outdoor education theories: a review and synthesis

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About
theorySystems frameworkIndividualProgramCultureFacilitator

GroupActivityEnvironment

EnvironmentalExperientialPsycho-socialMulti-element

Black
box

Overview



He who loves practice without theory is like the sailor who boards ship without a rudder and compass.- Leonardo da Vinci

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He who loves practice without theory is like the sailor who boards ship without a rudder and compass and never knows where he may cast.- Leonardo da Vinci

TheoryPractice


It is the theory that decides what can be observed.- Albert Einstein

The moment a person forms a theory, his imagination sees in every object only the traits which favor that theory.- Thomas Jefferson

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Whenever
a theory appears to you
as the only possible one,
take this as a sign
that you have neither
understood the theory
nor the problem which
it was intended to solve.- Karl Popper Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/1676300378/sizes/o/in/photostream/Image by: alicepopkorn, http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/Image license: CC-by-A 2.0, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

Each theory is right
(in some circumstances)
and wrong in others
or There is a little bit of
truth in every theory.Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/1676300378/sizes/o/in/photostream/Image by: alicepopkorn, http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/Image license: CC-by-A 2.0, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

We must examine old ideas, old theories, although they belong to the past, for this is the only way to understand the importance of the new ones and the extent of their validity.
- Albert Einstein, 1938

Nearly every great advance in science, arises from a crisis in the old theory, through an endeavour to find a way out of the difficulties created. We must examine old ideas, old theories, although they belong to the past, for this is the only way to understand the importance of the new ones and the extent of their validity. Albert Einstein, 1938Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/36613169@N00/2879088619Image by: TheAlieness GiselaGiardinoImage license: CC-by-SA 2.0, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en

Good theory is
practical. Theories open &
close our eyes. All theories
are a bit right. Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain

Black box
theory


we have discovered an educational black box;
we know something works,
but we dont know how or why- Alan Ewert (1982, p. 126)

Outdoor education black box

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Is there anything unique about
outdoor education?

Kurt Hahn (1960) proudly
claimed that there was
nothing original
about Outward Bound; that
it was a combined application
of well-proven educational
and psychological practices
from other sources.

The outdoor education black box

.

Experiential theoriesPsychological and phenomenological processes of experiential learning

Environmental theoriesRestorative effects of nature and aspects of psychoevolutionary theory

Psycho-social theoriesStress-inoculation, social support, group development and educational psychology

Multi-element theoriesGeneric components of outdoor education programs

Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domainBased on Neill (2008)

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Environmental theories

Nature is good theory

Direct and indirect effects of nature

Natural environment in outdoor education theory

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Nature is good theory

Outdoor education relies on an implicit nature is good perspective, supported by:Psychoevolutionary theory
(Neill, 2004)

Biophilia hypothesis
(Kellert & Wilson, 1993; Wilson, 1984)

Nature-deficit disorder
(Louv, 2005)

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Direct and indirect
effects of nature

Outdoor education is characterised by: Direct engagement with natural environments (e.g., via senses)

Indirect engagement e.g., via adventure activities in natural environments mixed with periods of contemplation.

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Natural consequencesneutral, immediate, unambiguous feedback which encourages adaptive coping rather than reliance on defense mechanisms (Hattie, et al., 1997)

Natural learning

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Wilderness settings and related activities are vehicles through which one can find something out about oneself (Scherl, 1982, p. 5).

Being outside of normal, familiar contexts frees up previous habitual constraints, heightens arousal and focus and encourages experimentation with new psychological strategies or a fresh sense of identity
(Kimball & Bacon, 1993, p. 26).


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Another environmental mechanism is the novelty and unpredictability of remote, wilderness environments.

Intervention programs which take place in unfamiliar environments have greater effects (Hattie, J. M., 1992)

The exact processes involved, however, remain, unclear.


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Predominant aspects of the wilderness for participants:Emotional responses and level of arousal

Distinction between self and group (e.g., activities alone compared to activities requiring group cooperation)

Recognition that effort (either physical or mental) was part of the experience. (Scherl, 1988)


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Experiential theories

Experiential learning principles provide an important basis for most outdoor education theories, models and programs, particularly:Dewey's theory of experience

Experiential learning cycles, spirals and waves


Dewey's democracy & education
(1918)

The goal of education is to enable people to become active, healthy participants of democratic society.

