paper 110

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Arth Prabhand: A Journal of Economics and Management

Vol.2 Issue 8 August 2013, ISSN 2278-0629

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ANALYSING THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN ENHANCING JOB

SATISFACTION

MRS. PALLAVI KUMARI*

*Lecturer,

Biju Patnaik Institute of Information Technology & Management Studies,

Bhubaneswar, India.

ABSTRACT

Employee satisfaction is essential to the success of any business. Job satisfaction is

the function of the perceived relationship between what one expects and obtains from

ones job and how much importance or value he attributes to it. This paper critically elaborates the importance of job satisfaction related to ones work life. This paper also highlights the linkage of employee motivation and job satisfaction and discusses

the different models and techniques of measuring job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is

a workers sense of achievement and success on the job. It is generally perceived to be directly linked to productivity as well as to personal well-being. This study

recommended that job satisfaction can affect employees performance, confidence level and behaviour which are vital for the success of an organization. The outcomes

of the paper indicate that job satisfaction is an individuals emotional reaction to the job itself and poor job satisfaction leads to high levels of absenteeism and staff

turnover in an organization. Job satisfaction is motivational factors and leads to

positive employment relationships and high levels of individual job performance.

KEYWORDS: Job satisfaction, industrial relation, organization, absenteeism.

To know about employee motivation and job satisfaction

To study the various theories related to job satisfaction

To identify the techniques of measuring job satisfaction

To study the various model & effects of the job satisfaction

_____________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Employee satisfaction is essential to the success of any business. Today's business environment

is characterized by weak economies, rapidly changing technology, organizational re-engineering,

shortened length of tenure, and outsourcing of peripheral business activities. Under these

circumstances, managers should concentrate on removing sources of dissatisfaction from the

workplace in order to keep employees busy, productive, and satisfied. At the same time,

employees need to take responsibility for their own satisfaction in their job. Thus, keeping

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employees satisfied with their careers should be a major priority for every employer. The present industrial culture is characterized by a work system which does not significantly

stimulate workers to peak performance. It has led to a state where many individuals have become

alienated and consequently, have lost zest for work. It has not helped individuals in gratifying

their social and psychological needs and has therefore generated feelings of subordination,

dependence and submissiveness. It has also re-emphasized self-actualization, growth process,

creativity and invasiveness. The situation is still worse in case of small scale units where

workers, in absence of job security and adequate work rewards find it extremely difficult to

satisfy their physiological needs continually. Research studies have also stated, in general, that

many persons work today not because work offers any pleasure but there is no other way of

earning & living. Under the circumstances, where increased employee alienation from system of

work is one of the important facts of work life these days, jobs do not seem to arouse interest or

satisfaction among employees.

CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION

The term employee satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job tend to be

more productive, creative and committed to their employers while a person who is dissatisfied

with his or her job holds negative attitudes about the job. Job satisfaction also occurs when a job

meets the expectations, values and standards of an individual and will influence their

commitment and performance. So from here, it is how an organization gets satisfied their

workers in order to get their commitment to performed well.

Job satisfaction is the state of feelings towards the job undertaken by an employee either

positively or negatively. Job satisfaction is a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the

appraisal of ones job. It is an affective reaction to ones job; It is also called an attitude towards ones job. Job satisfaction of employee increased the commitment and decreased the turnover of employees (Jauch & Sekaran 1978). Job characteristics caused the employee

satisfaction about its job. Job satisfaction is effected by different climatic factor such as Stress,

Employee involvement in decision making and Communication. While Stress is negatively

related with job satisfaction (Bhagat 1982).Communication about job related issues and

employee involvement in decision making is positively related with job satisfaction (Bateman

1977; White & Ruh 1973).Job satisfaction represents the extent to which expectations are

matched with the real awards. Job satisfaction is closely linked to that individual's behaviour in

the work place (Davis 1985).

Job satisfaction is a workers sense of achievement and success on the job. It is generally perceived to be directly linked to productivity as well as to personal well-being. Job satisfaction

implies doing a job one enjoys, doing it well and being rewarded for ones efforts. Job satisfaction further implies enthusiasm and happiness with ones work. Job satisfaction is the key ingredient that leads to recognition, income, promotion, and the achievement of other goals that

lead to a feeling of fulfilment (Kaliski,2007).

Job satisfaction is the collection of feeling and beliefs that people have about their current job.

