


Hotspots

The most significant stage of the lifecycle for these products is the use phase, followed by materials and

production phase. Consumer behaviour has a large influence on the environmental impact of these products. In

terms of materials, the display is one of the major contributors to environmental impact.

The table below shows the main hotspots for this category. The table reflects the impacts for the five

environmental indicators by lifecycle stage. The primary hotspot for each metric is colour coded red and indicates

that the impact is greater than 30% of the total footprint. The secondary hotspot is colour coded orange and

ranges between 10% and 29% of total impact. Low level contributions are colour coded green and indicate the

impact is less than 9% of the total impacts. Lack of data availability for a metric is indicated by a blank white

space.

High waste and water impacts during the use phase are associated with energy generation.

GHG Energy Materials Waste Water

Materials 11% 10% 100% 46% 30%

Production 4% 3% - 2% 1%

Use 85% 88% - 44% 73%

Waste 0% 0% - 8% -4%

Material Risk

The traffic indicator to the right indicates the

material risk associated with the production of

products within this category for selected materials.

The table below shows the location and type of

material risk:

High Medium Low

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Gold China 27% Tin China 30-

40% Iron China 22%

Palladium

(Platinum) Russia 35 % Antimony China 11% Copper Chile 20%

Silver Peru 16% Nickel Russia 32%

Steel China 22%

Plastics Saudi Arabia 25%

Aluminium Australia 35%

Indium China 0%

Tantalum Australia 4%

Gallium Germany 0%

Rare Earths China 1%

Cobalt Congo 16%

High 13%

Medium 81%

Low 6%

Material Risk


Reduction Opportunities

Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life

The opportunities below are in order of savings potential and opportunity point:

Opportunity Lifecycle Stage Decision Maker Environmental

Savings Potential Cost Implications

Widen use of

dynamic dimming

displays

Manufacturer 5% to 10% power

saving in on-mode

Increase production

costs

Widen use of LED

backlights for LCD

displays

Manufacturer

10% to 20%

weight reduction

30% to 50% on

mode power

saving

Increase production

costs; however,

manufacturing

efficiencies are

rapidly lowering

these

Reduced cooling

Manufacturer Limited Expected decrease

Reduced amounts

of steel + high

recycled content

Manufacturer General weight

reduction Expected decrease

Recycled content in

plastic (PC-ABS) Manufacturer Limited

Potential 13% cost

savings

Bio-plastics (PLA or

PHB derivatives) Manufacturer

Fujitsu suggest

40% reduction in

embodied energy

of case materials

Neutral, or slight

increase

Reduced fasteners

/ components Manufacturer

5-10% weight

reduction Variable

Design for recycling

Manufacturer - -

Design for repair/

upgrade Manufacturer - -

Low energy chips

Manufacturer 50% energy

reduction Unknown

Greater PCB

integration Manufacturer

30% reduced PCB

size

Unquantified

savings

Printed electronics

Manufacturer 80% weight

reduction

Unquantified

savings

Low energy

memory Manufacturer Zero standby power Unknown

Adopt multi-thread

processing units Manufacturer Variable Unknown

Thermal bump for

temperature contol Manufacturer Variable Unknown


Potential areas for research/follow-up

Good quality coverage exists for GHG and energy footprints throughout category lifecycle stages. Limited

information is currently available on the full material, waste and water impacts and further research is

recommended. Particular emphasis should be placed on the manufacturing stage due to production process

complexities.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

Key

No data available

Some data available (1 study)

Enough data available (2 or more studies)

Sources of information

Reference Publication Date Confidentiality

CHI MEI OPTOELECTRONICS CORP., 2006. Environmental Product

Declaration N154 series, CCFL Backlight. Available at:

http://gryphon.environdec.com/data/files/6/7625/ENG_TFT_LCD_

EPD.pdf [Accessed august 2011]

2006 Public

Fraunhofer IZM, 2007. Consumer electronics: televisions.

Preparatory Study EuP Lot 5

2007 Public

Hischier, R. & Baudin, I., 2010. LCA study of a plasma television

device. International Journal of Lifecycle Assessment (2010)

15:428–438

2010 Public

WRAP, 2010. Appendix 5 Product Summary Sheets - Electrical

goods LCA

2010 Public

WRAP, 2010. Bills of Materials - Electrical goods 2010 Public

Summary history

Last updated by Will Schreiber

Last updated 1 November 2011

Contributors Will Schreiber, Aida Cierco, Mark Hilton (SKM)


Category 2 Laptops

Products

Data found Laptops

WEEE Category 3 – ICT Equipment

No/limited studies -

Industry info


regulations


Laptops, computing equipment and digital photo frames (Lot 3)

Draft regulation out for consultation.

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Batteries Directive

Requires user-replaceable batteries and restricts heavy metal use.

Use-phase initiatives -

Product category


EPEAT and Energy Star programmes.

Summary

This product category is typically composed of portable products that come with a range of components including:

external power supply, rechargeable battery, flat panel display (LCD or OLED), processing board, hard-drive and/or

SD memory card, CD/DVD drive, cooling fan, keyboard.

Products in this category are usually purchased and/or upgraded by users approximately every two to three years

for technology or style reasons. However, the devices often physically last longer in practice (five years or more).

Laptops have been fairly stable in terms of technological advancement. Over the past few years there has been a

move towards multi-threaded processing chips to improve battery power management for these portable products.

Recently, the development of tablet computers has begun to steer consumers towards lower impact products that

offer more limited functionality. Whilst this transition can support low impact consumption, the way the technology

is rolled out and marketed to consumers has the potential to significantly increase them at the same time. For

example, selling tablet computers as ‘style’ devices that can be treated like mobile phones may drastically reduce

the consumer lifespan expectation of the device.

Hotspots

The most significant stage of the lifecycle for these products is the use phase, followed by materials and

production phases. Consumer behaviour has a large influence on the environmental impact of these products. In

terms of materials, the display is one of the major contributors to the materials environmental impact.




ranges between 10% and 29% of the total impact. Low level contributions are colour coded green and indicate

the impact is less than 9% of the total impacts. Lack of data availability for a metric is indicated by a blank white

space.



Materials 28% 22% 100% 44% 72%


Use 65% 73% - 41% 33%

Waste 0% 0% - 12% -6%

Material Risk

The traffic indicator to the right indicates the material

risk associated with the production of products within

this category for selected materials.

The table below shows the location and type of

material risk:

High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%




Gallium Germany 0%

Magnesium China 14%


Lithium Chile 0%

High 12%

Medium 69%

Low 19%

Material Risk



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Widen use of

dynamic dimming

displays


saving

Increase production

costs

Widen use of LED

backlights for LCD

displays

Manufacturer

10% to 20%

weight reduction

30% to 50% on

mode power

saving.

Increase production

costs

Reduced cooling


Reduced amounts

of steel + high

recycled content



Recycled content in


Potential 13% cost

savings



Fujitsu suggest

40% reduction in

embodied energy

of case materials

Neutral, or slight

increase

Reduced fasteners


5-10% weight

reduction Variable


Manufacturer - -

Design for repair/


Low energy chips


reduction Unknown

Greater PCB


30% reduced PCB

size

Unquantified

savings

Printed electronics


reduction

Unquantified

savings

Low energy


Adopt multi-thread


Thermal bump for

temperature control Manufacturer Variable Unknown


Good quality coverage exists for GHG and energy footprints throughout category lifecycle stages. Limited

information is currently available on the full material, waste and water impacts and further research is

recommended. Particular emphasis should be placed on the manufacturing stage due to production process


complexities.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

Key

No data available





IVF Industrial Research and Development Corporation, 2005.

Personal Computers (desktops and laptops) and computer

monitors, Preparatory Study EuP Lot 3

2005 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Will Schreiber, Mark Hilton (SKM), Celena Fernandez (SKM), Aida Cierco


Category 3 Other display-based electronics Products

Data found Mobiles, MP3 players, tablet


No/limited studies Satellite navigation units

Industry info


regulations

ErP Directive

External Power Supplies standby and off-mode losses (Lot 7).

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Batteries Directive



Product category


Blue Angel eco-labels for computers (RAL-UZ 78) and mobile phones.

Summary

This product category is typically composed of portable products that come with a range of components including:

external power supply, rechargeable battery, flat panel display (LCD or OLED), processing board, hard-drive and/or

SD memory card, sim card (phones/3G devices only), keyboard (some phones).

