ofc 017
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Open University of TanzaniaTRANSCRIPT
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
OFC 017 COMMUNICATION SKILLS (Including English Grammar)
P.P. Lipembe
OFC 017 COMMUNICATION SKILLS (Including English Grammar)
P.P. Lipembe Lecturer
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The Open University of Tanzania
The Open University of Tanzania P. O. Box 23409,
DAR ES SALAAM. Tel: 22-2668992/2668820 Fax: 22-2668759 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.out.ac.tz
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The Open University of Tanzania
Kawawa Road,
P. O. Box 23409,
Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania.
©The Open University of Tanzania, 2008
ISBN 978 – 9987 – 00 - 152 - 1
FIRST EDITION, 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of The Open University of Tanzania.
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CONTENTS
General Introduction ………………………………………………………… vii
Part One: Aspects of Communication LECTURE 1: MEANING AND ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 3
1.2 Meaning of Communication ………………………………………... 4
1.3 Essentials of Communication ………………………………………. 6
1.4 Main Categories of Communication ……………………………….. 8
1.5 Communication Skills ………………………………………………. 10
LECTURE 2: LISTENING
2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 12
2.2 Meaning of Listening ………………………………………………. 13
2.3 Listening as a Function of Communication ………………………… 14
2.4 Listening Strategies …………………………………………………. 14
2.5 Types of Listening ………………………………………………….. 14
LECTURE 3: READING
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………….……………… 18
3.2 The meaning of the Nature of Reading ………..……………………. 18
3.3 Different Types of Reading ………………………………………… 20
LECTURE 4: WRITING
4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 31
4.2 Writing an Essay ……………………………………………………. 32
4.3 Writing ……………………………………………………………… 43
4.4 Types of Reports ……………………………………………………. 44
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4.5 What is the Purpose of Writing Reports? ………………………..…. 46
4.6 Essential Elements of a Report ……………………………………... 46
4.7 Qualities of Effective Report Writing ………………………………. 49
LECTURE 5: PUNCTUATION AND CONVENTIONS OF USE
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 51
5.2 What is Punctuation? ……..………………………………………… 52
LECTURE 6: THE INTERNET
6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 71
6.2 What is the Internet? ………………………………………………. 71
6.3 Internet as an Aspect of Communication …………………………. 72
6.4 Who is Using the Internet? ………………………………………… 72
6.5 Brief History of the Internet ……………………………………….. 73
6.6 Basic Internet Services …………………………………………….. 73
6.7 Using E-mail ………………………………………………………. 74
6.8 Advantages of E-Mail ……………………………………………… 75
6.9 Search Engines …………………………………………………….. 78
6.10 Metasearch Engines ……………………………………………….. 79
6.11 Web Searching 80
Part Two: English Language Grammar LECTURE 7: THE STANDARD PATTERN OF AN ENGLISH
SENTENCE 7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 86
7.2 What is a Sentence? ……………………………………………….. 86
7.3 One-Word Sentences ………………………………………………. 87
7.4 Standard Sentence Elements ……………………………………….. 88
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LECTURE 8: TYPES OS SENTENCES
8.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 100
8.2 Significance of Sentence Types ……………………………………. 100
8.3 Classification of Sentences ………………………………………… 101
8.4 Sentence Types According to Purpose …………………………….. 101
8.5 Sentence Types According to Structure …………………………… 105
LECTURE 9: FORMAL AGREEMENT IN THE SENTENCE
9.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 110
9.2 Meaning of Formal Agreement ……………………………………. 111
9.3 Agreement of Subject and Verb …………………………………… 111
9.4 Agreement of Compound Subjects ……………………………….. 116
9.5 Agreement in Subjects Formed by Collective Nouns ……………... 117
9.6 Agreement in Subjects Formed by Nouns with Summation Plurals. 118
9.7 Agreement of a Pronoun and its Antecedent ……………….……… 119
LECTURE 10: COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH
10.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 122
10.2 Sentence Fragments ……………………………………………….. 123
10.3 Correcting Sentence Fragments ……………………………………. 125
10.4 Agreement Faults ………………………………………………….. 129
10.5 Correcting Agreement Faults ……………………………………… 130
10.6 Run-Together Sentences …………………………………………… 133
10.7 Faulty Parallelism …………………………………………………. 135
10.8 Pronoun Reference Errors …………………………………………. 137
10.9 Faulty Modification …………….………………………………….. 140
10.10 Dangling Modifiers ……………………..…………………………. 144
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LECTURE 11: TEXT GRAMMAR: COHESION
11.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………... 148
11.2 Text and Textuality. ……………………………………………….. 148
11.3 What is Cohesion? ………………………………………………… 149
11.4 Cohesive Ties ……………………………………………………… 149
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Introduction to the Unit
Dear Student,
This unit aims to introduce you to the principles and skills of effective
communication.
During the course of your studies as a university student, you will have to
communicate in various manners and with different categories of people. For
example, in your small study groups, you will have to communicate with your
fellow students in discussions, likewise while reading your study materials and
other reference materials you will be communicating with the authors of the
publications even though you will not be able to give feedback response the
authors.
It is important to emphasize that your ability to communicate effectively is quite
essential to your educational attainment, social acceptability, physical and
emotional well being, and ultimately your chances for securing employment.
This course consists of 11 lectures totaling 30 contact hours. Each lecture is
divided into two parts; Part one deals with various aspects of communication, and
part two presents grammar topics relevant to communication. Each lecture begins
with a presentation of objectives, an overview and then a treatment of the main
aspects of the topic. In addition throughout the unit, end-of-chapter exercises are
provided to give you practical, hands-on assignments. You are advised to try to
complete all these exercises so that you may harness the full potential of the
course.
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Part One
Essentials of Communication
Lecture One: Meaning and Aspects of Communication
Lecture Two: Listening
Lecture Three: Reading
Lecture Four: Writing
Lecture Five: Mechanics of Writing
Lecture Six: Sources of Information: The Internet
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BLANK
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LECTURE ONE
MEANING AND THE ESSENTIALS OF
COMMUNICATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term is quite familiar to most of us. It refers to an activity that people perform
everyday. Actually it is said that as humans we begin to communicate the moment
we are born. For example, the cry of a baby draws the attention of its mother thus
making the mother to either feed or comfort it. In this case the baby’s cry
communicates a message to its mother.
Communication refers to an activity or process that serves to connect people
through space and time. All communication involves a person understanding
others and having others understanding him/her. In this way it unites person and
person, person and group or group and group.
Studies have found out however that even through people communicate since their
infancy, they are not as affective as they should be, The process of transmitting
information from an individual (or group) to another is a very complex process as
it involves different stages hence the purpose of this unit of study, to train you on
how best to communicate with others.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
(i) Define communication;
(ii) Describe the process of communication;
(iii) Describe essential elements of communication;
(iv) Explain the importance of communication.
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1.2 MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
The word communication derives from the word “common” which infers to share,
exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate, etc. Humans
communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences. Since time
immemorial human beings are known to have communicated in a number of ways.
In the tradition African society people used to communicate in different ways. For
example in some communities, a certain form of wailing or cry denoted
occurrence of a dangerous situation in the society, like an attack by a wild animal
or some other calamity. Likewise different forms of drum-beat carried different
messages e.g. joy and celebration, sorrow and grief, invitation and reception. In
some cases the drum was used to announce the demise of the ruler of the land like
the chief or king.
In modern times, communication between people and groups has evolved very
much especially after the establishment of the print, audio and the visual media.
Further more the advent of the internet has, metaphorically speaking, reduced the
size of the world by making it possible for people from different places in the
world to carry out face-to-face interaction.
?
What is communication
In this unit, the term communication is used to refer to the process by
which people are able to transfer meaning between themselves. It is
the process that allows people to share information ideas and feelings.
Where no meaning is transferred no communication has taken place.
Communication is a learnt skill. Most people are born with the
physical ability to talk but we must learn to speak well and
communicate effectively.
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Speaking, listening and our ability to understand verbal and non-verbal meanings
are skills we develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills by
observing other people and modeling our behaviours based on what we see.
ACTIVITIES
Discuss with your colleague the forms of communication that
traditional people of your ethnic community used.
Communication as an academic discipline embraces a large body of study and
knowledge that relate to all the ways we communicate. It focuses on how people
use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures,
channels and media. In all, the field promotes the effective and ethical practice of
human communication.
TAKE NOTE
WHY IS COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT?
In our daily undertakings, we spend most of the time communicating
with one another. It is estimated that 75% of a person’s day is spent
communicating in some way. Most of our communication time is in
spent in listening and speaking, while a minority of that time is spent in
reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills which
foster our personal, academic and professional success. The ability to
speak clearly and eloquently on one hand and to write effectively on the
other, have been recognized as the hallmarks of an educated person.
Put in other words, these actions of communication are central in
determining a person’s ability to succeed or fail in life.