Peoples levels of degrees of job satisfaction can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme

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dissatisfaction. People also can have attitudes about various aspects of their jobs such as the kind

of work they do, their co-workers, supervisors or subordinates and their pay (George 2008). Job

satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept which can mean different things to different

people. Job satisfaction is more of an attitude, an internal state. It could, For example, be

associated with a personal feeling of achievement, either quantitative or qualitative

(Mullins, 2005).

OBJECTIVE AND METHODLOGY OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study is as follows:

To know about employee motivation and job satisfaction

To study the various theories related to job satisfaction

To identify the techniques of measuring job satisfaction

To study the various model & effects of the job satisfaction

Available secondary data is extensively used for the study. Different news articles, books and

magazines were used .The required data for the present study has been collected from different

websites.

RATIONAL OF THE STUDY

Job satisfaction represents one of the most complex areas facing todays managers when it comes to managing their employees. Many studies use a global approach to measure job satisfaction,

even though results of global measures show an artificially high proportion of satisfied

employees, ranging from about 60 to 80 per cent (Bussing 1999). But high percentages of

satisfied employees should not be interpreted without reservation as a sign of a satisfying work

situation. The source of job satisfaction must be considered too. Job satisfaction can be the result

of actually fulfilling need satisfaction at work, but also the consequence of lowered aspiration

level. The high proportion of satisfied employees can often be explained by large proportion of

employees who have passively resigned from their work situation (Bssing et al. 1999).Globally

job satisfied employees show higher commitment and lower intention to quit. Job satisfaction has

not still received the proper attention from neither scholars nor managers of various business

organizations.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There seems general consensus that job satisfaction has obtained a recognized position in the

literature of industrial and organizational psychology. Angelia Herrin (2004) states that the

management literature is full of advice for executives who want to deliver effective performance

reviews of employees, however, employees are not using review sessions to talk about what they

want and need. This article discusses the need for employee satisfaction in their workplace. To

carry out the employees' concerns with regards to their job, they must have the skills to voice it

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out during performance reviews. They must understand that workplace satisfaction is a two-way

street. It is also stressed out that the role of managers in making the employees understand that

declaration of dissatisfaction will not get much reaction rather proposals to help solve a problem

will get an immediate response.

There is evidence that job satisfaction positively influences organizational citizenship behaviour

(Organ 1995). The link between job satisfaction and direct performance is found to be

unequivocal (Vroom 1964), despite the fact that the direction of causal relationship between

individual performance and job satisfaction is disputable; it means: whether happy workers are

productive workers or vice versa (Iaffaldano 1985). Job satisfaction can be defined as an

individual general attitude towards his or her job(Macmillan English Dictionary (2002). Job

satisfaction is the feeling that one has when he enjoys his job. (Kotzell 1980). Alarami (1998)

studied the different angle of job satisfaction by including workload, promotion, financial

reward, work challenges, work relationships, authority, and adequacy of resources. (Maanen and

Katz 1976).Harter, Schmidt and Hayes (2002) mentioned that 7,855 articles having being

published between 1976 and 2000, on job satisfaction. Cole and Cole in their study mentioned

that majority of the examining the employee satisfaction performance relationship has been

conducted on the micro level of analysis and a handful of studies have explored the relationship

between aggregated employee job satisfaction attitudes and organizational (unit level)

performance. Haque (1992), in their study on Perceived Importance of Different Job Facet and Overall Job Satisfaction of Industrial Workers in Bangladesh- An Empirical Study found that numbers of satisfied subjects with their present job are significantly higher than those of the

dissatisfying subjects.

Spector (1997) lists three important features of job satisfaction. First, organizations should be

guided by human values. Such organizations will be oriented towards treating workers fairly and

with respect. In such cases the assessment of job satisfaction may serve as a good indicator of

employee effectiveness. High levels of job satisfaction may be sign of a good emotional and

mental state of employees. Second, the behaviour of workers depending on their level of job

satisfaction will affect the functioning and activities of the organization's business. From this it

can be concluded that job satisfaction will result in positive behaviour and vice versa,

dissatisfaction from the work will result in negative behaviour of employees. Third, job

satisfaction may serve as indicators of organizational activities. Through job satisfaction

evaluation different levels of satisfaction in different organizational units can be defined, but in

turn can serve as a good indication regarding in which organizational unit changes that would

boost performance should be made. Skills discretion is the level of task variety that the employee

experiences at work. Aspects such as learning opportunities, opportunity to use own skills and

task variety are examples of skill discretion. Decision authority is freedom to plan and organize

own work, freedom to take breaks when needed and freedom to decide what to do and how to do

the work. Johnson expanded the job demand control model by adding the dimension of social

support at the workplace (Johnson 1986), thus resulting in demand-control-support model. This

model assumes that job strain is a result of the interaction of three job dimensions: demands,

control and also social support, the latter being defined as overall levels of helpful social interaction available on the job from both co-workers and supervisors. According to demand-control-support model the highest strain arises in a work environment when demands are high,

control - low and social support - low. All these theories carry useful concepts for understanding