Products in this category are usually purchased and/or upgraded by users approximately every two to three years

(technology/style led). However, the devices often physically last longer in practice (five years or more) and can

have second lives, often overseas (e.g. mobile phones). There are currently many developments taking place in

this category to investigate the use of renewable and ‘off grid’ power by these products.

Significant convergence is taking place across these products. Many of the underlying technologies are being

incorporated into new multi-use devices that are slowly making the single-use ones redundant (e.g. mobiles are

replacing satellite navigation devices). At the same time, existing multi-use technologies (e.g. laptops) are

beginning to be replaced with new technologies that have the potential to significantly reduce in-use impacts (e.g.

tablets). Whilst this transition can support low impact consumption, the way the technology is rolled out and

marketed to consumers has the potential to significantly increase them at the same time.

In terms of the mainstream market, reducing hazardous substances, conflict minerals and compliance with environmental regulations are three of the main focus areas for the likes of Sony-Ericsson, Nokia, Samsung, LG etc.

Recycled Content

Several phones now contain recycled content plastics (e.g. Sony Ericsson Greenheart series

including the Elm; Samsung Blue Earth). Some, including Blue Earth, have solar panel chargers,

although, given that ~60% of a phone’s carbon impact is in manufacture and upstream

impacts and only ~30% is in the use phase, the lifecycle benefits have been questioned by

some manufacturers. Recyclability is not a great issue in the sense that small WEEE gets

shredded and precious metals are recovered through PCB smelting.


Hotspots

This category covers a wide range of products. The lifecycle GHG and energy impacts of this group of products

are reasonably well studied; however, there are no studies available for lifecycle material, waste and water

impacts.

The main impacts of this category are in the material composition of the product, followed by the use phase.

Unlike many electrical products, the use phase is not a dominant part of the product footprint due to minimal

processing power and efficient use of battery technology.

The main materials that are used in these products vary, ranging from aluminium to other metals and plastics.





the impact is less than 9% of the total impact. Lack of data availability for a metric is indicated by a blank white

space.


Materials 62% 66% 100% - -

Production 8% 14% - - -

Use 29% 19% - - -

Waste 1% 1% - - -

Material Risk

The traffic indicator to the right indicates the material risk

associated with the production of products within this category

for selected materials.

The table below shows the location and type of material risk:

High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%

Plastics Saudi

Arabia 25%


Cobalt Congo 16%


Gallium Germany 0%

Magnesium China 14%


Lithium Chile 0%

High 12%

Medium 70%

Low 18%

Material Risk



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Widen use of

dynamic dimming

displays


saving

Increase production

costs

Widen use of LED

backlights for LCD

displays

Manufacturer

10% to 20%

weight reduction

30% to 50% on

mode power

saving.

Increase production

costs

Wider use of OLED

displays Manufacturer

~80% weight

reduction on

screen

40% energy

reduction

Increase production

costs

Reduced cooling


Reduced amounts

of steel + high

recycled content



Recycled content in


Potential 13% cost

savings



Fujitsu suggest

40% reduction in

embodied energy

of case materials

Neutral, or slight

increase

Reduced fasteners


5-10% weight

reduction Variable


Manufacturer - -

Design for repair/


Low energy chips


reduction Unknown

Greater PCB


30% reduced PCB

size

Unquantified

savings

Printed electronics


reduction

Unquantified

savings

Low energy


Adopt multi-thread


Thermal bump for




Mobile phones have a good level of GHG and energy lifecycle coverage through a range of studies that have

taken place as part of the European Commission’s Eco-design review, as well as discrete manufacturer studies.

Limited information is available for other products within this group.

Material, waste and water information was not available for review.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available





Apple, 2010. iPhone 4 Environmental Report. Available at:

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/iPhone_4_Pro

duct_Environmental_Report.pdf. [Accessed August 2011]

2010 Public

Apple, 2010. ipod touch Environmental Report. Available at:

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/iPodtouch_Pro

duct_Environmental_Report_2010.pdf. [Accessed August 2011]

2010 Public

Apple, 2011. MacBook Environmental Report. Available at:

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/MacBook-Pro-

15-inch-Environmental-Report-Feb2011.pdf . [Accessed

September 2011]

2011 Public

Apple, 2011. iPad Environmental Report. Available at:

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/iPad_2_Enviro

nmental_Report.pdf [Accessed September 2011]

2011 Public

Nokia, 2011. Nokia product declaration X7-00.1. Available at:

http://nds1.nokia.com/eco_declaration/files/eco_declaration_phon

es/X7-00.1_Eco_profile.pdf [Accessed 15th September]

2011 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Will Schreiber, Mark Hilton (SKM), Celena Fernandez (SKM), Aida Cierco

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/MacBook-Pro-15-inch-Environmental-Report-Feb2011.pdf

http://images.apple.com/environment/reports/docs/MacBook-Pro-15-inch-Environmental-Report-Feb2011.pdf

http://nds1.nokia.com/eco_declaration/files/eco_declaration_phones/X7-00.1_Eco_profile.pdf

http://nds1.nokia.com/eco_declaration/files/eco_declaration_phones/X7-00.1_Eco_profile.pdf


Category 4 Complex processing electronics Products

Data found Set-top box, desktop, camera

WEEE Category 3 – ICT Equipment, 4 – Consumer electronics

No/limited studies

Industry info


regulations


Implementing directive on eco-design requirements for Computers and Servers in

consultation (Lot 3).

Implementing directive on eco-design requirements for standby and off modes in

force (Lot 6).

Implementing directive on eco-design requirements for battery chargers and

external power supplies in force (Lot 7).

Voluntary agreement for complex set top boxes in consultation (Lot 18).

Implementing directive on eco-design requirements for simple set top boxes in

force (Lot 18a).

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive

Covers the financing and disposal of end of life electrical products.


Product category


Energy Star 5.0 and EPEAT

Summary

Complex processing electronics typically include external power supplies, densely packed PCBs, low power motor

and gear assemblies (e.g. DVD drive) and a variety of input-output ports/devices packaged in a rigid plastic outer

casing. These products are typically permanently plugged into mains sockets and are increasingly becoming the

subject of standby regulations to limit the amount of consumption whilst not in use.

The lifespan for this category is estimated to be around five years. One of the primary drivers for replacement is

the rapid technological and product development taking place in the industry. It is therefore common for these

products to have premature end of life when manufacturers upgrade their products. There is a mixed second-life

scenario available for these products, depending on how much the technology has advanced and consumer attitude

to change, with most of the re-usable products being sent to overseas markets. Facility Management companies

responsible for disposal are far more likely, compared to consumers, to investigate these opportunities.

Due to the increasing incorporation of web-based

technology into these products some of the power

management functionality has been overlooked to

provide an 'always on' experience for the user.

Although individual product use patterns will vary,

high processing demand products (e.g. digital set-

top recorders) are quickly becoming areas of

concern for consumer consumption patterns. In the

U.S. these products are, in some cases, consuming

more energy than refrigerators.3

3 Natural Resources Defense Council, 2011, Better viewing, lower energy bills, and less pollution: improving the efficiency of

television set-top boxes. Available at: http://www.nrdc.org/energy/settopboxes.asp Accessed 20 September 2011.

Upgrade cycles

Products in this category may be released in

‘generations’ that provide incremental technological

increases to users in periodic phases. Video game

consoles, for example, release new generations

approximately every five years.

http://www.nrdc.org/energy/settopboxes.asp


Hotspots

In terms of data coverage, lifecycle GHG impacts are well studied for this product group which includes both

stationary (set-top box (STB), desktop computer) and mobile (digital camera) processing-based electronics. STBs

have data across all five impact metrics. Two desktop PC LCAs have been sourced which are product-specific.

Given the broad range of PC specifications, this is a slight cause for concern.

The use phase appears to be the dominant impact area for this product group. Materials impact is also apparent

from the data. Materials hotspots vary by product and include stainless steel coating, plastic housing and

aluminium. There is a research gap for game consoles. However, based on data from similar products within the

category, it is likely that the use phase is again the dominant impact area.

The table below shows the main hotspots of this category. The table reflects the impacts for the five





space.