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Explore how you interact with others in various kinds of contexts
as a university student, an employee or member of society in
general. Who do you interact with and what information is
exchanged?
1.3 ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
The purpose of communication is to pass on your intended meaning to others.
Studies conducted on the way communication takes place have shown that it is a
well defined process that comprises a number of components.
The main components of communication are summarized in the following diagram
which shows that communication takes place through a staged process of five
essential elements shown below:
Figure 1.1: The communication Process
1.3.1 Sender
This is the source where information comes from; it could be an individual
speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing.
FEEDBACK
SENDER MESSAGE
CHANNEL
RECEIVER
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Message
This refers to the ideas, data or feelings that the sender intends to share with
others.
1.3.2 Channel
This is the route travelled by or used to send the message as it goes from the
sender to the receiver. It refers to the form in which the idea, or feeling is
delivered across. In spoken communication this could include face-to-face,
meetings, telephone or video conferencing. In written communication it includes
letters, emails, memos and reports.
1.3.3 Receiver
This refers to one or more individuals for whom the message is intended. This is
the goal to which the message is targeted.
1.3.4 Feedback
This refers to the verbal or non-verbal reactions from the audience who receive the
message. This gauges whether or not the receiver has understood the message.
1.3.5 Noise
This is the interference that keeps the message from being understood.
Interference to communication may be physical or psychological in nature.
Physical interference keeps a message from being heard properly. Psychological
interference occurs when the communication receivers are distracted by feelings
that disturb the mind of the receiver. This explains for instance, why a hungry
person cannot be able to read, listen or write effectively.
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1.4 MAIN CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION
We send or receive information through a number of ways. These ways can be
categorized as verbal-communication and non verbal-communication.
In order to become a successful communicator you should make sure that you
understand well the verbal and non-verbal communication strategies of
communication. In any organization like a school or workplaces, these types of
communication are continually exchanged often times without much planning or
even thought that such communications are taking place.
1.4.1 Verbal communication
This refers to the various modes of sending and receiving by using words. This
includes both spoken and written modes of communication.
1.4.2 Nonverbal Communication
This refers to forms of communication which make use of body movements or
gestures instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of
communication. It includes all manners of interaction that allows us to
communicate without using words. Facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact
are examples of nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal language is important in one-on-one communications, and may be
even more important in group communications. In group situations, often only one
person at a time is speaking, while non-verbal response is coming from each
individual in the group. The larger the group, the more impact body language may
have.
In social communication we understand spoken remarks within the context of an
exchange of ideas between rational and emotional beings in a social situation. We
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become aware not only of what one says, but what one does by uttering such a
remark, and the effect they might bring about by such a remark.
ACTIVITIES
Pair up with a colleague to discuss the advantages and disadvantages”
of using the following communication mode shown below.
Verbal Communication
Advantages Disadvantages
………………………….
…………………………..
………………………….
…………………………
……………………….
………………………….
…………………………
…………………………
…………….……………
…………………………
Nonverbal Communication
• …………………………
• ………………………..
• ……………………….
• ………………………
• ………………………
• ………………………….
• …………………………..
• ………………………….
• …………………………
• …………………………
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There are many reasons to believe that verbal language is not always adequate.
Communication experts have conducted studies to try to find out which
communication mode is practised more in our daily life?” Is it verbal
communication or non-verbal communication? One such study revealed that
almost 55% of what we emotionally try to communicate in a conversation is
communicated through facial expressions and gestures (Mehrabian, 1972). It was
shown that the total impact of a message is about 7 percent verbal (words only)
and 38 percent vocal (including tone of voice, inflection, and other sounds) and 55
percent non-verbal.
Another study also done in the United States showed that 93 percent of a message
was transmitted by the speaker’s tone of voice and facial expressions. Only 7
percent of the person’s attitude was conveyed by words.
These studies draw us to conclude that apparently, we express our emotions and
attitudes more non-verbally than verbally.
EXERCISES
Discuss with a colleague different forms of expressions which fall
under
1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
1.5 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Your ability to transfer meaning or information to others and from them to you
requires you to master communication skills which include reading, listening,
thinking, studying, writing, remembering, speaking and mastery of the grammar of
the particular language you communicate in. Hence these aspects form the main
body of the subject matter of this course unit.
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REFERENCES
Albert Mehrabian (1972); Nonverbal Communication. Chicago: Aldine-
Atherton,
Argyle, M. (1990); Bodily communication (2nd edition). New York:
International Universities Press.
Livingston, Drs. Sharon and Glen (2004); How to Use Body language.
Psy Tech Inc.
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LECTURE TWO
LISTENING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Somebody once told me that we were given two ears and only one mouth for a
purpose. The continued, saying;” we can expect to listen twice as much as we
speak” for this matter therefore one ear would not be able to carry out effectively
the task of listening.
Humour aside it remains amply true that listening is a communicative activity that
we carry out more often than any other in our daily life.
As explained earlier on, skill in communication demands that one masters a
number of specific sub-skills. The first skill we will discuss in this course is the
listening skill.
Expressing our needs, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is
only part of what is required to complete a communication cycle. The other part is
listening and understanding what others communicate to us. Listening is the
communication skill most of us use more frequently. This makes listening one of
the most important sub skills of communication. Various studies point to the
importance of listening as a communication skill. As already said in the previous
lecture, in a typical study we are informed that many of us spend 70 to 80 percent
of our working hours in some form of communication. Of that time, we spend
about 9 percent writing, 16 percent reading, 30 percent speaking and 45 percent
listening. This reveals how important the skill of listening is in our daily life.
Despite this fact however, studies also confirm that most of us are poor and
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inefficient in the skill of listening. Hence the purpose of this unit is to help you
improve your listening skill.
OBJECTIVES
After finishing this unit, you should be able to;
(i) Define listening as a function of communication;
(ii) Recognise the importance of listening as part of communication;
(iii) Apply effective listening strategies to a given situation.
2.2 MEANING OF LISTENING
Communication scholars estimate that listening takes up more working hours than
any other activity we deploy for communication. This confirms that listening is an
important skill in our daily life. But what does listening mean?
TAKE NOTE
Listening is defined as the physical reality of hearing what another
person says and a suspenseful waiting that reflects psychological
involvement with that person. It is a process that involves active
decoding and interpreting verbal messages.
Most of us tend to mix up the meaning of hearing and listening, we assume that
the two are synonymous. There is indeed a big difference. Hearing is the process
of capturing the sound waves through ears and sending this data to the brain. Once
the data reaches the brain, based on past experiences and learning, the brain will
interpret and classify it as word, noise, music etc. Hearing is thus merely the
physical component of listening. Listening on the other hand, involves much more
than hearing a message. Besides decoding and interpreting the verbal stimulus,
listening also involves cognitive attention and processing of information.
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2.3 LISTENING AS A FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION
Listening is categorized as a receptive communication skill that is one that helps
us to acquire ideas, information and other people’s feelings. Effective
communication depends very much on our ability to listen well. Listening
provides us with the aural input that serves as a basis for us to acquire information,
ideas, attitudes and feelings of the speaker. Listening then involves
communication of an oral message between the speaker and the listener.
Furthermore, as an aspect of communication, listening involves a dynamic
interaction that varies depending on both the internal and external situations of the
speaker and the listener involved in the communicative context.
2.4 LISTENING STRATEGIES
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the
comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified
by how the listener processes the input.
2.4.1 Background Knowledge
This is a listener based strategy. Listening will be much improved if the listener
knows the topic of the talk, is aware of the situation or context of the talk and the
cultural background of the speaker.
2.4.2 Knowledge of Text
The listener will understand the talk better if he/she is familiar with the sounds,
words, and grammar that creates meaning used by the speaker
2.5 TYPES OF LISTENING
Listening as an act of hearing and discerning meaning from an audio source can be
classified into two broad types.
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2.5.1 Attentive Listening
The main goal of the people who listen attentively is to understand and remember
what they hear. They have in addition the intention to give a positive impression,
advance a relationship or demonstrate care.
Communication scholars have identified three listening skill clusters and
accompanying behaviours that are used by attentive listeners. As you read the
information below try to determine which one of these behaviours you already use
in your listening interactions.
Following below are three skills you could use to optimize your attentive listening:
(a) Attending skills
These have to do with the way the listener positions oneself before the speaker.
The position you assume has a lot of influence on your understanding and
remembering what you hear.
The following are some of the attending skills:
(i) A posture of involvement
You should incline your body toward the speaker, face him/her squarely, maintain
an open body position and position yourself an appropriate distance from the
speaker.
(i) Appropriate body motion
Occasionally nod your head, use facial expression to reflect emotions back to the
speaker.
(ii) Eye contact
Maintain a sustained, direct and reflective eye contact with the speaker.
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(b) Following skills
These are behaviours meant to inform the speaker that you are following the talk
- Use of inviting comments to the speaker e.g. what’s up
- Use of minimal encouragers. These are brief indicators to the speaker that you
are with them e.g. “mmmhmmm” “oh” “I see” “Right” “Really?” “Go on”
- Use of infrequent questions, open ended, one at a time.