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motivation and job satisfaction and in that way complement each other. Theories, based on

investigation of needs show that different people want different things from the employment.

Clear, specific, agreed-upon goals are important motivators. Equity theory shows that pay and

pay programs must be perceived to be fair if they are to work as intended. Expectancy theory

shows the importance of the contingency between performance and reward. As there is some

validity in each of the approaches, it suggests that combining them should increase performance,

which is a function of ability of a worker and his/her motivation. Organizations may choose

those approaches that fit their employee groups and their situation (Economical Research

Institute). Abdualkhalig (1982) pointed out that the majority of job satisfaction research has

been directed towards lower level employees, adding that it is limited with regards to looking at

managers, technicians and professionals. Caring about employees on a personal level is

important as well. Let them know that the work that they do, the lives that they lead, also are of

benefit to the company. The employer can make sure that employees are aware of their

achievements. These employers can show appreciation for those achievements. Conversely,

employers should take notice when employees become overwhelmed and attempt to alleviate the

daily burden by adding more help when it is obviously needed. ( Timpe 1986).

JOB SATISFACTION: DEFINITIONS, IMPORTANCE AND ITS IMPACT

Job satisfaction is an important factor for the organizations success. Job satisfaction has been

defined in various contexts by various authors are mentioned below:

Job satisfaction is an indicator of how well a person is doing his or her job. Human resource

management is an important aspect of an organization. Success and failure of an organization

depends mostly on the performance of employees. Job satisfaction is obviously an important

factor for all organizations. Companies must continuously improve employee satisfaction in

order to stay profitable. Job satisfaction can be defined as an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. (Robbins, 2003). Robbins (2005) defines job satisfaction as a collection of feelings that an individual holds towards his or her job.In summary, job satisfaction is a collection of positive feelings or an emotional state that a person perceives based on a variety of

aspects of the work itself or work environment. Job satisfaction can be a important indicator of

the employees feeling about their job and a predictor of work behaviour such as organizational citizenship (Organ & Ryan, 1995), absenteeism (Wegge, Schmidt, Parkes, & Van Dick, 2007),

and turnover (Saari & Judge, 2004 quoted in Wikipedia, 2009).

Rain, Lane & Steiner (1991) states that job satisfaction is correlated to life satisfaction which

means that people who satisfied with life will tend to be satisfied with the job and people who

are satisfied with their job will tend to be satisfied with their life. Satisfied workers will be more

productive and stay with the organization longer, while dissatisfied workers will be less

productive and will have more tendency to quit the work in between (Sarker, A.H., Crossman,

Chinmeteepituck, 2003). Productivity results from looking at how hard employees work and how

smartly they work. According to Reichheld(1996), there are three criteria that impact how hard

employees are working. They work hard when: (1) they have job pride, (2) when they find their

jobs interesting and meaningful, and (3) when they are recognized for their work and benefit

from the work they have accomplished. He states that employees work smart when they are

adequately trained and have been on the job long enough to reap the benefits from their training

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The satisfied employees tend to provide higher level of external service quality and the service

experience to the customers leads to customer satisfaction. Arnett, Laverie and McLane (2002)

found that employee satisfaction is linked to positive employee behaviour such as having a

customer orientation. Job satisfaction can be a leading contribution factor for the success of a

service industry employer. It is axiomatic that satisfied employees tend to lead to satisfied guests.