Materials 14% 11% 100% 55% 47%


Use 79% 84% - 37% 56%

Waste 0% 0% - 5% -4%

Material Risk





High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%



Cobalt Congo 16%


Gallium Germany 0%

Magnesium China 14%


Lithium Chile 0%

High 12%

Medium 70%

Low 18%

Material Risk



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Reduced cooling


Reduced amounts

of steel + high

recycled content



Recycled content in


Potential 13% cost

savings



Fujitsu suggest

40% reduction in

embodied energy

of case materials

Neutral, or slight

increase

Reduced fasteners


5-10% weight

reduction


Manufacturer -

Design for repair/

upgrade Manufacturer -

Low energy chips


reduction Unknown

Greater PCB


30% reduced PCB

size

Unquantified

savings

Printed electronics


reduction

Unquantified

savings

Low energy


Adopt multi-thread


Thermal bump for



Good quality information is available for most products represented in this category. Future research should focus

on end-of-life material handling and recovery.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available






BFF, 2006. An Ecological Footprint and Carbon Audit of CD player

BB-01- DAB Intempo Digital

2006 Private

Fujitsu, 2010. White Paper Lifecycle Assessment and Product

Carbon Footprint – Fujitsu ESPRIMO E9900 Desktop PC. (Accessed

September 2011)

2010 Public

IVF Industrial Research and Development Corporation, 2005.

Work on Preparatory Studies for Eco-Design Requirements of

EuPs: Lot 3 Personal Computers (desktops and laptops) and

computer monitors (Accessed September 2011)

2005 Public

MVV Consulting GmbH, 2007. Work on Preparatory Studies for

Eco-Design Requirements of EuPs: Simple Digital TV Converters

(Simple Set Top Boxes)Report to European Commission (Accessed

September 2011)

2007 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Will Schreiber, Mark Hilton (SKM), Aida Cierco, Sam Matthews


Categories 5 & 6 Simple processing electronics

Products

Data found Printers

WEEE Category 3 – IT Equipment, 4 – Consumer electronics, 8 Monitoring and Control Equipment

No/limited studies Telephones, calculators, thermostatic kits

Industry info


regulations


Imaging equipment: Copiers, faxes, printers, scanners, multi-functional devices (Lot

4).

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive



Product category


-

Summary

Products within this category are typically composed of:

1) rigid plastic casing;

2) key pad or button interface that allows the user to complete a function; and

3) a simple circuit board.

Depending on the product, additional parts may be included to differentiate the consumer benefit. For example,

a radio may add small speakers and signal processing components, while a home alert system may add an LCD

panel. Although these additional components change the fundamental use of the technology, the majority

material makeup remains unchanged.

Simple processing electronics require little power consumption during their operation and therefore may be

powered by batteries, mains or alternative power sources (e.g. solar photovoltaic cells, USB). Life expectation is

highly dependent on the nature and frequency of use, but can be estimated to be as high as 10 years across the

product category. These are not items that would be necessarily affected by new technologies, as essentially the

function and design has remained the same over the years. Therefore, the likely reason for replacement of

products within this category would be due to failure of the button circuitry or print fading on the input

mechanisms. Both of these failure properties are typically due to high repetitive use.

For most products within this category, the aesthetic design has remained the same and, in some cases, resulted

in smaller sized products fulfilling the same function. In some product groups, such as keyboards and computer

mice, wireless technology has been added to the core functional makeup.

Hotspots

This category is mainly composed of printers. There was a good level of available data for the studied impacts.

The highest impact profile of this category is in the use phase for GHG, energy and water, closely followed by

materials impact. Some products in this category, such as printers, will have in-use material requirements, but

as these are inconsistent across all categories the table below does not include them.

The table shows the main hotspots for this category, reflecting the impacts for the five environmental indicators

by lifecycle stage. The primary hotspot for each metric is colour coded red and indicates that the impact

is greater than 30% of the total footprint. The secondary hotspot is colour coded orange and ranges between

10% and 29% of total impact. Low-level contributions are colour coded green and indicate the impact is less


than 9% of the total. Lack of data availability for a metric is indicated by a blank white space.


Materials 16% 15% 100% 65% 40%


Use 75% 79% - 19% 62%

Waste 2% 1% - 13% -2%

Material Risk


associated with the production of products within this

category for selected materials.

The table below shows the location and type of material

risk:

High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%



Cobalt Congo 16%


Gallium Germany 0%



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life


High 13%

Medium 67%

Low 20%

Material Risk




Reduced amounts

of steel + high

recycled content



Recycled content in


Potential 13% cost

savings



Fujitsu suggest

40% reduction in

embodied energy

of case materials

Neutral, or slight

increase

Reduced fasteners


5-10% weight

reduction


Manufacturer -

Design for repair/

upgrade Manufacturer -

Greater PCB


30% reduced PCB

size

Unquantified

savings

Printed electronics


reduction

Unquantified

savings


Good quality information is available throughout most metrics and lifecycle stages for printers. Further research

should be directed towards other products in this group, particularly CCTV systems and alarm equipment.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available

Some data available. (1 study)




IZM and PE Europe, 2007. Work on Preparatory Studies for Eco-

Design Requirements of EuPs (II): Lot 4 “Imaging Equipment”.

Report to European Commission. Accessed September 2011

2007 Public

Kyocera Mita, unknown. Implementation of LCA. Available at:

http://www.kyoceramita.com/environment/product/lca.html

Accessed September 2011

Unknown Public

Summary history



Contributors Aida Cierco, Sam Matthews

http://www.kyoceramita.com/environment/product/lca.html


Category 7 External power supplies

Products

Data found AC adaptors


No/limited studies Uninterrupted power sources

Industry info


regulations


Standby and off mode power consumption (Implementing Measure 278/2009).

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and Accumulators Directive

2006/66/EC may apply.


Product category


-

Summary

The main compounds found in an adaptor are: the case, wire and cables, PCBA and packaging materials.

Hotspots






space.


Materials 11% 10% 100% 46% 30%


Use 85% 88% - 44% 73%

Waste 0% 0% - 8% -4%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life





Better Power

Supply Unit design

+ better Back Light

polarisers /

reflectors + fewer

backlights

Manufacturer

15% to 30%

on-mode power

reduction

5% to 10%

weight

reduction

Cost neutral

Reduced standby

power use Buyer

Switch Mode Power

Supply Manufacturer

~75% weight

reduction

~60% power

reduction

Cost savings


Limited information is available on the full lifecycle impacts of external power supplies. Despite being targeted by

a range of environmental regulations, this remains a relatively unstudied area across a range of metrics.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available





UMEC, 2008. Environmental Product Declaration AC DC Adapter 2008 Public

Summary history



Contributors Celena Fernandez (SKM), Aida Cierco


Categories 9 & 10 Single function pumps and motors

Products

Data found Vacuum cleaner, blender, lawn mower/strimmer

WEEE Category 2 (Small household appliances), 6 (Electrical and electronic tools)

No/limited studies Bench tools, ceiling, extraction and desk fans

Industry info


regulations


Proposed EuP regulation for vacuum cleaners has been delayed until 2012.

Future EuP preparatory study will cover air compressors (ENER LOT 31)

RoHS Directive

Limits the presence of heavy metals and certain flame retardants

WEEE Directive

Covers the financing and disposal of end of life electrical products

Use-phase initiatives Future energy in use labelling requirements

Product category


-

Summary

Products within this category all feature medium to high mains-powered motors and pumps. Motor materials are

mainly copper (windings) iron, steels, aluminium and paint. Windings are insulated with resins/varnish. Whilst

lawnmowers and bench/hand tools comprise a reasonable amount of steel and other metals for the cutting heads,

the body of these and the bulk of other products will be moulded plastic.

Asset life for the products ranges from 5 -10 years for electric lawnmowers, vacuum cleaners and bench tools, and

10 – 15 years for portable air compressors and ceiling and desk fans.

There is a distinction in the market between domestic and commercial/industrial applications, and machine design

and quality reflect this, as well as the scaled hotspots and energy use requirements.

The EU is currently considering a report produced by a panel of experts which suggests that vacuum cleaner power

consumption has increased significantly over the years but efficiency has dropped. The EU is considering proposals

to introduce a limit to vacuum cleaner power consumption.

Hotspots






space.


