paediatric airway
TRANSCRIPT
DR. SHAILESH K. KOHAD
ANAESTHESIA SPECIALIST
KING SAUD MEDICAL CITY, RIYADH.
ANATOMY
PHYSIOLOGY
AIRWAY ASSESSMENT
AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
DIFFICULT AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
UNANTICIPATED DIFFICULT AIRWAY
AIRWAY MANAGEMENT IN SPECIAL CASES
Relatively large
Anterior flexion may cause airway obstruction
Obligate Nasal Breathers
Poor tolerance to obstruction
Relatively Large
Obstructs Airway
Neck extension may not relieve obstruction
Difficult to visualize larynx
Adult epiglottis broader, axis parallel to trachea
Infant epiglottis omega shaped and axis angled away from trachea
More difficult to lift an infant’s epiglottis with laryngoscope blade
Straight laryngoscope blade completely elevates the epiglottis, preferred for pediatric laryngoscopy
More susceptible to trauma
Laryngeal apparatus develops from brachial clefts and descends caudally hence Infant’s larynx is higher in neck (C2-3) compared to adult’s (C4-5)
More Anterior
Intubation more difficult
Infant’s vocal cords have more angled attachment to trachea, whereas adult vocal cords are more perpendicular
Difficulty in nasal intubations where “blindly” placed ETT may easily lodge in anterior commissure rather than in trachea
Narrowest portion
↑ resistance with airway edema or infection
Acts as “cuff” during tracheal intubation
Tight fitting ETT may cause edema and trouble upon extubation
Uncuffed ETT preferred for children < 8 years old
Fully developed cricoidcartilage occurs at 10-12 years of age
Funnel shaped
Small diameter (6mm), high compliance
↑ resistance with airway edema or infection
Collapses easily with neck hyperflexion or hyperextension
Alveoli ↑ Closing Capacity & ↑ air trapping
Pulmonary Vessels ↑ Pulmonary vascular resistance
(PVR) Very sensitive to constriction by
hypoxia, acidosis and hypercarbia
Chest Wall Horizontal ribs ↑ A-P diameter ↑ compliance due to weak rib cage Breathing is all diaphragmatic FRC determined solely by elastic
recoil of lungs Chest wall collapses with negative
pressures
Compared to Adults Larger occiput
Nasal Breathers
Larger tongue
Epiglottis is floppier
Larynx Anterior & Cephalad
Funnel shaped Trachea
Cricoid Cartilage Narrowest
Type I & II pulmonary epithelial cells Pulmonary surfactant produced by Type II
pneumocytes at 24 wks GA Sufficient surfactant present after 35 wks GA Premature infants prone to respiratory
distress syndrome (RDS) because of insufficient surfactant
Betamethasone can be given to pregnant mothers at 24-35 wks GA to accelerate fetal surfactant production
High metabolic rate (5-8 ml/kg/min) Oxygen consumption of infant (6 ml/kg/min) is twice that
of an adult (3 ml/kg/min) [Less Oxygen Reserve] Tidal volume is relatively fixed (6-7 ml/kg/min) Minute Alveolar Ventilation is more dependent on
increased Respiratory Rate than on Tidal Volume Ratio of Alveolar Minute Ventilation to FRC is doubled
under circumstances of hypoxia, apnea or anesthesia Lung compliance is less while chest wall compliance is
more than those in adults - Reduced FRC and Atelectasis. Infant’s FRC is diminished and de-saturation occurs more
precipitously Lack Type I muscle fibers, fatigue more easily Prone to Bradycardia - Laryngeal stimulation and hypoxia
Poiseuille’s law: R = 8nl/ πr4
Best to 1st look from afar
Is the chest moving?
Can you hear breath sounds?
Are there any abnormal airway sounds (e.g.. Stridor, snoring)?
Is there increased respiratory effort with retractions or respiratory effort with no airway or breath sounds?