(c) Reflecting questions
These include paraphrasing and questions reflecting feelings or meaning.
2.5.2 Critical Listening
When people listen critically, their goal in addition to understanding and
remembering is to evaluate, assess or interpret what they are hearing; whereas
attentive listening emphasizes nonverbal skills along with some verbal skills,
critical listening emphasizes critical thinking skills. Like attentive listening,
critical listening is related to asking questions. Listening attentively enables you to
ask good questions of clarification; listening critically provides the basis for good
probing questions.
ACTIVITIES
1. Practice blind listening
This involves choosing a surrounding which has background noises.
Start listening to the noises in the background/surrounding.
Distinguish as many noises as possible and label them.
2. Spotlight listening
Tune to a TV station which has a lot of chattering. Choose one of
the speakers and focus on what that person is telling. Mentally tune
out the others. After you are sure you are sure you have actively
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listened to him/her, shift attention to another person and focus. This
is like putting on a spot light on one person at a time.
3. Tonality and body language
Listen to someone speaking. Focus on the shift of tonality, rate of
speech and other vocal changes. Track the pattern and complement
it by observing the body language, changes in facial expressions etc.
REFERENCES
Carey,C (1996); Listening Is A Skill, Hayward Publishing, New
York, N.Y.Goh, C.C.M.(2000); A Cognitive Perspective on
Language Learners’ Listening Comprehension Problems.
System, 28,55-75
Mendelson,D.J. (1994); Learning to Listen: A Strategy-based
Approach for the Second Language Learner. San Diego:
Dominie Press
Underwood M. (1992); Teaching Listening. New York: Longman
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LECTURE THREE
READING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Reading is going to be an essential element during the course of your university
studies. This is not only because reading is a principal means of obtaining
information, expanding your knowledge and understanding of your subjects but
also because a large proportion of your time of study will be spent working with
written sources of information and because you have to cover a great deal of
material in a short amount of time. For these reasons it is essential that you
develop a reading capability that is both purposeful and efficient. People generally
tend to assume that “every one knows how to read”, the truth is that not every one
does and those who do are often not reading as effectively as they should be. This
lecture intends to provide you with guidelines that will turn you into a more
effective reader.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lecture, you should be able to:
(i) Define reading;
(ii) Note the relation between reading and communication;
(iii) Describe main types of reading.
3.2 THE MEANING AND NATURE OF READING
People conceptualise reading in a number of ways. We need not necessarily be
tied to one particular definition. It is necessary however to review some of the
ideas before we opt for one working definition.
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The Wikipedia definition of reading categorizes it as a way of getting information
from something that is written. It is a process that involves recognizing the
symbols that make up language. The Michigan language programme on the other
hand defines reading as a process of constructing meaning through the dynamic
interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge, the information suggested by
the text and the context of the reading situation.
3.2.1 Author’s Purpose and Reader’s Purpose
A number of assumptions underlie these definitions. The first assumption is that
reading is a component of communication. That the meaning constructed by the
reader is dependent to a large extent on the relationship between the author’s
purpose of writing the text and the reader’s purpose of reading. Consider for
example, the differences in meaning a reader might construct regarding
information about “a flower” as presented by the other of a poem, an encyclopedia
entry or a science fiction. A person reading these sources will construct different
senses and images of the word” flower “.
3.2.2 External and Internal Factors
The second assumption is that the characteristics of the reader (e.g. psychological
social, cultural or linguistic background) interact with the characteristics of the
reading task (e.g. purpose for reading assignment, characteristics of the reading
material, the setting in which reading occurs, nature of reading instruction) to
influence the process. In this sense, reading involves a dynamic interaction that
changes depending on both the internal and external factors of the reader, for
example, the ability for one to understand the main idea of a text and his/her
consequent performance may vary considerably depending on the interaction
among factors such as the readers familiarity with the topic.
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Interest in the purpose of reading and the content and structure of the text self.
This principle explains the factors that increase or decreased motivation for the
reader to read a particular text. Reading together with hearing are the two most
common ways of getting information. There is a wide range of information that
one could gain through reading. This includes news, entertainment,
autobiography and academic information.
3.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF READING
When we read, we usually do so for a purpose, therefore depending on our
purposes of reading different texts, we deploy different methods of reading them.
Think of the various items you may have read just today. They might include a
newspaper, a lecture hand out, a course material text or a poster. Did you read
them all in the same way? at the same speed and in the same detail? Your answer
to those questions would probably be “No”
TAKE NOTE
The way we read different texts differs because we always read for
different purposes.
In general, we do not read something without first haring good reason for doing
so. We read posters found along the road because they catch our eye and awake
our interest. Likewise when we read newspapers we do so for various reasons
including finding out the political situation of the day or following up
developments in our areas of interest like sports, drama or even continuation of a
story.
On the other hand when read for academic purposes we do so because we have to,
but we are still doing it for a purpose, like preparing for an examination, writing
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an essay, gaining an insight into different authors’ opinions, or just trying to
understand a subject. The following are some of the major types of reading:
3.3.1 SCANNING
This is a fast reading technique. It is a way of reading to look for specific
information in a text. When you scan read, you ‘see’ every item on the page, but
you don’t necessarily read the pages. You ignore anything you are not looking
for. In this way, when you discover the key words being searched for, you will be
unable to recall the exact content of the page.
Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone
book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know
what you’re looking for, so you’re concentrating on finding a particular answer.
Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific
words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to
determine whether it will answer your questions.
When scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters,
steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced,
italics, or in a different font size, style, or colour. Sometimes the author will put
key ideas in the margin.
• Uses of scanning
There are many areas where the use of scanning would be of necessary
importance. First, reading off a computer screen has become a growing concern.
Research shows that people have more difficulty reading off a computer screen
than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend at the same rate as on
paper, scanning on the computer is much slower than on paper.
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Similarly, scanning skills are valuable for students studying at university level.
First, they are an aid in locating new terms, which are introduced in the chapter.
Unless you understand the new terms, it is impossible to follow the author’s
reasoning without a dictionary or glossary. Thus a preliminary scanning of the
chapters will alert you to the new terms and their sequence. When you locate a
new term, try to find its definition. If you are not able to figure out the meaning,
then look it up in the glossary or dictionary.
TAKE NOTE
Usually new terms are defined as they are introduced in academic texts.
If your text does not have a glossary, it is a good idea to keep a glossary
of your own in the front page of the book. Record the terms and their
definition or the page number where the definition is located. This is an
excellent aid to refer to when you are reviewing for an examination, as
it provides a convenient outline of the course.
Secondly, scanning is useful in locating statements, definitions, formulas, etc.
which you must remember completely and precisely. Scan to find the exact and
complete statement of a chemical law. The formula of a particular compound in
chemistry, or the stages of cell division. Also, scan the charts and figures, for they
usually summarize in graphic form the major ideas and facts of the chapter.
Scanning can be used to look up a telephone number, read through the small
adverts in a newspaper or for browsing TV or radio programmes, timetables, lists,
catalogues or web pages for information. For these tasks, you don’t need to read or
understand every word. Scanning is also useful when studying or looking to find
specific information from a book or article quickly as there is not always time to
read every word.
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• Hints and Tips for better scan reading
- Don’t try to read every word. Instead let your eyes move quickly across the page
until you find what you are looking for.
- Use clues on the page, such as headings and titles to help you.
- In a dictionary or phone book, use the ‘header’ words to help you scan. You can
find these in bold type at the top of each page.
- If you are reading for study, start by thinking up or writing down some questions
that you want to answer. Doing this can focus your mind and help you find the
facts or information that you need more easily.
- Many texts use an alphabetical order. These include everyday materials such as
the phone book and indexes to books and catalogues.
- There are many ways to practise scanning skills. Try looking up a favorite
recipe in the index of a cookbook, search for a plumber in your local Yellow
Pages, or scan web pages on the Internet to find specific information.
3.3.2 SKIM READING (or Skimming)
Skimming is a reading technique that can help you to read more quickly or
decide if the text is interesting and whether you should read it in more detail.
Skimming is when you “browse”, or glance randomly through a book. It has great
importance in learning and is emphasized as a strategy in speed reading
particularly for exam taking.
The purpose of skimming is to get an “overview” not the specific details of the
material. We use it to decide if the book, article or report is worth our time, and
has anything new and worthwhile to tell us. Why waste time on an item if it is
stuff we already know?
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You use skimming when you want to quickly find the main ideas of a text. When
you read a newspaper for example, you’re probably not reading it word-by-word,
instead you’re skimming the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times
faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to
read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article
may be of interest in your assignment or research.
They are many strategies that you may use when skimming. Some people read the
first and last paragraphs using headings, summaries and other organizers as they
move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading,
and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This
technique is useful when you’re seeking specific information rather than reading
for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It
might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.