Materials 5% 6% 100% 38% 8%

Production 5% 4% - 3% 0.2%

Use 87% 89% - 43% 93%

Waste 3% 2% - 16% -0.2%


Material Risk





High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%

Plastics

Saudi

Arabia 25%


Cobalt Congo 16%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life



Savings Potential

Cost Implications

Develop products

with higher efficiency

motors

Designer

Develop light weight

models Designer 1.9kg/product Cost savings

Design for reliability

and reparability into

products

Designer

Develop buying

standards that specify

higher efficiency

motors and fans in

product purchasing

specifications

Manufacturer

High 17%

Medium 58%

Low 25%

Material Risk


Base procurement

decisions on lifecycle

costing principles

Buyer

Only purchase 'A'

rated devices (once

labelling scheme

comes into effect)

Buyer


This category covers a wide range of products from vacuum cleaners to bench tools. The lifecycle GHG and

energy impacts of this group of products are reasonably well studied; however, there are a limited number of

studies for the lifecycle waste, water and material impacts.

As is common with many electrical products, the use phase clearly dominates the lifecycle impacts across the

majority of products and indicators for this category. For most products, only GHG and energy information exists

and shows consistently that the use phase is the dominant impact. The exception is for food blenders where

materials and manufacture stages are also hotspots.

Data exist for all impact indicators for vacuum cleaners, which show the use phase to be the dominant hotspot

for GHG, energy and water impacts. Unsurprisingly, materials data highlights the materials phase, of which plastic

is the biggest hotspot, followed by metals. However, waste data shows a mixed picture of materials, use and

end-of-life stages as hotspots.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available





AEA Energy and Environment, 2009. Work on Preparatory Studies

for Eco-Design Requirements of EuPs (II): Lot 17 Vacuum

Cleaners Final Report. Report to European Commission (Accessed

September 2011)

2009 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Charles Gaisford (SKM), Kevin Lewis, Aida Cierco, Charlotte Dickinson


Category 11 Battery-powered pumps and motors

Products

Data found Electric toothbrush, electric drill, toys and batteries

WEEE Category 2 - Small household appliances, 6 - Electrical and electronic tools

No/limited studies Garden tools, power tools

Industry info


regulations


Future EuP preparatory study will cover air compressors (ENER LOT 31).

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Batteries Directive


Use-phase initiatives The main use-phase initiative is the European Eco-design Directive. However, some

products might not be caught by these requirements as they only apply to certain

sizes of pumps and motors. The ErP implementing measure for motors only applies

above 750w up to 375kw and for pumps it is between 1 W and 2 500 W.

Implementing measure on power supplies (which includes battery chargers) may

also apply.

Product category


Product stewardship programme from Bosch shown here:

http://www.pprc.org/pubs/epr/cases.cfm. There does not seem to be anything

across the sector as a whole that is outside the WEE/RoHS/ErP regime.

Summary

General product category description: Mainly plastic (but some metal) casings containing simple electronics and motors / pumps or a fairly small

power. (Maybe a maximum of 1 kw in most cases). Life expectancy will depend on the product category specifically but it could be as low as 12 months and

as high as 10 years across the whole range of products described in this category. There is a move towards more complex casing design to improve aesthetics in many of these products

with the inclusion of twin shot moulded ‘soft touch’ materials. This which makes recycling very difficult if

not impossible. There is also increasing use of electronics to allow ‘added features’. WEEE figures for category 2 and 6 are: (Jan-Dec 2010)

o small household – 141k Household and 7.5k B2B (tonnes); and o electrical and electronic tools – 58.5k household and 21.2k B2B.

Hotspots

Lifecycle impacts can vary widely across this category of products. Some may use a small amount of energy but

be used very frequently and therefore use could be the biggest environmental issue. However some products

(such as garden tools) may only be used once a week for less than half of the year, and therefore materials,

processing, transport and disposal may become more important.






space.

http://www.pprc.org/pubs/epr/cases.cfm



Materials 14% 37% 100% - -


Use 25% 38% - - -

Waste 6% 3% - - -

Material Risk





High Medium Low

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Gold China 27% Tin China 30 -

40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%



Cobalt Congo 16%


Lithium Chile 0%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life

High 14%

Medium 64%

Low 22%

Material Risk





Design for reliability

and reparability

into products to

achieve extended

product life

expectancy

Designer

Design products to

allow for easier

recycling

Designer



Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available





Climatop, 2010. CO2 Balance: Batteries ( A translation from

original German text)

2010 Public

Hawkins,T, Majeau-Bettez, G., Gaussen, O. And Strømman, AH.,

2010. Lifecycle Assessment of NiMH and Li Ion Battery Electric

Vehicles

2010 Public

McDowall, J. and Siret, C. 2009. Energy - saving batteries - Green

or greenwash?

2009 Public

Öko-Institut e.V., 2010. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) of Nickel

Metal Hydride Batteries for HEV Application

2010 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Charles Gaisford (SKM), Kevin Lewis, Aida Cierco


Category 12 Spatial cooling

Products

Data found Refrigerators, freezers

WEEE Category 1 (Large household appliances)

No/limited studies HVAC, air coolers

Industry info


regulations


ENTR Lot 1 preparatory study on refrigerating and freezing equipment in the

context of the Ecodesign Directive.

Commission Regulation (EC) No 643/2009 of 22 July 2009 implementing Directive

2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to

ecodesign requirements for household refrigerating appliances.

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Ozone Regulations

EC Regulation 842/2006 on certain fluorinated GHGes (F gases).

EC Regulation 1005/2009 on substances that deplete the ozone layer.

Use-phase initiatives All refrigerators and freezers are required to show energy efficiency labels at the

point of sale using the A+ to G rating system.

Product category


Numerous large retailers and brands (e.g. M&S and Coca Cola) are making

commitments to improving the efficiency of cooling equipment, and reducing GHG

emissions produced by this equipment.

USA - GreenChill is an EPA Partnership with food retailers to reduce refrigerant

emissions and decrease their impact on the ozone layer and climate change

Summary

Domestic refrigerators and freezers are appliances designed to chill and freeze food respectively. They use a

compressor to remove heat from the inside of the appliance and transfer it to the external surroundings. They are

highly insulated in order to minimise the transfer of heat through the walls of the appliance. The compressor works

on a thermodynamic cycle known as a vapour compression cycle. The vapour compression cycle uses a fluid called

a refrigerant as it has a low boiling point, enabling it to change from a liquid to vapour state at a convenient range

of temperatures for cooling. More recently, domestic refrigerators and freezers have tended to use the refrigerant

R134a, although due to its high GWP is now being phased out to be replaced by CFC and HFC-free naturally

occurring or relatively inert substances such as R-600a (isobutene).

These appliances are made in a variety of designs. Refrigerators can be either stand alone or as a combined fridge-

freezer and will always be front opening. Stand alone freezers can either be front opening or top opening chest

freezers. The size of these appliances has increased significantly in recent years due to improvements in energy

efficiency, which demands more insulation but without compromising internal capacity.

Air Conditioning Systems

Commercial HVAC systems tend to use a similar vapour compression cycle to refrigerators and freezers, although

absorption chillers can also be utilised in some instances where large amounts of waste or low cost heat is

available.

Absorption chillers utilise a heat source to drive the cooling cycle. Ideally, this heat source will be residual heat


from another system. Absorption chillers are often recommended with CHP systems where the generated heat

cannot be fully utilised.

Cooling circuits normally have a pump, compressor and heat exchanger. HVAC systems also have a heating circuit

and centralised (e.g. roof mounted) air handling units or integral fans. Commercial systems generally reject heat

via an externally located condenser with the evaporator located in a centralised plant room thereby connected to

the cooling circuit. Alternative decentralised direct exchange (DX) split systems have the condenser located on a

external wall adjacent to the space that requires cooling, e.g. IT Server Hub rooms, with the refrigerant then fed

direct to the cooling unit. These decentralised units are often used where the majority of the building is naturally

ventilated and hence there is no requirement for extensive cooling plant.

A centralised plant would normally be expected to last > 15 years. Through-wall, portable and mini-split units may

only last 8 to 12 years. The latest trend in HVAC is towards mini-split and fan-coil units in more decentralised units

that do not rely so heavily on centralised air handling plant.

Energy efficiency relies on the use of standard techniques, including the use of variable speed drives (VSD) on

cooling circuit pumps, VSD chiller screw or multi scroll compressor units, improved heat exchanger designs (larger

surface areas allowing for higher cooling flow temperatures) and heat recovery where there is as demand. For

example, waste heat from refrigeration compressors/heat exchangers is used sometimes to pre-heat boiler feed

water for central heating.