URTI - cough, laryngospasm, bronchospasm, desaturation during anesthesia
Snoring – Adenoid Hypertrophy, OSA, Upper Airway Obstruction Chronic Cough – Subglottic Stenosis, Previous Tracheoesohageal Fistula
Repair Productive Cough - Bronchitis, Pneumonia Sudden Onset of New Cough – Foreign Body Aspiration Inspiratory Stridor - Macroglossia, Laryngeal Web, Laryngomalacia,
Extrathoracic Foreign Body Hoarse Voice - Laryngitis, Vocal Cord Palsy, Papillomatosis Asthma - Bronchospasm Repeated Pneumonias - GERD, CF, Bronchiectasis, Tracheoesophageal
Fistula, Immune Suppression, Congenital Heart Disease Previous Anesthetic Problems Atopy, Allergy – Increased Airway Reactivity Congenital Syndrome - Pierre Robin Sequence, Treacher Collins, Klippel-
Feil, Down’s Syndrome, Choanal atresia Environmental Smokers
Facial expression
Nasal flaring
Mouth breathing
Color of mucous membranes
Retractions (suprasternal, intercostal, subcostal)
Respiratory rate
Voice change
Mouth opening
Size of mouth
Mallampati
Loose or missing teeth.
Size and configuration of palate.
Size and configuration of mandible (side view).
Presence of inspiratory stridor: Epiglottitis, croup, extrathoracic foreign body.
Both inspiratory and expiratory stridor: Aspirated foreign body, vascular ring, or large esophageal foreign body.
Prolonged expiration: lower airway disease?
Baseline oxygen saturation in room air.
Laboratory and radiographic evaluation extremely helpful with pathologic airway
AP and lateral films and fluoroscopy may show site and cause of upper airway obstruction
MRI/CT more reliable for evaluating neck masses, congenital anomalies of the lower airway and vascular system
Perform radiograph exam only when there is no immediate threat to the child’s safety and in the presence of skilled personnel with appropriate equipment to manage the airway
Intubation must not be postponed to obtain radiographic diagnosis when the patient is severely compromised.
Blood gases are helpful in assessing the degree of physiologic compromise; however, performing an arterial puncture on a stressed child may aggravate the underlying airway obstruction
Simple things to improve airway patency Suction nose and
oropharynx
Reposition child/ allow child to assume position of comfort
Head-tilt-chin lift/ jaw thrust
Use airway adjuncts- NPA/ OPA
Bag and Mask Ventilation
Intubation
S: Suction Catheters (6 - 16 french) and Yankauer tips (two sizes)
O: Oxygen and how to deliver Nasal cannula, oxygen flow, masks and appropriate bag
A: Airway Appropriate ETT, oral/nasal airway, stylets, laryngoscopes
P: Pharmacology RSI meds
ME: Monitoring Equipment EtCO2 detector, stethescope, monitors
Measure length - Pt’s earlobe to tip of nose
Duration < 10 sec.
May result in Hypoxia, ↓ HR (vagal), Bronchospasm, Larygospasm, Atelectasis
Appropriate suction catheter size
Neonates 5-6 Fr
Infants 6-8 Fr
Older kids 10 Fr
AgePressure
(mmHg)
< 1 yr 60-80
1-12 yrs 80-120
13-17 yrs 100-150
Oral
Nasal
Correct size Incorrect size
• Too small: will not adequately displace tongue• Too large: may obstruct larynx and/ or interfere with
mask fit
Place OPA against side of face. With flange at the corner of the mouth the tip should reach angle of the jaw
• Distance from nares to angle of mandible approximates the proper length• Nasopharyngeal airway available in 12F to 36F sizes• Shortened endotracheal tube may be used in infants or small children• Avoid placement in cases of hypertrophied adenoids - bleeding and
trauma
•Clear, plastic mask with inflatable rim provides atraumatic seal
•Proper area for mask application-bridge of nose extend to chin
•Maintain airway pressures <20 cm H2O
•Place fingers on mandible to avoid compressing pharyngeal space•Hand on ventilating bag at all times to monitor effectiveness of spontaneous breaths•Continous postitive pressure when needed to maintain airway patency
3 sizes:
Age Volume (ml)
Infant 500
Child 1000
Adolescent 2000
Goals of Larynoscopy
The problem is…
…but we are here.