Another benefit of job satisfaction is reduced turnover. Previous researchers have shown that

satisfied employees are more likely to stay in the organization than those who are dissatisfied

(Mobley 1979; and Salazar and Hubbard, 2000). So, by focusing on what contributes to job

satisfaction, an organization can reduce turnover. By evaluating job satisfaction an organization

can possibly increase positive outcomes such as employee performance and satisfaction, and

may also decrease absenteeism and turnover. Investigating the employee or employee's value-

perception can aid in managers building and creating work environments that help them to

achieve high levels of employee satisfaction. The intention of investigating employee job

satisfaction is a step toward creating a healthy psychological contract for people at work

(Schermerhorn, 1996). Schermerhorn(2000) has defined job satisfaction as the degree to which

an individuals feel positive or negative about their jobs. It is an attitude or emotional response to

one`s tasks as well as to the physical and social conditions of the workplace. Job satisfaction is

motivational factors and leads to positive employment relationships and high levels of individual

job performance.

According to Locke and Henne the definition could be the pleasant emotional state which flows from someone realizing his/her motives (values) in the work. Job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people

like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their job. As it is generally assessed, job satisfaction

is an attitudinal variable (Spector 1997).Greenberg and Baron(2000) defined work satisfaction as employees cognitive, affective and evaluative reactions directed toward their work.Work satisfaction is an affective orientation towards anticipated outcome (Wanous 1972). Job

satisfaction has been defined as an affective state describing feeling about ones work. According to Abu-Bader (Abu-Bader SH.2000) satisfaction and dissatisfaction are a function of the

relationship between what individuals expect from their work and what they actually derive. Job

satisfaction can be considered as a global feeling about the job or as a related constellation of

attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job. The global approach and the facet approach

can be used to get a complete picture of employees job satisfaction (Spector 1997).Facets are specific elements of a job, such as the challenge a job provides, the physical environment in

which work is constructed, and the salary received. People may have different evaluative

responses toward each facet of the job. According to Werner Rose (1994) job satisfaction has

five facets, which can be put together to measure a Job Descriptive Index (JDI) as follows:

The work itself responsibility, interest and growth.

Quality of supervision technical help and social support.

Relationships with co-workers social harmony and respect.

Promotion opportunities chances for further advancement.

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Pay adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis--vis others.

Research tends to divide the characteristics of work into two broad categories: extrinsic variables

and intrinsic variables. In 1959 Herzberg made the distinction between the intrinsic rewards from

the job and the extrinsic rewards from the job. The intrinsic factors refer to a jobs inherent features, peoples affective reactions to features integral to the work itself. The extrinsic work factors focus on issues that are external to the job itself, such as pay (Landy 1989).The

distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic work factors, rewards, motives, needs etc. remains to

be a useful tool in studies of many researchers. According to Schermerhorn(2000) the

importance of job satisfaction can be viewed in the context of two decisions people make about

their work. The first is the decision to belong that is, join and remain a member of an organization. The second is the decision to perform that is, to work hard in pursuit of high levels of task performance.

Job satisfaction influences absenteeism or the failure of people to attend work. Job satisfaction

can also affect turnover or decisions by people to terminate their employment. There are

important reasons why the researcher should be concerned with job satisfaction. The first is that

people deserve to be treated fairly and with respect. Job satisfaction is to some extent a reflection

of good treatment. It can also be considered as an indicator of emotional well-being or

physiological health. The second reason is that job satisfaction can lead to behaviour of

employees that affects organisational functioning. Furthermore, job satisfaction can be a

reflection of organisational functioning. Differences among organisational units in job

satisfaction can be diagnostic of potential trouble spots. Dissatisfied workers are more likely to

provide inferior services, the physical and mental status, and the social functioning of these

workers can be affected substantially by the level of their job satisfaction (. Mc

Neely1988).However, as Schermerhorn (2000) points out, job satisfaction alone is not a

consistent predictor of individual work performance.

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

According to Pinder(1998) work motivation may be regarded as a set of internal and external

forces that initiate work-related behaviour, and determine its form, direction, intensity and

duration. The concept relates to the work context specifically, and includes the influence on work

behaviour of both environmental forces, and those inherent in the person. In the workplace, work

motivation presents as an invisible, personal and hypothetical construct that manifests itself in

the form of observable, and therefore measurable, behaviours. Sempane, Rieger and Roodt

(2002) hold that job satisfaction relates to peoples own evaluation of their jobs against those issues that are important to them. Since emotions and feelings are involved in such assessments,

employees levels of job satisfaction may impact significantly on their personal, social and work lives, and as such, also influence their behaviour at work. Job satisfaction is so important since

its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment (Levinson, 1997,

Moser, 1997). Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein

and Hellmann, 1997; Jamal, 1997). Sometimes workers may quit from public to the private

sector and vice versa. At the other times the movement is from one profession to another that is

considered a greener pasture (Nwagwu, 1997). In such countries, people tend to migrate to better

and consistently paying jobs (Fafunwa, 1971). Explaining its nature some researcher (e.g.