Hotspots

The lifecycle energy and GHG impacts of this group of products are reasonably well studied. The main lifecycle

impacts for this category are use phase for all metrics and materials for waste and water impacts. Little

information was found on water impacts.






space.


Materials 8% 7% 100% 56% 28%


Use 86% 90% - 37% 73%

Waste 0% -1% - 4% -1%

Material Risk





High Medium Low

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Steel China 22% Iron China 22%

Plastics Saudi Arabia 25% Copper Chile 20%


High 0%

Medium 60%

Low 40%

Material Risk



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life


Opportunity Lifecycle

Stage

Decision

Maker

Environmental

Savings Potential Cost Implication

Use of high

efficiency heat

exchangers

Designer 5-10 KWh per year

€8-10 increase in

production costs or €25

increase in retail price

Use of high

efficiency

compressors

Designer 48 KWh per year

€30 increase in production

or €75 in retail price for

fridges

Improvements to

control systems Designer

Approx. 5 KWh saving

per year

€4-11 increase in

production costs or €27

increase in retail cost

Improvements to

control systems Designer

Included in figures

above for improved

control systems

Energy saving expected:

50-67% cf 24-hour timed

conventional systems,

67-80% cf 16-hour timed

systems.

Improved

insulation Designer

Reduced material usage

and between 23 and 54

KWh per year savings

€50-78 increase in

production cost

Up to €150-210 increase

in retail price

Improved

insulation Designer

Reduced material

usage

19.5 - 30 KWh per

year savings

€8-10 increase in

production cost

€25-30 increase in retail

price

Increased use of

recycled materials Manufacturer Neutral

Use of recycled

materials Manufacturer

Steel: up to 70%

Aluminium: up to

90%

Polymers: up to 40-

60%

Unquantified

Use of new coil

technology Designer Unknown Unquantified

Improved Controls

Designer Up to 30% of energy

use

Up to 30% of energy

costs



These products have a good level of data coverage across the majority of impact areas.


Materials

Production

Use

Waste

No data available





Electrolux, 2000. Certified Environmental Product Declaration for

ER 8199B. [Online EPD] Available at: http://www.leonardo-

energy.org/webfm_send/612. (Accessed 16th May 2011)

2000 Public

ISIS, 2007. Work on Preparatory Studies for Eco-Design

Requirements of EuPs: Lot 13 Domestic Refrigerators and

Freezers. Report to European Commission (Accessed September

2011)

2007 Public

Öko-Institut e.V.., 2007. Environmental and economic evaluation

of the accelerated replacement of domestic appliances. (Accessed

September 2011)

2007 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco, Charlotte Dickinson, Xana Villa Garcia


Category 13 Spatial heating

Products

Data found Electric hob, fan heater, hand dryer

WEEE Category 1 - Large household appliances

No/limited studies Electric oven

Industry info


regulations


Central heating products – Lot 21

Possibly water heaters – Lot 2

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Use-phase initiatives None found

Product category


None found

Summary

All heaters contain a heat source. Modern electric space heaters may have ceramic or nichrome heating elements,

and may be fan-forced with a blower or a squirrel-cage fan to improve heat transfer. The user can usually control

the temperature using a built in thermostat.

There are essentially three types of heaters:

Convection heaters

Uses power to heat a heating element. Used to heat the air within an enclosed area. Hot air rises to the ceiling

and causes the cooler air to fall causing circulation. These can be fan-assisted (forced convection) and in some

cases are oil-filled, rather than just an electric element.

Radiant heaters

Converts power into directional infrared waves. Used to heat localised areas very quickly, rather than heating

the air. The heat is absorbed into clothes or skin. Examples include halogen heaters, electric fireplace.

Combination heaters

Use a fan to distribute heat. These are not as efficient as other heaters but are robust and more suitable for

everyday use.

Although there are many different types, most heaters will have the following common components: power source; the heating element; and heat distributor.

Hotspots

This category contains spatial convection and radiant heating products. Publicly available data was found for a

cooker hood, hand dryers, electric oven, fan heater and a boiler.

Available data showed that the highest impact phases are use and materials. For hand dryers, this is mainly due

to the use of electricity in the use phase and the control assembly in the material phase.

Lifecycle data was only available for GHG and water, with the majority of studies focusing on GHG emissions and

water for hand dryers. Studies on other lifecycle indicators (energy, materials and waste) were poor or even non-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nichrome

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating_element

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel-cage_fan


existent, with good energy data only available for the manufacturing and use phases. No lifecycle data was found

for central heating or space heater. The main materials hotspot was due to the use of steel in the boiler case and

the control assembly in the hand dryer system.





the impact is less than 9% of the total. Lack of data availability for a metric is indicated by a blank white space.


Materials 3% 2% 100% 22% 13%


Use 95% 97% - 69% 87%

Waste 1% 1% - 9% 0%

Material Risk





High Medium Low

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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%




Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life


High 18%

Medium 55%

Low 27%

Material Risk



Stage

Decision

Maker

Environmental Savings

Potential Cost Implications

Improved

insulation Manufacturer

Reduction of 1.39KWh per year

Additional 2.6kg of material

(glass and steel)

€2 euro increase in

production price

Improved

Insulation Manufacturer

Reduction of 3.7 KWh per year

Increase in material weight of

up to 400g

€8 increase in

product price

Improved

insulation Manufacturer

Reduction of 1.85 KWh per

year

€10 increase in

product price

Improved

Controls Manufacturer

Reduction of 1.85 KWh per

year

Increase in product weight due

to extra electronics - 300g

Up to €100

increase in product

price


Specific areas that are known to be gaps for further research and project data collection:


Materials

Production

Use

Waste



Baxi S.p.A. 2009. EPD BAXI WALL HUNG CONDENSING BOILER

LUNA 4

2009 Public

Bevilacqua, M., Caresana, F., Comodi, G., and Venella, P., 2010.

Lifecycle assessment of a domestic cooker hood

2010 Public

Bio Intelligence Service, 2011.Work on Preparatory Studies for

Ecodesign Requirements of EuPs (III). Lot 20 Local room heating

products. Task 5. (draft report, version 1)

2011 Public

Bio Intelligence Service, 2011. Work on Preparatory Studies for

Ecodesign Requirements of EuPs (III). Lot 23 Domestic and

commercial hobs and grills included when incorporated into

cookers.

2011 Public

Dettling, J. and Margni, M., 2009. Comparative Environmental

Lifecycle Assessment of Hand Drying Systems: The XLERATOR

Hand Dryer, Conventional Hand Dryers and Paper Towel Systems

2009 Public

Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco, Xana Villa Garcia


Categories 14 & 15 Multi-function heating and cooling appliances

Products

Data found Washing machine, dishwasher, dryer


No/limited studies

Industry info


regulations


ErP measures cover washing machines and dishwasher, such as labelling and other

indirect requirements for pumps and motors which are present in products.

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Use-phase initiatives Products are subject to the requirements of the Energy Labelling Directive.

Product category


There is a general push to make machines more energy and water efficient as

consumers can see both the environmental and cost benefits of doing so. The

website of the UK Cleaning Product Association UKCPA lists a number of pan-

European initiatives some of which impact, or apply to, the product types in this

category, see http://www.ukcpi.org/industryinitiatives.html

Summary

The basic characteristic of these products is a large casing, usually metal, containing a motor, pump, electronics

and possibly other mechanical components. Dishwashers and washing machines contain very similar technology in

a slightly different format.

Advances in washing machine technology have been focused on providing considerable improvements in energy

efficiency and include automatic load adjustment, eco settings, reduced cycle length, water minimisation and lower

temperature settings. This has been driven by the EU Energy Labelling system and the majority of washing

machines on the market now achieve at least an A rating.

Hotspots

The majority of the lifecycle impact for this product category will be during the use phase. They have high energy

requirements and washing machines can be used over 250 times a year on average. Although products can be

heavy, the materials stage will contribute only a small amount. A significant amount of information on recycling

rates is available due to producer responsibility requirements.

The most significant impact for this category occurs during the use phase, due to energy and water consumption.