Cords are here…
The aim is…
To “see around the corner”
• The goal of DL…
• To get rid of the corner
• To create straight line of
sight
Oral axis
Pharyngeal axis
Tracheal axis
Oral
Pharyngeal
Tracheal
Straight blades are placed under the epiglottis and used to lift anteriorly to expose the cords.
Curved blades are placed in the valecula and lifted anteriorly to expose the cords.
Macintosh
Miller
Wisconsin
Miller blade is preferred for infants and younger children
Facilitates lifting of the epiglottis and exposing the glottic opening
Care must be taken to avoid using the blade as a fulcrum with pressure on the teeth and gums
Macintosh blades are generally used in older children
Age Blade/Size
Infant Miller 1
2 years old Miller 2
12 years old Miller/Mac 3
“Switch to a 2 at 2”
For neonates endotracheal tube size roughly corresponds to 1/10th of gestational age rounded down to the nearest size. For example
A 36 week premie would get a 3.5 ETT
A 28 week premie would get a 2.5 ETT
AgeETT Size (ID)
(mm)ETT Length
(cm)
> 6 months 3 – 3.5 10
6 months – 1 yr 3.5 – 4.0 11
1 yr – 2 yr 4.0 – 5.0 12
SIZE
Uncuffed ET tube: (Age in years / 4) + 4
Uncuffed ET tube: (Age in years + 16) / 4
(rounded to nearest 0.5 mm)
Cuffed ET tube: (Age in years / 4) + 3
LENGTH
ET tube Depth (Lip): ET tube Size (ID) x 3
ET tube Depth (Lip): (Age in yrs / 2) + 12
Uncuffed ETT recommended in children < 8 yrs old to avoid post-extubation stridor and subglottic stenosis
Cuffed ETT preferable in cases of: High risk of Aspiration (ie. Bowel obstruction) Low Lung Compliance (ie. ARDS, pneumoperitoneum, CO2
insufflation of the thorax, CABG) Precise control of Ventilation and pCO2 (ie. increased intracranial
pressure, single ventricle physiology)
Disadvantages of cuffed ETT: smaller size increases airway resistance, increase work of breathing, poorly designed for pediatric pts, need to keep cuff pressure < 25 cm H2O
Disadvantages of uncuffed ETT: more tube changes for long-term intubation, leak of anesthetic agent into environment, require more fresh gas flow > 2L/min, higher risk for aspiration
For “short” cases when ETT size > 4.0, choice of cuff vs uncuffedprobably does not matter
Remember DOPE
D Displaced ETTETT may be in trachea or in
right or left mainstem bronchus
OObstruction of
ETTSecretions, blood, pus,
foreign body, kinked ETT
P PneumothoraxSimple
Tension
EEquipment
failure
Disconnection of O2 source, leak in vent circuit, loss of power/ vent malfunction
Use largest size that can pass easily down the ETT
Ideally not larger than half the diameter of ETT to avoid causing atelectasis
TIP: choose double the ETT
e.g. 4.0 i.d. ETT choose 8 Fr suction catheter
Postintubation Croup Incidence 0.1-1%
Risk factors: large ETT, change in patient position introp, patient position other than supine, multiple attempts at intubation, traumatic intubation, pts ages 1-4, surgery >1hr, coughing on ETT, URI, h/o croup
Tx: humidified mist, nebulized racemic epinephrine, steroid
Laryngotracheal (Subglottic) Stenosis Occurs in 90% of prolonged endotracheal intubation
Lower incidence in preterm infants and neonates due to relative immaturity of cricoid cartilage
Pathogenesis: ischemic injury secondary to lateral wall pressure from ETT, edema, necrosis and ulceration of mucosa, infection
Granulation tissues form within 48hrs leads to scarring and stenosis
• More anatomical fit • Sealing at low pressures• More distal position• Greater permeability for nitrous
oxide
• For neo ≤ 3 kg and infants ≤ 1 yr, ID = 3.0 mm
• For children 1 to 2 years of age, ID = 3.5 mm
• For children ≥ 2 years, ID = Age/4 + 3.5
• Post-intubation croup was 0.4% (2/500 children)
Rigid LaryngoscopyThe retromolar, paraglossal, or lateral approach to rigid laryngoscopy utilizing a straight blade.