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Armentor, Forsyth, 1995, Flanegan, Johnson and Berret, 1996; Kadushin, and Kulys, 1995) tend

to agree that job satisfaction is essentially controlled by factors described in Adeyemo's (2000)

perspectives as external to the worker. From this viewpoint satisfaction on a job might be

motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers

peculiar needs are met. Working conditions that are similar to local and international standard

(Osagbemi, 2000), and extent to which they resemble work conditions of other professions in the

locality. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay satisfaction, promotion

opportunities, and task clarity (Bolarin, 1993; Gemenxhenandez, Max, Kosier, Paradiso and

Robinson, 1997). Other researchers (e.g. MacDonald, 1996; O'Toole, 1980) argue in favour of

the control of job satisfaction by factors intrinsic to the workers. Their arguments are based on

the idea that workers deliberately decide to find satisfaction in their jobs and perceive them as

worthwhile.

THEORIES RELATED TO SATISFACTION HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

(MASLOW, 1954)

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory contends that individuals have five basic needs (Woods, 2002). In essence, Maslows theory is based on three assumptions. First, that people must satisfy lower- order needs before moving on to the next need in the hierarchy. Second, that behaviour

(or motivation) is only stimulated by unsatisfied needs. Third, that humans needs range from the

very basic to the more complex .Maslows theory identifies the following five categories of needs:

1. Physiological needs -include basic and essential needs, sometimes call biological needs.

Examples of these needs include heat, light, food, and comfort.

2. Safety and security needs In organizations, this level of need might include an employees need for job security, seniority, safe working conditions, benefits, insurance and retirement plan,

and severance pay.

3. Social needs - In organization, such needs may be met through formal and informal work

group, teams, and company-sponsored activities.

4. Esteem needs - In organization; esteem needs might involve personal\ reputation, recognition,

titles, praise, status symbol, responsibility, promotions, and appreciation.

5. Self-Actualization needs Seeking to realize ones full potential, increase knowledge or skills, be creative, or simply be the best I can are manifestations of this need in both personal and professional life.

TWO - FACTOR THEORY (HERZBERG, 1959)

Herzbergs Two- Factor Theory divides motivation and job satisfaction into two groups of factors known as the motivation factors and hygiene factors (Riley, 2005)

According to Hartel (2007) Hygiene factors are characteristics of the work environment, which

minimize discomfort, and in security. Hygiene factors are the job context factors, which

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include company policy, supervision, relationship with supervision, work conditions,

relationship with peers, salary, personal life, relationship with subordinates, status, and job

security (Ruthankoon, 2003 quoted in Riley, 2005).

Motivation factors are the characteristics of work environment, which promotes employee

growth and development. On the other hand, the motivating factors are explained as the six job content factors including achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and possibility of growth. Hygiene Factors are the environmental related factors associated with

negative feelings. On the other hand, the motivation factors are the factors associated with

positive feeling (Hodgetts & Hegar, 2005). Although hygiene factors do not motivate employees,

and thats the reason their absence increases dissatisfaction. In contrast, motivation factors encourage effort; however, an absence of these will not increase dissatisfaction as will the

hygiene factors, rather, it will lead to dissatisfaction. Therefore, the basic premise of the Two-

Factor Theory is that if an employer or manager is trying to increase job satisfaction and

ultimately job performance for an employee or co-worker, then they need to address those

factors that affect ones job satisfaction. The most direct approach is to work on the intrinsic job content factors i.e. giving encouragement and recognition to the employee will helps them to feel

more valued within the company, as well as giving a sense of achievement and responsibility

(Riley, 2005).