Materials are the second most significant, accounting for about 15% of the impact. Thanks to the latest efficiency

improvements, a small shift of environmental impacts from the use phase towards the materials and production

phase has taken place during the last few years. It is important to note that use phase will be highly dependent

on the user life style.






space.

http://www.ukcpi.org/industryinitiatives.html



Materials 10% 7% 100% 54% 2%


Use 86% 91% - 41% 98%

Waste 0% -1% - 2% 0%

Material Risk





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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%




Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life



Stage

Decision

Maker

Environmental Savings

Potential Cost Implications

Increased

motor

efficiency

Designer

30Wh/cycle (chopped) to 50

Wh/cycle (brushless DC or

Switched Reluctance)

Reduction of the sud volume

From €60 to €195 increase

depending on technology

Materials

optimisation in

motors

Designer

5% less material can be used at

present with no modification of

the other motor characteristics.

€3 savings per machine

High 18%

Medium 55%

Low 27%

Material Risk


Materials

optimisation in

castings /

drums

Designer

As above reduction could be 5%

less materials use

€10 to €20 savings per

machine

Full electronic

control Designer

Reduction of energy use by

0.1% per cycle

Reduce water use by 5 litres

per cycle.

€20-€40 increase in

machine retail cost

Larger loads

Buyer

For 5 - 6kg shift:

0.1% reduction in energy/cycle

Reduction of 3 litres of

water/cycle

Increase in costs of €0.3 in

consumer price

Increased

durability / life Designer

Reduction in materials used 'per

cycle' of washer. If a machine was

guaranteed for 8000 the weight of

materials per cycle could be

reduced by over 80% compared

with an 800 cycle machine

Increase in purchase cost

can be considerable. For

example a machine with a

10 year guarantee could

cost €800-1000 compared

with an entry level

machine of €250.




Materials

Production

Use

Waste



Ecobilan and PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2008. Ecodesign of

Laundry Dryers: Preparatory studies for Ecodesign requirements

of Energy using-Products (EuP) – Lot 16. European Commission of

the European Communities, Directorate General for Energy and

Transport

2008 Public

European Confederation of Iron and Steel Industries,2002. Eco

Design Package, Consumer Product Dishwasher Casing. Brussels,

Belgium

2002 Public

ISIS, 2007. Work on Preparatory Studies for Ecodesign

Requirements of EuPs:. Lot 14 Domestic Washing Machines and

Dishwashers. (Accessed September 2011)

2007 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco, Xana Villa Garcia


Categories 16 & 17 Heating and cooling other appliances

Products

Data found Kettle, coffee machines, hair dryer

WEEE Category 2 - Small household appliances

No/limited studies Irons, grills, instant hot water

Industry info


regulations


Food preparation equipment

RoHS Directive

Limits the presence of heavy metals and certain flame retardants

WEEE Directive

Covers the financing and disposal of end of life electrical products

Use-phase initiatives Products are subject to the requirements of the Energy Labelling Directive.

Product category


‘Temperature selection’ kettles are now appearing on the market allowing users the

ability to select lower temperatures (below boiling point) for use with coffee and

herbal tea. Some irons now have ‘intelligent’ switches that turn the iron off after a

given time of standing.

Summary

These products generally consist of some form of plastic or metal casing which contains a heating element and

auxiliary control electronics. It is difficult to reduce the power required by this type of product but some advanced

settings are being introduced e.g. kettles with temperature selection functions and irons with an automatic ‘off’

function which is activated after a given time of standing.

MTP projections estimate kettle lifespan of 4.4 years and it is expected an iron will be similar.

The introduction of ‘added value’ features is leading to the increasing use of electronics within these products. In

addition, a focus on improving the aesthetic appeal of products is causing greater use of colours and different

materials in casings, which could have a negative effect on recyclability.

Hotspots

Publicly available data for the lifecycle energy and GHG impacts of this category was sourced. It showed that the

highest impact is in the use phase due to energy requirements. This impact may change depending on the user.

Material extraction is the second highest impact but with less intensity. The materials hotspot is due to the use of

plastic.







Materials 3% 3% 100% 22% 3%


Use 94% 95% - 64% 97%

Waste 1% 0% - 12% 0%


Material Risk





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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%



Cobalt Congo 16%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Reduction in

materials used Designer

Estimated 5%

material reduction Estimated reduction

Use of recycled

materials Designer

Reduction in

embodied carbon

will vary depending

on materials used a

% recycled

content. Main

materials would be

ABS.

Neutral

Increased energy

efficiency Designer

In use energy

savings

Reduced consumer

lifecycle cost

Efficient heating

elements Designer

Up to 50% in use

energy savings

Reduced consumer

lifecycle cost

High 17%

Medium 58%

Low 25%

Material Risk





Materials

Production

Use

Waste




Ecodesign Requirements of EuPs (III). Lot 25 Non-Tertiary coffee

Machines. (Accessed October 2011)

2011 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco


Category 18 Microwaves

Products

Data found Microwave


No/limited studies

Industry info


regulations


Food-preparing equipment.

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive


Use-phase initiatives Microwaves are part of the European energy labelling scheme.

Product category


Energy efficiency appears not to play a great part in this product category as the

power requirement is related directly to the cooking function. Lower power means

longer cooking times and therefore no savings in overall energy.

Summary

All products within this sector show very similar characteristics in terms of physical size and basic functionality.

Differences are mainly aesthetics, advanced functionality and features, capacity and power rating. The products

range from a very basic model with dials rather than electronic controls costing from £30, to advanced combination

ovens costing up to £1,000.

Microwave ovens have not undergone any significant advances in recent years. The majority of developments tend

to be in the advanced functions, combining microwaves with other oven technologies and designing built-in kitchen

products.

Microwave ovens are very durable appliances with few moving parts. One American website suggests that microwaves have an average lifetime of 10 years: http://www.lendingtree.com/smartborrower/buying-a-home/finding-a-home/kitchen-appliances/.

Hotspots

This category has the profile of a typical mains-fed electronic product, having its highest impact in the use phase.

Materials and production phases are equal second.

All microwaves contain a cavity magnetron and a large induction motor, which are extremely material intensive,

representing 48% of the energy burden during the materials phase.







Materials 13% 10% 100% 80% 41%


Use 75% 82% - 14% 60%

Waste 2% 1% - 5% -2%

http://www.lendingtree.com/smartborrower/buying-a-home/finding-a-home/kitchen-appliances/

http://www.lendingtree.com/smartborrower/buying-a-home/finding-a-home/kitchen-appliances/


Material Risk





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40% Iron China 22%

Palladium Russia 35 % Antimony China 11% Copper Chile 20%


Steel China 22%



Cobalt Congo 16%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Paint the inner

cavity Designer 0.7 KWh per year

€3 increase in

product cost

Inverter power

supply Designer/ Specifier

1 KWh per year but

would also reduce

embodied carbon

as these power

supplies are lighter

€5 increase in

product cost

General

engineering to

increase energy

efficiency

Designer/ Specifier 2.5 KWh per year

€7 increase in

product price

Reduction of

materials in casings Designer / Specifier

10% reduction in

outer casing weight

Reduced material

costs

High 18%

Medium 55%

Low 27%

Material Risk


Use of recycled

materials in casings Designer / Specifier Variable Neutral




Materials

Production

Use

Waste




Ecodesign Requirements of EuPs (III). Lot 22 Domestic and

commercial ovens, including when incorporated in cookers.

(Accessed September 2011)

2011 Public


goods LCA

2010 Public


Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco, Charlotte Dickinson


Categories 19 to 22 Lighting

Products

Data found Incandescent, Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL), LED

WEEE Category 5 (Lighting)

No/limited studies High intensity discharge, halogen

Industry info


regulations


EuP Lots 8,9,19.

RoHS Directive


WEEE Directive



Product category


-

Summary

There are various forms of lamps available on the market:

traditional incandescent tungsten filament (60W, 100W bulb etc. now being phased out);

tungsten halogen (filament but in halogen gas instead of air);

high intensity discharge (sodium or mercury vapour; mainly for street lighting and industrial high-bay lighting);

fluorescent (mercury gas vapour filled, phosphor coated tubes);

light emitting diode (LED); and

more unusual types such as microwave plasma types (industrial high-bay lighting).

Luminaires are usually just a lamp housing but they sometimes have an electrical ballast (if not part of the lamp)

and/or power supply (if a transformer is required to reduce supply voltage). They can take a wide variety of forms

to suit different situations from free standing units, recessed and surface mounted units to outdoor units and

architectural features.