LEMON Look
Short neck, large tongue, micrognathia
Evaluate 3-3-2 3 finger breadths of mouth
opening 3 finger breadths submental to
hyoid 2 finger breadths hyoid to thyroid
Mallampati Obstruction Neck mobility
LMAs (laryngeal mask airway) I-LMAs (intubating LMA) Rigid bronchoscopy Flexible bronchoscopy Lighted stylet Bullardscope Fiberoptic intubation Surgical airway Combitube Bougie
Pick one or two and practice
Helpful for infants & children with immobile or shortened necks.
Either by an assistant or the laryngoscopist.
Supraglottic airway device developed by Dr. Archie Brain
Useful in difficult airway situations
Conduit of Drug Administration (ie. Surfactant) Types of LMAs: Classic LMA, Flexible LMA, ProSeal LMA,
Intubating LMA Contraindications: Full Stomach, Gag reflex, FBs, Airway
obstruction, High ventilation pressure
Disadvantages: Laryngospasm, aspiration
LMA Size Weight Max. Cuff Vol. (ml)
ETT Size (IDmm)
1.0 ≤ 5 kgs 4 3.5
1.5 5 – 10 kgs 7 4.0
2.0 10 – 20 kgs 10 4.5
2.5 20 – 30 kgs 14 5.0
3.0 30 – 50 kgs 20 6.0
4.0 50 – 70 kgs 30 7.0
5.0 > 70 kgs 40 8.0
INSERTION TECHNIQUE
Only sizes 3, 4, 5
Same rules and sizing as LMA
Need special armored tube for intubation
Leave LMA portion in place in field
Laryngeal Tube Latex-free, single-lumen silicone tube, which is closed at distal end
Two high volume-low pressure cuffs, a large proximal oropharyngeal cuff and a smaller distal esophageal cuff
Both cuffs inflated simultaneously via a single port
Situated along length of oropharynx with distal tip in esophagus
Sizes 0-5, neonates to large adults
Cobra PerilaryngealAirway
Perilaryngeal airway device with distal end shaped like a cobra-head
Positioned into aryepiglotticfolds and directly seats on entrance to glottis
Inflation of the cuff occludes the nasopharynx pushing the tongue and soft tissues forward and preventing air leak
Available in sizes pediatric to adult ½ to 6
Not useful in most kids
Easy to place
Two sizes Small (4 to 5.5 feet tall) Regular (over 5.5 feet tall)
Contraindications Gag reflex Esophageal disease Caustic ingestions FBs/Airway obstruction
Two person technique
Replaces stylet
Able to use with poor view
Intubate over it
Outer diameter – 5 mm
Total length – 60 cm
Small upturned distal end bend at 38⁰ helps in passage
KIWI GRIP
SHIKANI FIBREOPTIC SCOPE
Can’t ventilate
Can’t intubate
LMA contraindication (massive orofacial trauma) or not working
All intervations FAILED
< 5 years old Needle cricothyrotomy and bag ventilation
5 to 10 years old Needle cricothyrotomy and bag ventilation
If oxygen saturation is inadequate, Transtracheal jet ventilation
> 10 years Needle cricothyrotomy with TTJV
Surgical cricothyrotomy – Contraindicated in < 10 yrs
3-5cc syringe: 1-2cc saline OR 12- or 14-gauge IV
Identify CTM and stabilize/prep larynx Insert needle on syringe, direct inferiorly
Large bore needle (12-16 gauge) Catheter over needle
Advance catheter Connect to TTJV (BVM for infants - 3.0 ETT)
Oxygen pressure (20-30 psi) 1 second on/2-3 seconds off
Complications (Similar to other cricothyrotomy) Bleeding Pneumothorax, Subcutaneous Emphysema, Pneumo-mediastinum Barotrauma Esophageal, Laryngeal or Tracheal Injury Obstruction Infection Subglottic stenosis
Beneficial for children who cannot be “ventilated” by other route
Percutaneous needle cricothyrotomy provides only a mean for oxygen insufflationand does not reliably provide adequate ventilation.