(a) How do you skim read?
Don’t read the whole text word-for-word. Use as many clues as possible to give
you some background information. There might be pictures or images related to
the topic, or an eye-catching title. Let your eyes skim over the surface of the text
and, whilst thinking about any clues you have found about the subject, look out for
key words.
TAKE NOTE
1. Read the title, subtitles and subheading to what the text is about.
2. Look at the illustrations to give you further information about
the topic.
3. Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph.
4. Don’t read every word or every sentence. Let you eyes skim over
the text, taking in key words.
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5. Ski by zooming through the text quickly trying to spot key words.
Don’t start at the beginning and plod or shuffle through the text.
After you have scanned the text and found the bits that you think
look relevant and interesting then skim read. Concentrate to keep
your keywords and questions in your mind.
6. Continue to think about the meaning of the text.
When reading extensive material, you can first skim over the chapter and section
titles to give you an idea of when the material is about. Then quickly scan through
the material again to get a better idea of the topic. Finally, you read the
assignment, but still reading rapidly.
Skimming is a step you should always take before you read any article of factual
or practical narrative. You will soon be able to detect most important facts,
strange vocabulary, and words that are clues to important relationships.
It’s a good practice to skim everything in mass media after reading the title and
first paragraph. You may get all the information you want. This keeps your
skimming skills from deteriorating, or will give you the practice you need to
develop necessary skills.
Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final decision to read,
discard, or study the material.
Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use for rapid review.
And don’t overlook this! Reviewing frequently and rapidly is the best way to
memorize (or simply remember information) from notes and long text
assignments.
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Some speed reading methods require you first to skim-read the material and then
read it over a second time more carefully, but yet still at high speed. In skim
reading you often just scan through the material, letting your eyes catch key words
that give you the crux of the written material.
Take some reading material and read it as fast as you can for a minute. When
reading at this pace you do not have to understand a single word of what you are
reading. Then start over for another minute and try to get to a further point that
you did the last. Repeat this step over and over trying to beat the place where you
got to last. Eventually time yourself for a minute and read for comprehension and
you will see how fast you can really read.
Like scanning, skimming requires you to read quickly. When you skim a text,
though, you are not looking for specific information, but rather, you are trying to
get the main idea or point of the text you are reading. When skimming a reading
section, start with the title of the text. Then read the topic sentence of each
paragraph. Skimming is a skill that is especially suited for doing research. By
skimming a few pages of a reference book or novel, you can generally tell if the
novel will be useful for your research.
(b) How is ‘skimming’ different to ‘scanning’?
The term skimming is often confused with scanning. Remember: Skimming is
used to obtain the gist (the overall sense) of a piece of text. e.g. use skimming to
get the gist of a page of a textbook to decide whether it is useful and should
therefore be read more slowly and in more detail. Scanning is used to locate
specific information from a piece of text. e.g. use scanning to find a particular
number in a telephone directory.
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Sometimes you can use both reading methods. After you have skimmed a piece of
text to decide whether the text is of interest, you may wish to use scanning
techniques to locate specific information.
3.3.3 Specific Reading
This strategy is usually employed in conjunction with skim reading. It is
especially useful if you are looking for specific information which may be
contained in a variety of books, journals or articles. The process is one of search
and discovery. It requires you to skim read, locate, mark and then return to close
reading. When doing this across a number of texts, you will need to reference the
materials as you proceed.
3.3.4 In-depth (or Intensive) Reading
This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading a text
thoroughly in order to comprehend the ideas and arguments it contains.
In-depth reading is consequently much slower than skim reading, and you may
find that you need to read certain sections of a difficult text more than once.
When reading in-depth it is useful to:
(a) Read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help you to
digest the intention and conclusion of the writer prior to a closer reading of
the text.
(b) Go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text, marking out and
noting:
- key words and phrases;
- ideas, facts, and data you think are important;
- the structure of the argument.
make sure you understand the writer’s main ideas and arguments, and the
overall message of the text.
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3.3.5 Critical Reading
Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a text
critically means that you do not accept what you are reading at face value. This
does not necessarily mean that you should find fault with a text, but rather that you
should question and judge the merit and worth of the information it contains. A
number of inter-related processes are involved in critical reading. They are:
Interpretation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Whether you use all, or only
some of these processes, will depend on both the particular reading situation, and
your purpose for reading.
(a) Interpretation
When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning in a text,
that is, to determine what conclusions can be drawn about the various messages
the text contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible interpretation, and
in such cases it is possible that our reading may be directed at the best, or most
likely meaning. Interpreting a text will also frequently involve the processes of
analysis and synthesis.
(b) Analysis
This is the process by which we examine the way the ideas and messages in a text
fit together to crate the overall meaning. When analyzing a text we focus on:
(i) Identifying assumptions
The hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying e.g. that everyone who
cleans their teeth uses toothpaste, or that anyone who loves Africa supported
Ghana during the world cup matches.
(ii) The structure of the argument
The development and sequence of ideas, the relationship between ides, whether
the argument is inductive or deductive.
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(iii) The relationship between evidence/data and argument
Whether the evidence supports and illustrates the argument, and whether it
supports any conclusions that are drawn. Synthesis usually occurs in conjunction
with analysis, and involves the drawing together of the results of the analysis into
a conclusion on which to base an interpretation or evaluation.
EXERCISES
1. Discuss with your colleague the reasons that would normally
lead you to choose to read one newspaper instead of others.
2. Identify the reading methods you would use in the following
situations; [Note there is often not a single answer, several
choices may be possible according to your reading purpose]
(a) A TV guide to world cup matches
(b) An English grammar book
(c) An article in the Chronicle Magazine the loss of indigenous
languages
(d) The opinion page in your local newspaper
(e) Shoprite commodity advertisement in the local daily
newspaper
(f) A novel
(g) A poem
(h) An examination timetable
(i) A letter from your best friend
(j) A short story by your favorite author
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REFERENCES
Afolayan,A.& H. Newsum (1983); The Use of English:
Communication Skills For University Students. Longman,
London
Harris. (1966); Reading Improvement Exercises For Students of
English as a Second Language, Englewood Cliffs. California
Hewett,R.P. (1960); Reading and Response. London Hwrrap:
London
Nuttall,C. (1982); Teaching Reading Skills in A Foreign Language
(Practical Teaching No. 9) Heinemann Educational Books
Ltd; London
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LECTURE FOUR
WRITING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Writing for the purpose of making your ideas and intentions known to others is
different from writing for the class teacher to read. When you were still in school,
you remember being asked by your teacher to write essays in the form of
composition. The essays you wrote were intended by your teacher to assist
him/her in identifying and eventually rectifying your errors of language usage and
of writing. In real life however, writing is a serious activity which is carried out to
accomplish communication. Writing for communication is goal oriented. It does
not aim merely at transferring information but delivering information that is
purposeful.
This lecture is going to introduce you to the techniques and skills of writing two
types of discourse which are of great importance to you not only now as a student
but also after you have finished your studies. The two types of discourse are essay
and the report.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(i) distinguish between an essay and a report;
(ii) describe the general techniques of writing an essay and a report
respectively;
(iii) write a simple essay and a report respectively.
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4.2 WRITING AN ESSAY
4.2.1 What is an Essay?
An essay is a prose form which is created by putting together ideas and linguistic
expressions to create a larger composite. The large unit so formed must be a
unified whole consisting of a paragraph or more.
Depending on the purposes or desired effects of writing, essays may be
categorized into three major forms namely description, narration and exposition.
These will be explained. The idea is that whatever forms of essay you will engage
yourself in, you will require the same skills and techniques to develop it.
4.2.2 Five Steps to Successful Writing of an Essay
The reason why many students have difficulty in writing essays is that they do not
know that writing is a process and that they need to organize themselves
systematically in order to accomplish it well. The best way to ensure that your
writing is accomplished successfully is to divide the writing process into five
major steps: preparation, research, organization, writing the draft and revision.
(a) Stage of Preparation
In essay writing the stage of preparation is a pre-writing stage. It requires you to
do the following tasks:
(i) Determination of Objectives
Even before you set out to commit yourself to writing the first line or your essay,
you should ask yourself what exactly do you want your readers to know after they
have finished reading your essay. These are your objectives or the ends you want
to achieve. Objectives will guide you to focus only on important issues that you
have set yourself out to say. What you are supposed to do at this stage is to state
in an outline for the ideas you intend to put out.
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(ii) Determination of Audience
As you jot down ideas you want to write about, you should decide to whom
exactly you want to impart the message. This task is understandably not quite
applicable to essays you will write as a student because in this case your audience
is going to be your lecturer. But it is a task of quite special importance when you
are writing a free essay. You need to know exactly who your readers are and to
learn key factors about them, such as their educational level, interests and their
needs relative to the subject of your essay. Knowledge of these factors will guide
you in the choice of style, vocabulary, tone and sophiscation of information to
include in your essay.