FIGURE NO : 1 TWO FACTOR THEORY HERZBERG

THE TECHNIQUES OF MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is a qualitative aspect and cannot be understood in strict quantitative terms. It is

an intangible and psychological concept. It was concluded that job satisfaction should be

measured through survey of employees attitudes. In most of the organisations, there is a practice of conducting surveys of employees intentions in a regular manner. The commonly applied

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techniques employed to measure job satisfaction are discussed below:

i) Rating Scales: Rating scales are the commonly adopted method that is used for the measuring

job satisfaction. It comprises of certain statements describing the attitude of the employees with

respect to the job, organisation and personal factors. For each declaration or statement, the

employee is invited to express his opinion on a scale consisting of different expressions.

ii) Personal Interviews: Conducting personal interviews has also proved important method of

measuring job satisfaction of the employees. The experts conduct these personal interviews

where employees express their opinions on job satisfaction. The responses delivered through

these interviews are analyzed to find their level of job satisfaction. It is believed that this method

is likely to have personal biased views of the interviewer also.

iii) Tendencies: The employees are asked to express their tendency or inclination on several

aspects and this reveals their satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

iv) Critical Incidents: Herzberg made developed approach to measure job satisfaction. In this

particular method, the employees were asked to describe incidents on their job when they were

particularly satisfied or dissatisfied. These set of incidents were then analyzed to determine their

positive and negative attitudes.

MODELS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Job Satisfaction is the favourableness or unfavourableness with which employees view their

work. It signifies the amount of agreement between ones expectations of the job and the rewards to the job provides. Job Satisfaction is concerned with a person or a group in the organization.

Job Satisfaction can be applicable more to parts of an individuals job. If each person is highly satisfied with his job then only it will be considered as group job satisfaction. There are many

different approaches are suggested for job satisfaction as Affect Theory, Dispositional Theory,

Job characteristics model and Herzbergs theory. In the present our main consideration is Herzbergs Theory.

AFFECT THEORY

Edwin A. Lockes Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy

between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how

much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates

how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/arent met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively and

negatively, compared to one who doesnt value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A

would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a

position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too

much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker

values that facet.

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SOCIAL REFERENCES - GROUP THEORY

It takes into account the point of view & opinions of the group to whom the individual looks for

the guidance. Such groups are defined as the 'reference-group' for the individual in that they

define the way in which he should look at the world and evaluate various phenomena in the

environment (including him). It would be predicted, according to this theory that if a job meets

the interest, desires and requirements of a person's reference group, he will like it & if it does

not, he will not like it. A good example of this theory has been given by C.L. Hulin. He measures

the effects of community characteristics on job satisfaction of female clerical workers employed

in 300 different catalogue order offices. He found that with job conditions held constant job

satisfaction was less among persons living in a well-to-do neighbourhood than among those

whose neighbourhood was poor. Hulin thus provides strong evidence that such frames of

reference for evaluation may be provided by one's social groups and general social environment.

To sum up, we can say, Job satisfaction is a function of or is positively related to the degree to

which the characteristics of the job meet with approved & the desires of the group to which the

individual looks for guidance in evaluating the world & defining social reality.

TWO-FACTOR THEORY (MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY)

Frederick Herzbergs two factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and

dissatisfaction are driven by different factors motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide

people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities.

These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out.

Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies,

supervisory practices, and other working conditions.

While Herzbergs model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Herzberg's

original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact. Furthermore, the

theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in

an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors. Finally, the model has been

criticized in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured.

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL

Hack man & Oldham proposed the Job Characteristics Model, which is widely used as a

framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job

satisfaction. The model states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task

identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical Psychological

states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of

the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work

motivation, etc.). The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating

potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an

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employee's attitudes and behaviors. A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the

model provides some support for the validity of the JCM.

MODEL FOR JOB SATISFACTION

Lawler and Porter (1967) give their model of job satisfaction which is drawn below:

FIGURE 2 - LAWLERS AND PORTERS MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION (LAWLER AND PORTER, 1967)

According to this model the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not directly connected with job

satisfaction, because of the employees perceptions regarding the deserved level of pay. Locke and Latham (1990) provide a somewhat different model of job satisfaction. They proceed from

the assumption that the objectives set at the highest level and high expectations for success in

work provides achievement and success in performing tasks. Success is analysed as a factors that

create job satisfaction. This model is presented in Figure

Intrinsic rewards

Extrinsic rewards

Job Satisfaction

Perceived equitable rewards

Performance

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Locke and Latham (1990) give the model of job satisfaction which is drawn below :

FIGURE 3 - LOCKE AND LATHAM MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION

(LOCKE AND LATHAM, 1990)

INFLUENCES OF JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction causes a series of on influences on various aspects of organizational life,

employee productivity, loyalty and absenteeism. The research evidence indicates that there is no

strong linkage between satisfaction and productivity. Satisfied workers will not necessarily be

the highest producers. There are many possible moderating variables, the most important of

which seems to be rewards. If people receive rewards they feel are equitable, they will be

satisfies and this is likely to result in greater performance effort. Also, recent research evidence

indicates that satisfaction may not necessarily lead to individual performance improvement but

does lead to departmental and organizational level improvements. Finally there is a still

considerable debate weather satisfaction lead to performance or performance leads to satisfaction

(Luthans, 1998). Employee loyalty is one of the most significant factors that human resource

managers in particular must have in mind. Employee loyalty is usually measured with the

Loyalty Questionnaire and can cause serious negative consequences when not in a high level.