Fluorescent lamps typically have a rated lifespan of 6,000 to 15,000 hours, whereas incandescent lamps are usually

manufactured to have a lifespan of 750 hours to 1,000 hours. LEDs have an expected lifetime of around 30,000 to

50,000 hours – almost ‘fit and forget’.

The halogen GU10 downlighter has become ubiquitous but is not very efficient, typically being 50W to generate a

quite narrow beam of light, hence requiring many units in a ceiling. Their efficiency is low by modern standards

(10–30 lumens per W) but they are cheap to make and compact.

The gas-filled lamps have an electrical ballast. The old type were magnetic but most now have an electronic ballast,

which has eliminated flicker when starting and has reduced energy use. CFLs and fluorescent tubes use around

20% of the energy of equivalent tungsten filament and tungsten halogen lights (e.g. 11W instead of 50W). In

tubes, the T12 has been largely replaced by the more efficient and now standard T8 slimline tube which is now

being replaced by the even more efficient T5 style using a triphosphor coating and electronic ballast. CFLs and T5

tubes generally have efficiencies of 70 to 100 lm/W. Tubes remain the standard form of lighting in commercial

office applications.

The cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) is a newer form of CFL. CCFLs use electrodes without a filament. The

voltage of CCFLs is about five times higher than CFLs, and the current is about 10 times lower. CCFLs have a

diameter of only about 3 millimetres. CCFLs were initially used for document scanners and also for back-lighting

LCD displays, and later manufactured for use as lamps. The efficiency (lm/W) is about half that of standard CFLs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_ballast

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb#Voltage.2C_light_output.2C_and_lifetime

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCD


Their advantages are that they are instant-on, like incandescent bulbs, they are compatible with timers, photocells,

and dimmers, and they have a long life. CCFLs are an effective and efficient replacement for lighting that is turned

on and off frequently with little extended use.

Another type of fluorescent lamp is the electrodeless lamp, known as magnetic induction lamp, radiofluorescent

lamp or fluorescent induction lamp. As of 2011, this type of light source was struggling with high production costs,

stability of the products produced by domestic manufacturers in China, establishing an internationally recognised

standard and problems with electromagnetic compatibility, electromagnetic interference.

An LED lamp uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the source of light. Unlike CFLs they contain no mercury or other

hazardous chemicals. Since the light output of individual light-emitting diodes is small compared to incandescent

bulbs and CFLs, multiple diodes are often used together. Diodes use direct current (DC) electrical power; thus

require internal or external rectifier circuits. LEDs are damaged by operating at high temperatures, so LED lamps

typically include heat management elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins. Until recently, LED lights were

only used for novelty and niche applications, such as retail displays, as they suffered from not generating enough

light in standard formats such as strips and GU10 downlighter formats. In recent years, as diode technology has

improved, high power LEDs with higher lumen output are making it possible to replace other lamps with LED

lamps. Efficiency is similar to CFLs at around 75 lm/W but LEDs last longer and come on instantly. They are being

improved constantly and now are being used quite widely in hotels, retail etc., often in 5W GU10 format. LED

lighting will no doubt be the future for many domestic/commercial applications.

Hotspots

Lighting products have the most environmental impact during use - up to 90% depending on the lamp type.







Materials 8% 8% 100% 2% 3%


Use 90% 95% - 86% 97%

Waste 1% 1% - 7% 0%

Material Risk





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Gold China 27% Tin China 30-40% Iron China 22%

Palladium



Steel China 22%



High 18%

Medium 55%

Low 27%

Material Risk

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeless_lamp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_flux

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_bulb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamps

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumen_(unit)



Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life



Stage

Decision

Maker

Environmental


Use of recycled

aluminium should

be possible, which

would reduce

embodied impacts

of materials

Designer Variable by bulb type Unquantified

Switch to LED

lighting technology Buyer

A CFL version of the

same type of lamp can

be twice the weight (of

not more) and the

materials include glass,

plastic, electronics etc.

Reduced lifetime costs of

ownership through energy

savings, but will have higher

investment cost

Replace T12

(35mm diameter)

and T8 (25mm

diameter)

fluorescent tubes

with T5 (16mm

diameter) tubes

Buyer

For every 100 T8 tubes

replaced, assuming that

lights are on for 12 hours

per day on average, you

will save ~12kWh per

day or 4380 kWh

Annual energy savings of

£3.5 per bulb.

The adaptor kits would cost

£1,500 for 100 lights,

however the T5 tubes also

last much longer than T8s

(and far longer than T12s)

reducing replacement costs

and maintenance costs.

Overall payback is generally

under 2 years.

Replace CFLs with

Cold-cathode

fluorescent lamp

(CCFL)

Buyer

Reduced thickness of

the glass tube = less

material use

Half the amount of

mercury required for

conventional CFL

bulbs

Unquantified


Replace halogen

downlighters with

LED lightbulbs in

standard GU10

fittings (standard

down-lighter

mains-voltage

fitting)

Buyer

90% reduction in use

phase energy

consumption

Reduced lifetime costs of

ownership through energy

savings, but will have higher

investment cost

Replace traditional

electric fluorescent

bulbs with

electrodeless lamps

(known as

magnetic induction

/ radiofluorescent /

fluorescent

induction lamps)

Buyer Unquantified Unquantified




Materials

Production

Use

Waste



Gydesen, A. and Maimann, D., 1991 Lifecycle Analyses of

Integral Compact Fluorescent Lamps versus Incandescent Lamps

1991 Public

NTNU, 2009. Environmental Declaration ISO 14025, Memo,

Calypso, Movero and Vision. Available at: http://www.epd-

norge.no/getfile.php/PDF/EPD/Energi/NEPD%20129E%20asy%2

0lamper.pdf. [Accessed August 2011]

2009 Public

OSRAM Opto Semiconductors GmbH and Siemens Corporate

Technology, 2009. Lifecycle Assessment of Illuminants A

Comparison of Light Bulbs, Compact Fluorescent Lamps and LED

Lamps

2009 Public

Vito, 2009. Work on Preparatory Studies for Ecodesign

Requirements of EuPs: Final report Lot 19: Domestic lighting.

(Accessed September 2011)

2009 Public

Summary history



Contributors Leigh Holloway (eco3), Aida Cierco, Charlotte Dickinson


Category 23 Solar PV

Products

Data found Photovoltaic systems

WEEE Category N/A

No/limited

studies

N/A

Industry info

Relevant

environmental

regulations

The Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) is an internationally recognised quality

assurance scheme for small (<50kW) renewable energy systems which demonstrates the

quality and reliability of approved products by satisfying rigorous and tested standards. It was

designed with input from product and installer representatives. Product certification involves

type testing of products and an assessment of the manufacturing processes, materials,

procedures and staff training.

See http://www.microgenerationcertification.org/installers/what-is-the-mcs for more

information.

Use-phase

initiatives

MCS installers and products are mandatory to obtain FITs and installers must belong to a

consumer code of practice (see

http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/microgen/solar_pv/solar_pv.aspx for

more details).

Product category

environmental

initiatives

New business models are being launched to ‘lease’ these products, rather than selling them to

consumers, where the in-use maintenance costs are borne by the supplier.

Summary

Solar PV systems are used to convert sunlight into electricity. They generally consist of photovoltaic modules strung

together into a photovoltaic array, mechanical and electrical connections and mountings, and an inverter (if required

to convert DC to AC).

The most common material currently used for solar PV is mono or poly-crystalline silicon as it is relatively cheap,

abundant and non-toxic, and benefits from the development of silicon technology for the microelectronics industry.

The basic crystalline solar cell is an area (10 – 100 cm2) of semiconductor wafer, either grown or deposited on a

conducting substrate that acts as the rear contact. Cells are usually connected in series to deliver a useful voltage

(12V standard) before being encapsulated into modules. Modules are then joined to form panels and panels are

linked to form arrays.

The following diagram shows the various components of a typical crystalline PV module:

http://www.microgenerationcertification.org/installers/what-is-the-mcs

http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/microgen/solar_pv/solar_pv.aspx


Solar PV panels can be mounted in a variety of ways to suit the situation. These include:

1. on-roof (most cost-effective as most standard panels are supplied with aluminium frames);

2. in-roof (aesthetically pleasing flush finish);

3. ground mounting (requires outside spaces available and limited shading); and

4. building integrated (integrated into slates / roof membranes).