(iii) Determination of Scope
It is very essential as well before you start writing to determine the amount and
type of message you want to impart. This is called scope; it simply means the
extent in breadth and depth to which you cover your subject.
The three preparatory tasks we have stated here are all of crucial importance to
you as a writer. You can compare them to the process of focusing a camera before
taking a picture. The three pre-writing tasks will help you to bring your writing in
focus before the actual writing begins.
• State a topic you wish to write about.
• Write the objectives, audience and scope of your subject.
(b) Stage of Search for Subject Matter
This stage which is also known as research refers to the process of investigating
and collecting the content of your essay. It entails the discovery of ideas through
investigating, gathering and verifying information which is relevant to the subject
of your essay. You will be able to gather a lot of facts by consulting several
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different sources of information. Listed below are some of the major sources of
information.
(i) Library
You will find the library a very useful and convenient palace for you to collect
information on any subject.
Libraries are arranged in some systematic ways which make it easy for the reader
to retrieve information. Thus it will serve you a lot of time if you learnt how to
use the library effectively.
(ii) Newspapers
Daily newspapers, weeklies and magazines are similarly useful sources of up to
date information which you should consult. However some information gathered
from newspapers needs thorough verification.
(iii) Special Collections
Some private groups, like missionaries, companies, project firms or non-
governmental organizations quite often have a collection of documented
information. You may find it useful to consult such places.
(iv) Television, radio, audio/video cassettes and films
These belong to the category of non-printed media. They are becoming
increasingly available and increasingly used as sources of information for writers.
You should not overlook them, be imaginative about using them.
(v) Local Experts
Don’t forget that there are many people around you who may have the knowledge
and experience of what you intend to write on. Find and talk to knowledgeable
35
individuals in your locality who are experts in the field of study which you are
investigating on.
(vi) Personal Observations
You may be able to gather quite a lot of useful information simply by observing
phenomena, events or behaviours. Don’t depend only on information that others
have written or documented.
When conducting an observation, however you must be objective, complete and
accurate. Don’t let your feelings or sentiments seep into your recording. If
possible use a tape recorder or camera for accurate recording.
The main method used to extract information from the various sources mentioned
above is note taking. This is the process of selectively noting and recording
information that one regards useful for future writing or any other use. Since the
subject of note taking forms the topic of last lecture of this course, we are not
going to dwell on it at the moment.
(vii) Internet
The internet is the richest source of information. Anything you could ever want to
know is available online. For students and scholars conducting research, the
internet is a fantastic resource for finding out what has been done in your area of
specialization.
(c) Stage of Organisation
Organisation is a process in essay writing whereby points of ideas are arranged in
a way that makes it easier for the reader to understand your essay when it is
eventually written. The reader can easily understand an essay if he or she can
distinguish main ideas from secondary ones.
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Two t tasks are involved in the stage of organization. The first task is to make a
list in a form of an outline, of all the ideas you intend to include in your essay.
The importance of making such a list is that it makes it possible for you to see all
the points you have developed so far.
Two ways are commonly used by writers to make on outline; these are the vertical
list with headings and indented sub headings or tree diagram.
To outline points with a vertical list, first write your topic sentence or theses at the
top followed by headings and sub-headings which support
An example of vertical listing of points.
Example 4.1: The proper way to clean your teeth
(i) Obtain a proper toothbrush
- Stiff enough to remove food particles from between teeth
- Soft enough not to injure gums.
(ii) Squeeze out enough toothpaste
- too much will prevent contact of bristles with gums.
(iii) Rinse mouth after use
(iv) Use dental floss
- remove food particles missed by the toothbrush
- use back and forth motion to insert floss
- use up and down motion to clean between teeth
(v) Way to maintain good oral hygiene
- brush teeth within an hour after meal
- if not possible rinses thoroughly.
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A tree diagram outline
Example 4.2: Proper way to clean your teeth
Detam proper touch brush Soft enough Stiff enough to not to enjure free food particles gums brush teeth use up and down rinse mouth and use dental clean floss using back and sp and down motion clean between teeth using way to maintain oral health brush teeth within an hour if not possible close thoroughly
Squeeze out tooth past enough to cover too much not toothbrush good
prevents contact of bristles and gums
38
The second task in the organization of an essay is to arrange the outline points in a
specific order of development. This order should reflect the way ideas will flow in
the essay itself, you should select an order you consider to be most appropriate to
your audience or the desired effect of the essay. There are many different methods
or essay developments available to the writer, the most common ones are the
following:
(i) Sequential Method
This method which is also known as step-by-step method is the simplest and
easiest to follow because it presents steps in correspondence with the logical
stages of the process or instruction it describes. As the name itself implies, the
method presents information according to the natural order of occurrence of
activities, it is especially effective in explaining a process or an instruction.
An essay developed in sequential method.
Example 4.3: Proper way to clean your teeth
Proper tooth cleaning begins with the proper equipment. Chooses a brush stiff
enough to remove particles from between your teeth, yet soft enough to message
your gums without making them bleed.
Squeeze out a bead of toothpaste just long enough to cover the bristles of message
your brush Too much will prevent sufficient contact between the bristles and your
teeth and gums.
Brush your teeth in on up and down motion. Rinse your mouth after brushing.
Then use dental floss to remove food particles between your teeth that the
toothbrush may have missed. Begin by wrapping the floss securely around
forefinger. Using a gentle black-and-forth motion, insert the floss between your
teeth and move it up and down.
39
To maintain good oral hygiene, brush your teeth within one hour after each meal.
If brushing is not possible after meals, rinse your mouth thoroughly instead.
(From: Handbook of Technical Writing)
(ii) Chronological Order
In this method of organization, points are arranged in such a way that they follow
the order of events and time. It is in a way very similar to the sequential method.
Their main difference that in the sequential method only the notion of events is
given prominence whereas in the chronological order both are considered equally.
Example 4.4: Text organized in a chronological order
Attached you will find a timetable describing in detail the specific procedures to
be accomplished on each date. Here I would like to give you a general overview
of each phase and its implications for the respective staff. As the timetable
indicates, phase one for the Marketing Department will commence on April 3.
Members of the department will need to occupy temporary quarters until April
12; when both phase one and phase two will be completed. At that time, Mr.
Phillip’s office can be refurbished.
On the morning of April 12, we will assemble the ten cubicles intended for
Marketing Research Staff; during the afternoon of the day, we will complete the
ten cubicles intended for Marketing Communications. We will plan to spend the
remainder of that week eliminating problems and adding features to meet the
specific needs of the occupants.
(From: Communicating in Business to day).
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(iii) Special Order
In this method of organization, objects are explained in relation the space they
occupy. You may for example start by explaining objects which are outside then
those which are inside a space or starting with those which are above followed by
those which are below a point.
(iv) Cause and Effect Order
In this method, one point is explained either as a reason or as a result of another.
The method is commonly used in academic essays as it makes it possible to
establish logical connections between ideas. It is especially relevant when you
want to present an argument about why something happened or whey you think it
is likely to happen. The method is especially useful in writing about social,
economic or political events or problems.
(v) Decreasing-Order-of-Importance
In this method of organization,
Points are arranged in a decreasing order of importance, beginning with the
important point going to the next most important until you end with the least
important. One advantage of using this method is that you make a strong initial
impression to your reader
(vi) Increasing-order-of importance method
Similar to the above albeit in the opposite order. The sequencing of points in this
method begins with a point of least importance and ends with one that is most
important. The advantage of this method is that it ensures that the most important
of your several ideas is freshest in your reader’s mind at the end of his or her
reading.
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(d) Stage of writing the draft
This stage involves the process of converting ideas into sentences to develop a
text. When you have established the objective of your essay, the audience and
scope and if you have done adequate search of subject matter, created a good
outline and decided on a method of organization; you are in the position to begin
writing the draft of your essay. The primary goal in draft writhing is to shape
information by presenting it in connected sentence and paragraphs.
When you are writing the draft, you should concentrate on converting the points in
your outline into topic sentences and supporting sentences. Make it a free flowing
exercise. Present your ideas as if you are speaking to someone across the table.
Be concerned only with facts. Keep writing quickly to maintain unit of thought
and proportion. Don’t be worried about grammatical correctness. Worrying on
grammar is of no use at this stage. It will only slow down your thinking process
and censor your ideas.
One possible difficulty you will encounter in the writing of the draft is finding a
good opening. This is called blank page experience. It should not worry you
much. Many experienced writers very often have found themselves in a similar
experience of starting a blank page. The important thing is that you should not be
concerned with finding the right introduction. Start writing the part you feel most
eager to write, the one you understand best and feel most strongly about. To keep
the draft flowing skip items that may tend to hold you. If for example you can’t
find the right word, write it in Kiswahili or your mother tongue or just leave it
blank, whichever is more helpful to you.