Usually three types of employee loyalty are considered: affective loyalty, normative loyalty and

continuity loyalty. Affective loyalty has do with the cases when an employee feels an emotional

connection to the company, normative loyalty is a sort of loyalty that appears in cases when the

Mediating

mechanism

Commitments to the goal of

the organization

Satisfaction and anticipation

High

expectancy

Self-

efficiency

Specific high

goals

Moderating factors

High performance Rewards

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employee feels like he owns something to the company and continuity loyalty comes as a result

of the fact that the employee does not have an opportunity to find a job somewhere else.

Research conducted by Vander berg and Lance (1992) during which they surveyed 100

professional in the information services for five months showed a strong relations between job

satisfaction and employee loyalty. Their research proved that the higher the degree of job

satisfaction the higher is the level of employee loyalty.

Employee absenteeism causes serious additional costs for companies, therefore managers are in

permanent peruse of ways how to decrease and reduce it to its minimum. Probably, the best way

to reduce employee absenteeism would be through an increase in the level of employee

satisfaction. The main idea behind this approach is that the higher the degree of job satisfaction

is the lower employee absenteeism should be. Even though the effects are modest the fact that

job satisfaction contributes to decreasing the level of employee absenteeism remains. As a

manager you could be implicitly encouraging absenteeism by enforcing company policies. If

people are paid for sick days, and if they must be used or lost this is pretty strong encouragement for employees to be absent. In other words, youve helped create a culture of absenteeism that can overcome the satisfaction effect. (Sweney and McFarlin, 2005). When satisfaction is high, absenteeism tends to be low; when satisfaction is low, absenteeism tends to

be high. However as with the other relationships with satisfaction, there are moderating variables

such as the degree to which people feel their jobs are important. Additionally, it is important to

remember that while high job satisfaction will not necessarily result in low absenteeism, low job

satisfaction is likely to bring about high absenteeism.

EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction has a variety of effects. These effects may be seen in the context of an

individuals physical and mental health, productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

(A) PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH: The degree of job satisfaction affects an

individuals physical and mental health. Since job satisfaction is a type of mental feeling, its favourableness or unfavourableness affects the individual psychologically which ultimately

affects his physical health. For example, Lawler has pointed out that drug abuse, alcoholism and

mental and physical health result from psychologically harmful jobs. Further, since a job is an

important part of life, job satisfaction influences general life satisfaction. The result is that there

is spillover effect which occurs in both directions between job and life satisfaction.

(B) PRODUCTIVITY: There are two views about the relationship between job satisfaction and

productivity:

1. A happy worker is a productive worker,

2. A happy worker is not necessarily a productive worker.

The first view establishes a direct cause-effect relationship between job satisfaction and

productivity; when job satisfaction increases, productivity increases; when job satisfaction

decreases, productivity decreases. The basic logic behind this is that a happy worker will put

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more effort for job performance. However, this may not true in all cases. For example, a worker

having low expectations from his jobs may feel satisfied but he may not put his effort more

vigorously because of his low expectations from the job. Therefore, this view does not explain

fully the complex relationship between job satisfaction and productivity.

Another view: That is a satisfied worker is not necessarily a productive worker explain the

relationship between job satisfaction and productivity. Various research studies also support this

view. This relationship may be explained in terms of the operation of two factors: effect of job

performance on satisfaction and organizational expectations from individuals for job

performance.

1. Job performance leads to job satisfaction and not the other way round. The basic factor this phenomenon is the rewards attached with performance. There are two types of rewards

intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic reward stems from the job itself which may be in the

form of growth potential, challenging job etc. the satisfaction on such a type of reward may

help to increase productivity. The extrinsic reward is subject to control by management such

as salary, bonus, etc. any increase in these factor does not help to increase productivity

though these factors increase job satisfaction.

2. A happy worker does not necessarily contribute to higher productivity because he has to operate under certain technological constraints and, therefore, he cannot go beyond certain

output. Further, this constraint affects the managements expectations from the individuals in the form of lower output. Thus, the work situation is pegged to minimally acceptable level of

performance.