TTJV
Broselow-Luten Emergency System Color-coded bags with equipments
Quicker, more efficient
Most accurate 3.5 - 25 kg
Congenital Neck Masses (Dermoid cysts, cystic teratomas, cystic hygroma,
lymphangiomas, neurofibroma, lymphoma, hemangioma)
Congenital Anomalies (Choanal atresia,tracheoesophageal fistula,
tracheomalacia, laryngomalacia, laryngeal stenosis, laryngeal web, vascular ring, tracheal stenosis)
Congenital Syndromes (Pierre Robin Syndrome, Treacher Collin, Turner,
Down’s, Goldenhar , Apert, Achondroplasia, Hallermann-Streiff, Crouzan)
Inflammatory (Epiglottitis, acute tonsillitis, peritonsillar
abscess,retropharyngeal abscess, laryngotracheobronchitis,bacterialtracheitis,adenoidal hypertrophy,nasal congestion, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis)
Traumatic/Foreign Body (burn,laceration,lymphatic/venous obstruction,fractures/dislocation, inhalational injury, postintubationcroup (edema),swelling of uvula
Metabolic (Congenital hypothyroidism, mucopolysaccharidosis, Beckwith-
Wiedemann Syndrome,glycogen storage disease, hypocalcemia laryngospasm)
CYSTIC TERATOMA
Occurs in 1/ 3000-5000 births
Most common type is the blind esophageal pouch with a fistula between the trachea and the distal esophagus (87%)
Feeding difficulties (coughing, choking and cyanosis) and breathing problems
Associated with congenital heart (VSA, PDA, TOF), VATER, GI, musculoskeletal and urinary tract defects
Complete nasal obstruction of the newborn
Occurs in 0.82/10 000 births Unilateral nare (right>left) During inspiration, tongue
pulled to palate, obstructs oral airway
Bilateral choanal atresia is Airway Emergency
Death by asphyxia Associated with other
congenital defects
Occurs in 1/8500 births
Autosomal recessive
Obstruction is usually at the nasopharyngeal level
Mandibulofacial dysotosis
Occurs in 1/10 000 births
Unilateral Absent Thumb
Trisomy 21 Occurs in 1/660 births
Exomphalos MacroglossiaGigantism Syndrome
Overgrowth Syndrome
Occurs in 1/13000-15000 births
Short Arm of Chromosome 11p15
Autosomal dominant
Haemophilus influenzae type B Occurs in children ages 2-6 years Disease of adults due to widespread H. influenza vaccine
THUMB SIGN
CHERRY RED EPIGLOTTIS
Parainfluenza virus
Occurs in children ages 3 months to 3 years
Barking cough
Progresses slowly
Medically managed with oxygen and mist therapy, racemic epinephrine neb and IV dexamethasone (0.25-0.5mg/kg)
Indications for intubation: progressive intercostal retraction, obvious respiratory fatigue, and central cyanosis
CLEFT LIP AND PALATE Most common congenital
face malformation
APERT AND CROUZON Maxillary hypoplasia
Nasopharyngeal airway compromise
GOLDENHAR SYNDROME
Unilateral anomalies
Higher incidence of airway anomalies
LARYNGOMALACIA
A sequence between fully formed to atresia
LARYNGEAL WEB
TRACHEAL ATRESIA
Survive only if tracheoesophagealfistula or emergent tracheostomy done
SUBGLOTTIC STENOSIS
HEMANGIOMA OR LYMPHANGIOMA Only about 30% present at
birth
RULES
“Use your common sense”
“ Do not continue to do the same thing and expect different results’’
“Easier comes first”
“Each difficult intubation is a different”