When the writing of your draft is over, you will have before you a text that is not
perfect in many ways; some facts will be underdeveloped, certain ideas will
require elaboration or clarification. There will be numerous wrong or incorrect
42
phrases, words and sentences, inappropriate punctuation, the tone or style may not
be the intended one and many more. All these will require to be corrected and put
in the right way. This suggests the need and importance of the last stage of essay
writing.
(e) Stage of Revision
This is an essential final process of essay development. The word revision
literally means “re-seeing” – it is the process of looking a new at ideas, details,
and language items of your essay with the aim of evaluating their relationships,
arrangement and effectiveness. Many students hold a misconception that revision
is synonymous with editing. Strictly speaking the two are different though related.
Editing simply means refining the manner of expression to improve clarity or style
or to correct errors, it is only part of the revision process. In editing you deal with
the superficial surface structure. To the contrary in revision you examine the
underlying meaning and structure of the essay. Revision entails rethinking over
all the aspects of the essay, retesting your assumptions, modifying your arguments
if necessary, ensuring that you have proved your assertions and making certain
that your essay has achieved the proper emphasis and proportion.
(f) Check The Draft Against Your Outline
This is important for two reasons: First, it tells you whether you have presented
your facts according to the Plan. Second, it informs you whether you have
exhausted all points. Then examine your facts to see if they are accurate and the
presentation bears the tone you intended.
Relating to the manner of development of your essay, examine your introduction
to see it presents the objective clearly enough. This is particularly important
because if your objective is not made clear, it will not enable the reader to see the
framework of your essay. After examining the introduction, look at your mode of
43
transition; see if the sentences, paragraphs and any other linguistic items are
logically linked together. Finally check your conclusion to see if it presents the
chasing emphasis to the theme you have developed throughout the Essay.
4.3 WRITING OF THE REPORT
4.3.1 What is a report?
A report is a type of a discourse that is widely used in most professional settings.
It is used in education, business, and government, in hospitals and the like;
however it is a term which cannot be simply or easily defined. Some people tend
to define report as any presentation of information. This meaning includes both
the extremely formal and the highly informal presentations. Others tend to be
more specific and look at the report as ‘a formalized presentation of information’.
These variations in the meaning are understandably a result of the wide range of
situations and purposes for which the report is used. In this course, however, we
will adopt a moderately less general meaning that will help to set off a number of
other reports like forms of presentations.
TAKE NOTE
A report is an orderly and objective communication of factual
information which serves an institutional purpose.
In order to understand this definition, lets us note its key words.
4.3.1 Orderly Communication
A report is distinguished from other means of information presentation from the
way it is prepared. The preparation of a report is done with some care compared
to the casual routine exchanges of information. What this means is that in the
preparation of a report some ordered steps have to be followed and shown in the
presentation.
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(a) Objective
A major feature of a report is that it is not biased in its presentation of facts. The
report seeks to present truth regardless of its outcomes.
(b) Communication
Means that a report is a means of transmitting message from one source to
another.
(c) Factual Information
A report does not present opinions, sentiments or subjective assumptions. When
these are included they are presented as part of data and should either be clearly
labeled as such or be supported by facts.
As stated earlier on, this definition is not specific enough but is broad enough to
apply in the numerous variations to be found in reports.
4.4 TYPES OF REPORTS
Reports are of various types depending on the criterion one uses to classify them.
Following below are some of the criteria which are commonly used to label
reports.
4.4.1 Subject Matter
Depending on the subject of the report, it can be an
Education report, economic report, health report, military report, business report
etc.
4.4.2 Time Interval
Basing on the time interval when the report is written, it can be a daily report,
weekly report, monthly report, mid year report, biannual report, special report etc.
45
4.4.3 Status of Authorship
In this regard a report can be labeled as public report, private report or
independent report.
4.4.4 Degree of Formality
A report can be said to be formal or informal.
4.4.5 Other
Some other not quite specific criteria give us: progress reports, Improvements
report etc.
4.4.6 Functional Classification
A criterion that is suitable for the purpose of our course is a functional
classification. In your study you may be required to prepare as a requirement in
your course, reports of this nature. Functional classification gives three types of
reports.
(a) Informational
As the term implies, this is a type of report that presents only facts on the subject
without giving an analysis of them and no conclusions.
(b) The analytical (or problem solving report)
This presents not only facts but also analyses and recommends. It is the most
complete of all the types of reports. It begins with an orientation and description
of the problem and presents the information gathered analysis and examines the
information. From the analysis and examinations the report derives a solution in a
form of a recommendation.
46
Part of the reason why this classification has been given to you is to show you
how wide the subject of reports is. This suggests that various ways are required
to study it properly.
4.5 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF WRITING REPORTS?
You have certainly seen reports before. Have you asked yourself why at all they
are written? Again depending on the nature of the reports, they are written to
achieve one or more of the following objectives.
4.5.1 To Record Information
This is done as routine for the purpose of keeping records of the institution or the
discipline.
4.5.2 To Solve a Problem
Owing to its mature of factual objectivity, the report more than any other discourse
type is mot suitable in providing information that is unbiased and reliable.
4.5.3 To Enable the Institution Function Properly
The success of any institution depends on the amount and type of information that
its decision makers are able to obtain. Reports ensure that such information is
obtained regularly.
?
Can you think of any other reason why a report should be written?
4.6 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A REPORT
Most of the reports you’re likely going to write are short and informal reports.
Such reports will tend to be brief and personal and will deal with issues which are
of limited size. Typically the goal of a report is to handle a problem and develop a
specific conclusion or to recommend a particular course of action. In this kind of
47
reports the conclusion or recommendation is the most significant part that it often
overshadows other elements of the report.
4.6.1 Presentation of the Problem
It is a good idea to clearly show this at the beginning of the report. There are a
number of ways of doing this. The problem may be presented simply as a subject
line or heading on top of the report. The subject line is an announcement of what
the report is about.
Example 4.5: Reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination
Another way of presenting the problem is by writing a problem statement. The
statement may be written either as an infinitive phrase, a question or a declarative
clause.
As an infinitive phrase
Example 4.6
To account for mass student failures in the English Examination.
As a question.
Example 4.7
What are the reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination?
Or as a declarative statement
Example 4.8
The ministry of education wants to know the reasons for mass student failures in
English.
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This third form of presentation is not popularly used. It sounds rather
cumbersome to some readers. Whichever form of presentation you select,
statement of the problem is an essential element as it helps the author not to stray
away from the goal. It also helps the reader to get the framework of the report
even before one goes into the details.
4.6.2 Presentation of Findings
Findings are the ideas and facts which are related to the problem. After you have
collected your information, arrange the findings in an order appropriate for
presentation. You may present your findings in one of the following two ways.
(a) Indirect approach
This method is also called the logical or inductive approach. It is a method of
presenting facts beginning with the general to the specific or as others would say
moving from the known to the unknown.
If you decide to use the indirect approach, begin with an introductory passage to
orient your reader to the problem. Then proceed to present findings and their
analyses. From the facts and analysis, you’ve your conclusion or summary
statements. You may be required to write a recommendation to some of the
problems.
(b) Direct Approach
This method is referred also as a psychological or deductive method. You have to
begin with presenting the conclusions, summaries or recommendations followed
by facts and analyses from which the former are drawn.
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4.7 QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE REPORT WRITING
As we have said elsewhere before, the report is a type of discourse which is
largely used for decision making. If it is to meet that objective, your report ought
to be effective. For you to write an effective report, you have to observe the
following simple but essential qualities.
4.7.1 Readability
This is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of a report. Readability is
the easiness of reading a material. It is achieved by the way your results are
presented in the report. You must present your results objectively by placing them
logically and consistently in time so they tell a flowing complete story.
4.7.2 Objectivity
An effective report is factual, neutral and fair. It does not reflect the prejudice and
bias of the writer about the problem. Objectivity is the basis for our report being
believed. You must present your results a development of a complete, balanced
research and logical analysis.
At every stage of your report writing; keep in mind that objectivity will be the
basis for believability of your report.
4.7.3 Language
Write your report in a language that is clear and straight forward. Avoid as much
as possible the use of passive voice. It is dull and can make your report sound
awkward.
Example 4.9
Passive: The problem of scarcity of study materials has been solved
Active: The management has solved the problem of study materials
scarcity
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How the report is connected is also something to observe. You can improve the
connecting network of your report by using a number of appropriate cohesive ties
and transitional words. These were mentioned earlier when discussing essay
writing and will be explained in much detail later.
ACTIVITIES
Write a report on any one of the following topics.
1. Minazi Mikinda Co. is a large company in your locale; recently
however it has acquired negative publicity. The company’s
patrons have asked you to write a report on the possible causes
and remedy of the problem. Write the report.
2. The director of Tikisa Enterprise has begun to worry about the
rising incidences of office romances. You have been
approached to write a report on what should be the company’s
policy on the phenomenon.