PV panels themselves have a long life (most have a warranty of 25 years) and so very few PV panels have reached

the end of their useful life in the UK.

The warranty conditions for PV panels typically guarantee that panels can still produce at least 80% of their initial

rated peak output after 25 years. Anecdotal evidence indicates that panels installed in the 1960s are still producing

80% of their rated value. The generated electricity can be either stored, used directly (island/standalone plant) or fed

into the electricity grid (grid-connected) or combined with one or many domestic electricity generators to feed into a

small grid.

Global solar PV capacity has been increasing at an average annual growth rate of more than 40% since 2002 and has significant potential for growth over the next few decades, due largely to developments in the technology, national government incentives and more competitive technology costs. The PV industry is a relatively new sector in the UK, although the sector is increasing following the introduction of FITs in the UK from April 2010. A study for UK Trade & Investment indicates that the market could grow to be one of the largest in Europe by 2020.

Hotspots

There are a number of lifecycle assessments detailing the manufacturing process of solar panels from raw

materials through to installation and use. These studies consider the main solar cell technologies of mono, poly

and amorphous crystalline and the thin film cells. As solar PV is not an EuP, the majority of the impacts and the

focus of these studies is on the manufacturing, distribution and installation phases. However, there are impacts

associated with the use phase that are not well documented as in most cases these are considered to be small, if

not negligible. These are the use of water for cleaning the panels, the inverter which will have an efficiency in the

region of 94% resulting in the loss of some of the solar energy in the conversion from DC to AC, and which will

have a lifetime of approximately 15 years compared to a solar panel which will have a minimum of 25 years.

A further area that is often discussed but not quantified is the disposal of the solar panels. Approved disposal

methods will be based on the presence of any toxic substances usually associated with the semi-conductor used.

However, silicon can be recycled in addition to any metal and glass in the panel.







Materials 80% - 100% - -


Use - - - - -

Waste - - - - -

Material Risk





High 0%

Medium 70%

Low 30%

Material Risk


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Silicon China Iron China 22%

Tin China 30-

40% Copper Chile 20%




Gallium Germany 0%

Tellurium Canada <10%


Product

design &

specification

Production

Process

In-use End of life




Use cheaper and

reduced embedded

carbon thin film PV

panels rather than

crystalline

Manufacturer ~500kgCO2/KWp)

Average about

£700 per KWp

manufactured

Improved product

life and durability Designer

Less tonnage of

panels need to be

recycled

Cost savings with

longer life, panels

don't need to be

replaced as often

Integrate PV panels

in building - to act

as dual purpose,

e.g. tiles, blinds

etc.

Buyer

Blinds etc. help to

reduce energy use

within the building

Costs higher,

though some cost

saved through

integrating in

construction rather

than bolt-on




Materials

Production


Use

Waste



Alsema, E.A. and Wild-Scholten, M.J. 2004. Environmental lifecycle

assessment of advanced silicon solar cell technologies. Presented

at the 19th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 7-11

June 2004, Paris

2004 Public

BFF, 2007. An Ecological Footprint and Carbon Audit of Sharp

Solar’s Llay Plant

2007 Confidential

Centre for Remanufacturing and Reuse, 2008. The Potential for

Remanufacturing of Photovoltaic Solar Cells

2008 Public

Fthenakis, V, Chul Kim, H, and Alsema, E., 2008. Emissions from

photovoltaic lifecycles. Environ. Sci. Technolo. 42, p. 2168-2174

2008 Public

Raugei, M., Bargigli, S. and Ulgiati, S. Energy and lifecycle

assessment of thin film CdTe photovoltaic modules

Public

Stopatto, A. 2008. Lifecycle assessment of photovoltaic electricity

generation. Energy 33, p. 224-232

2008 Public

Summary history



Contributors Charlotte Dickinson, Sam Matthews, Kevin Lewis, Aida Cierco


Category 24 Household wind turbines

Products

Data found Small wind turbine

WEEE Category N/A

No/limited studies N/A

Industry info


regulations

The Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) is an internationally recognised

quality assurance scheme for small (<50kW) systems which demonstrates the

quality and reliability of approved products by satisfying rigorous and tested

standards. It was designed with input from product and installer representatives.

Product certification involves type testing of products and an assessment of the

manufacturing processes, materials, procedures and staff training.

See http://www.microgenerationcertification.org/installers/what-is-the-mcs for

more information.

Use-phase initiatives MCS installers and products are mandatory to obtain FITs and installers must

belong to a consumer code of practice (see:

http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/microgen/micro_turbine

s/micro_turbines.aspx for more details).

Product category


There are no government grant-funded initiatives.

Summary

This category summary focuses on small wind (domestic-type) installations only – used for homes, small farms or

a small business, with a capacity of 50kW or less.

There are two ways to mount a domestic-sized wind turbine:

mast: these are free standing and are erected in a suitably exposed position, often around 2.5kW to 6kW; and

roof: these are smaller than mast mounted systems and can be installed on the roof of a home where there is a suitable wind resource. Often these are around 1kW to 2kW in size.

Wind turbines fall into two technology types:

horizontal axis – most common type which has a tail vane to turn it to face the direction of the wind; and

vertical axis – these turbines are less common but are well suited to building mounting/integration.

The general components are: rotors (usually made from glass reinforced plastic); generator (converts rotational movement to electrical energy); inverter (to convert the generated DC electricity to AC for grid connection); battery (storage of electrical energy for off-grid applications); and mast (structural support – usually steel).

Annual servicing is usually recommended by installers and equipment providers and in some cases it is necessary

to ensure the warranty is valid. The majority of turbines have a design life of 20 – 25 years. Other ancillary

equipment may have shorter lifetimes, for example battery life is typically 6 – 10 years and inverters are

approximately 15 years.

The Energy Saving Trust report, ‘Location, location, location; Domestic small scale wind field trial report’ (July

2009), showed that micro-wind installations could produce energy and carbon savings but only when located in

appropriate areas with an undisturbed wind resource.

Wind energy output is determined by something known as the cube rule. The cube rule states that each time the wind speed doubles, the output from the turbine increases eight times. By doubling the diameter of the blade,

http://www.microgenerationcertification.org/installers/what-is-the-mcs

http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/microgen/micro_turbines/micro_turbines.aspx

http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/microgen/micro_turbines/micro_turbines.aspx


you increase the electricity output by four. The larger the turbine, the larger the rotor, which is the single largest factor in determining the amount of power that is generated by a turbine.

Hotspots

Micro wind generation is a relatively new technology and until recently was primarily marketed to the off-grid

markets such as yachting, caravanning and rural locations. More recently, with the launch of the Windsave

turbine at B&Q stores, the general public has taken an interest in this technology. As such there are only a few

LCA studies available. There is a strong focus in these studies on the manufacturing processes, the raw materials

and the energy generation during the use phase. There is a lack of information related to the waste generation

and disposal throughout the lifetime of the turbines, particularly the end of life of the turbine itself mainly due to

the relative newness of the product. Furthermore, there is little information on the materials and waste generated

during the use phase. It is estimated that the lifetime of the turbines is 20-25 years, however, ancillary

equipment such as batteries and inverters have shorter lifetimes and would need to be disposed of and replaced.







Materials - - 100% - -


Use -107% -107% - - -

Waste - - - - -

Material Risk





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Steel China 22% Copper Chile 20%





Significant gaps are present throughout the lifecycle of a wind turbine in all environmental metrics. Further

research should focus on small scale turbine material impacts, which are expected to be much different from

larger scale turbines that have been studied to a far greater extent.

High 0%

Medium 80%

Low 20%

Material Risk



Materials

Production

Use

Waste



Allen, S.R., Hammond, G.P., McManus, M.C.,2008 . Energy

Analysis and Environmental Lifecycle Assessment of a Micro-Wind

Turbine

2008 Public

Rankine, R.K., Chick, J.P., Harrison, G.P., 2006. Energy and

carbon audit of a rooftop wind turbine. Proceedings of the

IMechE, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 2006 220:643

2006 Public

Tremeac, B. and Meunier, F., 2009. Lifecycle analysis of 4.4MW

and 250MW wind turbines. Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews. Vol. 13, pp. 2104-2110

2009 Public

Summary history



Contributors Charlotte Dickinson, Sam Matthews, Kevin Lewis, Aida Cierco

www.wrap.org.uk/psf

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