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Dewey's theory of experience
(1938)

The task for education is guided direction of students' natural impulses.A balance needs to be struck between the freedom of individuals and the educative structure of the learning environment.


A theory of experience is needed,
to help guide decision-making.

Dewey's theory of experience
(1938)


Past experiencesInteractionPresent situationmis-
educative?educative?Continuity

ExperienceDewey's theory of experience
(1938)


Four-stage experiential learning
cycle with transfer of learning

(Adapted from Kolb, 1984)

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Three-stage
experiential learning cycle


Three-stage
experiential learning cycle spiral


The adventure wave

(Adapted from Schoel et al., 1988, in Rawson, 1991, p.18)


Dramaturgy wave

(Adapted from Martin, 2001, p. 36)


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Psycho-social theories

Learning theory and group dynamics

Stress inoculation

Educational psychology

Learning theory and group psychodynamics

Learning theoryModeling

Contracting

Positive and negative reinforcement

Group psychodynamicsFacilitator guides psychodynamics

Stages of group development

Social support

Stress-inoculation

Educative encountering with stress has been described as educative disequilibrium and adaptive dissonance (Walsh & Golins, 1976)

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Educational psychology

Immediacy of experience

Feedback

Specific and difficult goals

Reassess-ment of coping strategies

Hattie et al. (1997) recommended further investigation of:


Social support

Feedback

Neill (2008) also suggests importance of:

Immediacy of experience


Feedback

Reassessment of coping strategies

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Multi-element theories

Outward Bound model

Ingredients of outdoor adventure

Learning combination lock model

Other theories


The Outward Bound Process Model

(Adapted from Walsh & Golins, 1976)


Experiential learning process flow

(Gager, 1978, p. 5)


The ingredients of outdoor adventure

(Barret & Greenaway, 1995)


The learning combination lock

(Beard, 2002)


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Systems framework

A dynamic organisation of interrelationships between theoretical elements involved in outdoor education programs:Interactive (Dewey)

Domains (Multi-element theories)

Systems framework domains

Seven interactive domains are proposed: Individual (I): Physical strength, flexibility, and agility, motivation, personality, self-conceptions, and past experiences;

Environment (E): Rock, weather, and location;

Activity (A): Grade (difficulty) and type of climb;

Program (P): Philosophy used to guide participants through this particular type of activity;

Group (G): Group dynamics, behaviour, and atmosphere;

Facilitator (F): Facilitation style, technical skills, and rapport with participants; and

Culture (C): Cultural norms and beliefs.

Temporal change

Each domain has a pre-existing state (continuity) which interacts with the present milieu to create one's current, unique experience:

Systems framework

(Adapted from Neill, 2008)

Individual's
current experienceIndividual pre-existingActivityFacilitatorGroupProgramEnvironmentCiCultural milieuImage source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Systems framework

Systems framework


Leaders assist process

the role of leaders can be seen as
assisting the process
rather than assisting the participant- (Handley, 1997, p. 74)

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Experiment, adapt, improve theory

An ounce of action is worth a ton of theory.- Friedrich Engels

TheoryPractice

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Einstein, Albert, and Leopold Infeld. The Evolution of Physics: The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta. 1938. New York: Simon, 1963.

Ewert, A. (1982). A study of the effects of participation of an Outward Bound short course upon the reported self-concepts of selected participants [Abstract]. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(09), p. 3111.

Handley, R. (1997). Strategic leadership: Non-direct intervention - Minimum direct action for maximum active direction. In T. Gray & B. Hayllar (Eds.), Catalysts for Change: 10th National Outdoor Education Conference Proceedings (pp. 74-78), January 20-24, Collaroy Beach, Sydney, NSW, Australia: The Outdoor Professionals.

Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing personal effectiveness: Impacts of outdoor education programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Western Sydney. ick to add an outline

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