3. A number of youths are becoming very rich as a result of their
involvement in mineral prospecting. You have been asked by
the social welfare department to write a report on the
behavioural and psychological effects of juvenile affluence to
these youths.
REFERENCES
Newman, R.G. (1987). Communicating in Business Today. D.C. Heath Co. Massachusetts,
Lesikar, R. and M.P. Lyons (1986). Report Writing for Business. Irwin-Homewood. Illinois,
Troyka, L.Q. Handbook for writers. (1987). Prentice-Hall inc. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey
Pichaske, E.R. Writing Sense. (1975), The Free Press. New York Brusaw, C.T. et. al. (1982). Handbook of Technical Writing St. Martin’s. Press. New York.
51
LECTURE FIVE
PUNCTUATION AND CONVENTIONS OF USE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Expression in writing is different from spoken expression. In speech you can
communicate in many different ways. You can for example raise or lower the
pitch or volume of your voice to emphasize a point. You can grin, frown, wink or
shrug. You can use your hands to shape out a meaning when you miss the
required words for it or you can even just keep silent and make it mean something.
To the contrary, in writing you have to communicate without facial expressions,
gestures or body language of any kind. Your means of expressing yourself is only
with words and punctuation.
In this lecture we are going to study about using punctuation in writing. We are
going to do so with the assumption that punctuation is an important means that
facilitates communication in written language. It is a means which substitutes for
the writer’s facial expression and voice modulation. A misuse of punctuation can
thus cause great misunderstanding between yourself and your reader.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Give a simple definition of punctuation;
(ii) Identify various punctuation marks in written text;
(iii) Tell the functions of various punctuation marks;
(iv) Use punctuation marks correctly.
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5.2 WHAT IS PUNCTUATION?
For our purpose in this lecture it will suffice to define punctuation as a system of
symbols that helps the writer to express oneself effectively and assist the reader to
understand the structural relationship within the sentence and the intention of a
sentence. Punctuation marks can link, separate, enclose, indicate omissions, and
terminate or classify items in sentences.
Punctuation is used in relation to grammatical requirements and the writer’s
intention. The following is information on the use of some commonly used marks
of punctuation.
5.2.1 Period (.)
A period, also called full stop or end stop plays a number of functions in writing.
(a) You can use a period to mark the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence
that makes a statement), polite command or indirect question.
Example 5.1:
I like watching western films. (statement)
Please send me the report. (command)
The host asked us what we wanted to eat. (indirect question)
(b) To indicate abbreviations
When worlds are used in abbreviated forms, a full stop is used.
Example 5.2:
Mr. and Mrs. Kidonga.
Dr. Batuli of K.C.M.C. Hospital.
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Note that a period is not used in acronyms (words formed from initials of a
multiword title).
Example 5.3:
NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
RADAR for Radio Detecting and Ranging
COBOL for Common Business Oriented Language.
(c) To mark letters or numerals used in vertical list
When you list items using letters or numerals, place a period between the letter or
numeral and the item being listed.
Example 5.4:
The police are concerned with three kinds of crime
1. drug trafficking
2. cross border smuggling
3. poaching
If you give information in a sentence, enclose the letters or numbers within
brackets and omit the periods.
Example 5.5:
The police are concerned with three kinds of crime
1. drug trafficking
2. cross border smuggling
3. poaching
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5.2.2 The Comma (,)
The comma has a wide variety of uses in writing. It can link, enclose, separate or
show omissions to a clause. Effective use of the comma depends upon the writer’s
own understanding of how ideas fit together. When used properly the comma can
add clarity and emphasis to written text. In addition to that the comma can prevent
ambiguity by separating sentence elements that might otherwise be misunderstood.
Uses of the comma
(a) To Link
Use the comma to link long independent clauses that are joined by coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet). The comma usually precedes the
conjunction.
Example 5.6:
The whistle blew, and the big game started.
Julius never attends military parades, for he hates war.
When the clauses to be linked are short and closely related, many writers tend to
omit the comma. A transitional word or phrase like moreover or furthermore is
usually followed by a comma.
Example 5.7:
Moreover, the villagers wanted to know how their money was used. In addition,
they asked to be given the bank statement.
(b) To Enclose
Use the comma to enclose non-restrictive adjective clauses. A non-restrictive
adjective clause is one that does not identify the antecedent but simply gives
information about it.
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Example 5.8:
Our new history teacher, who began teaching last month, had invited us. We can,
of course, expected the lawyer or the police to summon us.
(c) Direct Address
Example 5.9:
Your will note, Elizabeth, that you do not qualify for this job. That comment was
not meant for you, Janet.
Phrases in apposition
Example 5.10:
Our company, the Makuti Co. Limited, has done very well this year.
(d) Participial Phrases
Example 5.11:
The fullback, sensing danger, kicked the ball outside the field.
(e) To Separate
Use the comma to separate introductory elements from the rest of the sentence, to
separate items in a series, to separate subordinate clauses from main clauses.
(i) Separating introductory elements
• It is generally a good rule to put a comma after an introductory clause or
phrase unless it is very short.
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Example 5.12:
Since many students fail English examinations, it is wise to start teaching them
English in standard One.
The tests completed, students in each class organized a picnic.
Yes, I will make sure you get your salary
Indeed, I will send you further information soon.
• Use comas to separate more than two words in a series
Example 5.13:
At the market Ruth got all she had wanted textiles, foods, utensils and furniture.
A big, old, dilapidated house stood on the corner.
Note that a comma precedes the ‘and ‘that links the final item to the others.
(ii) Separating subordinate clauses
Use a comma between the main clause and a subordinate clause when the
subordinate clause comes first.
Example 5.14:
When you were reading the book, we managed to sneak to the sea shore.
• Separating two contrasting thoughts or ideas:
Example 5.15:
The project was finished in time, but not within the budge
• Separating direct quotation from its introduction:
Example 5.16:
The country mouse said, “I am going to the village tomorrow”.
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(f) To Show Omissions
A comma sometimes replaces words in certain elliptical constructions. Use a
comma when you want to omit a verb you have already used in a clause.
Example 5.17:
Some members were punctual: others, late.
(g) Setting off dates, addresses, greetings and large numbers
• Use a comma to set off items of a date or address.
Example 5.18:
Kiletu was born on the morning of July 1, 1961.
The address she gave us was Makongo Farm, P.O. Box 32727, Dar es Salaam.
• Use a comma after a greeting expression in a friendly or informal written
exchange also after the closing remark.
Example 5.19:
My dear Agnes, I hope you’re OK
Dear Aunt Majuto,
Yours sincerely, Anthony
Faithfully your customer, Ally
• Use commas to separate digits in large numbers beginning from one
Example 5.20:
3,000 shillings
130,000 people
Misuse of the Comma
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A number of writers make writing errors by placing the comma where it does not
belong. These errors often occur because writers assume that a pause in a
sentence should be indicated by a comma. It is true that commas usually signal
pauses but not every pause should be indicated by a comma.
Some of the common mistakes of using the comma are the following:
(i) Separating subject and predicate
Do not place a comma between a subject and verb or between a verb and its object
The big black hawk, ate all our chicken. (wrong)
The big black hawk ate all our chicken. (right)
(ii) Separating elements of a compound subject or compound predicate
Neither the chairman, nor his secretary came to the meeting. (wrong)
Neither the chairman nor his secretary came to the meeting. (right)
(iii) Placing a comma after a coordination conjunction
Do not place a comma after a conjunction such as, and, or, but.
The chairman was reported to be sick but, members doubted about it. (wrong)
The chairman was reported to be sick but members doubted about it. (right)
(iv) Placing a comma in a list of items
Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series
It was a, fast, clean, comfortable, train. (wrong) It was a fast, clean, comfortable
train. (right)
Along the corridor were placed, bags, shelves and stools. (wrong)
Along the corridor were placed bags, shelves and stools. (right)
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SUMMARY
The following is the summary of the principles of comma usage.
1. Use a comma to link two independent clauses joined by and, for,
but, for. so, or, nor, yet
2. Use a comma to separate introductory phrases, clauses and
words from the rest of the sentence.
3. Use a comma to separate items presented in a series and
adjectives that modify the same noun.
4. Use a comma to set off phrases or clauses which interrupt the
sentence.
5. Use a comma to set off phrases and clauses that are not essential
to the basic meaning of the sentence.
6. Use commas to set off names, titles, addresses, dates and
quotations.
5.2.3 Semi-Colon (;)
The semi-colon is used to link independent clauses or other sentence elements of
equal grammatical rank or status. The semi-colon indicates a greater pause
between clauses than a comma would, but not so great a pause as a period would.
(a) Linking clauses of a compound sentence
• Use a semi-colon to join two or more closely related independent clause
which are not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Example 5.21:
In the first week there was constant rain; in the second week it was constant
sunshine.
No one applied for the job; the job was too difficult.
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(b) In Complex sentences with strong connectives
• Use a semi-colon before transitional words or phrases (that is for
example, namely) that introduce examples or further explanation.