However, it does not mean that the job satisfaction has no impact on productivity. A satisfied

worker may not necessarily lead to increased productivity but a dissatisfied worker leads to

lower productivity.

(3) ABSENTEEISM: Absenteeism refers to the frequency of absence of a job holder from the

workplace either unexcused absence due to some avoidable or long absence due to some

unavoidable reason. It is the famous type of absence which is a matter of concern. This absence

is due to lack of satisfaction from the job which produces a lack of will to work and alienate a worker from work as far as possible. Thus, job satisfaction is related to absenteeism.

(4) EMPLOYEE TURNOVER: Turnover of employees is the rate at which employees leave

the organization within a given period of time. As under defence mechanism, when an individual

feels dissatisfaction in the organization, he tried to overcome this through the various ways of

defence mechanism. If he is not able to do so, he opts to leave the organization. Thus in general

case, employee turnover is related to job satisfaction. However, job satisfaction is not only cause

of employee turnover, other cause being better opportunity elsewhere. However, these

professionals leave their organizations not simply because they are not satisfied but because of

opportunities offered from other sources particularly from foreign companies located abroad.

(5) IMPROVING JOB SATISFACTION: Job satisfaction plays significant role in the

organization. Therefore, managers should take concrete steps to improve the level of job

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satisfaction. These steps may be in the form of job redesigning to make the job more interesting

and challenging, improving quality of work life, linking rewards with performance, and

improving overall organizational climate.

DISCUSSION

Job satisfaction can be considered as one of the main factors when it comes to efficiency and

effectiveness of business organizations. Job satisfaction represents a feeling that appears as a

result of the perception that the job enables the material and psychological needs. In fact the new

managerial paradigm which insists that employees should be treated and considered primarily as

human beings that have their own wants, needs, personal desires is a very good indicator for the

importance of job satisfaction in contemporary companies. When analysing job satisfaction the

logic that a satisfied employee is a happy employee and a happy employee is a successful

employee. The important factors are job characteristics, compensation and benefits, status, social

security, advancement opportunities, technological challenges and respect. Similarly, having

adequate work equipment, resources, and training opportunities and an equitable workload

distribution are also significantly and positively affect employee job satisfaction.

FINDINGS

Job can be influenced by variety of factors like quality of ones relationship with their supervisor, quality of physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfilment in their

work, etc. Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction where as negative

attitude towards job has been defined variously from time to time. In short job satisfaction is a

persons attitude towards job. There are numerous reasons why employees can become discouraged with their jobs and resign, including high stress, lack of communication within the

company, lack of recognition, or limited opportunity for growth. Management should actively

seek to improve these factors if they hope to lower their turnover rate. Satisfied employees will

work harder for the company and plan to stay at the company, ultimately reducing that

companys labour costs. Job satisfaction is an attitude which results from balancing & summation of many specific likes and dislikes experienced in connection with the job.

Organizations that can create work environments can also attract motivate and retain hard-

working individuals which will be better positioned to succeed in a competitive environment that

demands quality and cost-efficiency. By creating a positive workplace for their employees, they

can increase their employees job satisfaction. There is a considerable impact of the employees perceptions for the nature of his work and the level of overall job satisfaction. Financial

compensation has a great impact on the overall job satisfaction of employees. Management

should have a positive effect on, and seek to support the happiness of, the firms employees. Reasons for this are not solely to benefit the employees as companies also stand to gain from

employee satisfaction. In an economic environment like the current one, employers often

disregard the costs associated with unhappy employees, seemingly believing that these

employees are stuck in their current positions and will tolerate unpleasant working environment.

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CONCLUSION

Job Satisfaction is an attitude which results from a balancing and summation of may likes and

dislikes, experienced by an employee in the performance of his job. Job satisfaction is the end

feeling of a person after performing a task. Job satisfaction is an integral component of an

organizational health and an important element in industrial relation. It is generally assumed that

satisfied employees are more productive. Thus, job satisfaction is an employees general attitude towards his job. A person is satisfied when he gets from his job what he wants. It is a positive

value outcome that a job provides to a person. Job Satisfaction is the result of various attitudes

possessed by an employee towards his job factors such wage, job-security, job environment,

nature of work, opportunity for promotion, prompt removal of grievances, opportunities for

participation in decision-making and other fringe benefits.

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