Example 5.22:
The aid was for the underprivileged; namely the children from poor families.
(c) In complex sentences with conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are words which specify a relation between one clause and
another. They indicate relations as listed here.
(i) To indicate addition
Use a semi colon before words like besides, furthermore, moreover or in addition.
Example 5.23:
The president inspected an official parade; furthermore, he promoted a number of
soldiers.
(ii) To indicate likeness/similarity
Use a semi-colon before words like likewise, similarly or in the same way.
Example 5.24:
Young Tanzanians condemned Idd Amin’s invasion of their country; likewise
they condemned the massacre of innocent people in Rwanda.
(iii) To indicate contrast
Use a semi-colon before words like however nevertheless, still, nonetheless,
conversely, otherwise, instead, in contrast or on the other hand.
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Example 5.25:
Darwin’s theory was rejected in the beginning; however, many of his ideas have
now been confirmed.
(iv) To indicate cause and effect
Use a semi-colon before words like accordingly, consequently, hence therefore, as
a result, for this reason.
Example 5.26:
The window was not well made; consequently it fell off during the strong wind.
(v) To indicate a means-and-end relation
Use a semi-colon before words like thus, thereby, this means or in this manner.
Example 5.27:
Amos passed well the first degree course; thereby clearing his way for a brighter
future.
(vi) To indicate reinforcement
Use a semi-colon before words like for example, for instance, in fact, in particular
or indeed.
Example 5.28:
Transport will be improved in the rural areas; in particular railway transport to
the southern parts.
(vii) To indicate time
Use a semi-colon before words which express time like meanwhile, then,
consequently, afterward, earlier, and later.
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Example 5.29:
First chop the onions in small slices; then fry them for sometime.
Please note, when a conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a clause no
punctuation is used on either side of it.
Such conjunctive adverbs include, then in fact, still, otherwise and hence.
EXERCISES
Join the following sets of clauses by using a semi-colon and a
conjunctive adverb to form a single sentence.
1. Schooling may give one a well-paying job. It cannot guarantee
success in life.
2. Many children do not learn English at home. They must do so at
school.
3 Every month I make plans how to spend my salary. I have never
managed to keep any of them.
4 You can travel to Tabora for three days by train. You can reach
there in two hours by train.
5 The discovery of gold in Maganzo created the gold rush. The
discovery of ruby in Ulanga created a ruby rush.
Use full stops and commas in correct places in the following sentences.
1. Please forward my letters to Mrs. Magida of Tanganyika Blankets
P O Box 1771 Songea
2. The crowd gathered along Nyerere road to greet President N.
Mandela
3. A total of 15500 cattle perished in the floods.
4. On 8th March 1996 a comet Harleys was sighted
5. The delegation reached Machakos Kenya on 3 April 1951
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5.2.4 Question Mark (?)
This is one of the punctual marks which are usually used to end sentences.
The question mark is used in the following situations.
(a) To mark the end of a direct question
Example 5.30:
Why did you ignore the early warning?
To what extent are the poor assisted?
(b) To indicate that one is not certain about a word within a statement.
Example 5.31:
On reaching the house someone (a watchman?) appeared from behind the hedges.
Misuse of the Question Mark
A common mistake on the use of the question mark is using it in an indirect
question,
• Do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Example 5.32:
Don’t say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book?
Say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book.
The question mark is commonly used with the idea of asking for information.
It has the following distinct uses:
• Use the question mark at the end of a sentence that is a direct question.
Example 5.33:
When are you presenting the report?
64
• Use the question mark at the end of a statement that is declarative in form but
ask a question.
Example 5.34:
Is the president coming today?
• When you want to cite a title that has a question mark retain the question
mark.
Example 5.35:
Her first novel was Why Are We Blessed?
• When used with quotation marks, the question mark may indicate whether it is
the writer who is doing the quoting or the person being quoted asks the
question. The question mark is placed outside the quotation marks when it is
the writer who asks the question.
Example 5.36:
Did you say, “She won’t come today”?
On the other hand if the quotation itself is a question, then the mark is placed
inside the quotation marks.
Example 5.37:
She asked him, “Can you help me?”
• When an interrogative sentence has separate items all items will carry a
question mark.
65
Example 5.38:
Can you tell us more about the house? Its size? Surroundings? Whether it is
occupied?
• Never use a question mark at the end of on indirect quotation.
Example 5.39:
Wrong: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband?
Correct: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband.
EXERCISES
Punctuate the following sentences using the correct marks.
1. We are prepared wrote Surrah to help all those who will call us
2. The history of life on earth wrote Nyerere has been a history of
struggle between the haves and the have nots
3. Did Matano Juma define a fool as a person who does not know
something but thinks that he knows it
4. Shaaban Roberts best poems are utenzi wa Adili and Amina
Umejitenga
5. Shaaban Robert once wrote skin colour is but Gods decoration
5.2.5 Quotation Marks (“ “)
• Quotation marks are used to enclose spoken or written words which are
directly repeated. You may enclose in quotation marks only words which are
quoted word for word (direct quotation) from spoken or written text.
Example 5.40:
She said clearly, “I am not happy with you.”
66
• Do not enclose in quotation marks speech which is indirectly quoted. An
indirect quotation is usually introduced by that, it represents a paraphrase of a
speaker’s words or ideas.
Example 5.41:
She said clearly that she was not happy with us.
• When you quote from written text, use quotation marks in the same way: place
words you wish to quote in quotation marks.
Example 5.42:
Direct: The report sums up, “If the environment is not cared for the earth is
going to become extinct”.
Indirect: The report concludes that if the environment is not cared for, the
earth is going to become extinct.
• When the quoted text exceeds four lines, it is normally indented and lines are
single spaced. When presented in this way you should not use quotation
marks.
When you want to present a quotation within a quoted text, use single quotation
marks (similar to apostrophe) to enclose the quotation that appears within the main
quotation.
Example 5.43:
Alex said, “I heard her calling out, ‘thief, thief’”.
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• Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short stories, articles, speeches, radio
or TV Programmes.
Example 5.44:
Have you read Mandela’s Rivonia speech, “History will Absolve me?”
• Titles of books and periodicals are underlined or printed in italics.
Example 5.45:
I find David Mangui’s The Common Man a fascinating book.
• Quotation marks may also be used to represent the words, same as above.
When a word is written directly below a similar one in vertical listing.
Example 5.46:
Kitepo was represented by the village Chairman.
Sinza “ “ “ “ Secretary
Bukongo “ “ “ “ Council member.
5.2.6 Apostrophe ( ‘ )
The apostrophe is used to indicate possession, to mark the omission of letters in a
word.
• Use an apostrophe before an ‘s’ to show singular possession in some nouns.
Example 5.47:
Both Juliata’s and Asha’s school are closed.
Dar es Salaam city’s residents have had no water for two days now.
• In plural possession, the apostrophe is placed at the end of the noun following
the ‘s’.
Example 5.48:
68
The girls’ dormitory is being repaired.
The headteachers’ meeting ended in the evening.
• When the noun to which possession is to be indicated ends in an ‘s’, place on
apostrophe after the ‘s’.
Example 5.49:
Moses’ story frightened his listeners.
The neighbors helped Tans’ capture
• The apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns.
Example 5.50:
Theirs, yours, its, his, ours, whose.
• You may use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a word or date.
Example 5.51:
Cant’, I’m, I’II
The peasant revolts of the early ‘60s
EXERCISES
Punctuate the following passage.
Everyone is talking about Kisa Katopes novel its plot is based on
Incidents which occurred to him in Uganda during the war it is
Frightening to read about senseless killings of people even though
youve not seen them one character is portrayed as being keen in
stealing soldiers uniforms. Hes finally caught and ends up in the
citys Famous makindye prison
5.2.7 Exclamation mark ( ! )
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The exclamation mark is used in writing to indicate an expression of strong
feeling. It can be surprise, fear, indignation or excitement. It is a punctuation
mark more commonly used in fiction and social written communication than in
academic or technical discourse.
Uses of exclamation mark
• The exclamation mark is most commonly used after a word, phrase, clause or
sentences to indicate surprise, pain, and jubilation.
Example 5.52:
Ouch! You have hurt me.
Wow! What a wonderful dress.
• Too many exclamation marks in a sentence will make text dull, do not overuse
them. when you use the exclamation mark together with quotation marks, the
former goes inside unless what is quoted is an exclamation.
Example 5.53:
Salima called out, “Watch out!” Hearing this, Peter jumped like a hare.
EXERCISE
Put correct punctuation marks to the following letter
ngoheranga mission
p.o. box 321
malinyi
dear mr an mrs salanga
I am sorry I have to worry you with my troubles but when I have
explained I am sure you will understand I regret to say that
grandmother is seriously ill, I asked a doctor from lugala hospital to
70
come and examine her today he said that her condition is critical he
advised us to observe absolute quiet for her to recover it all began
recently when she started having bad nights and could not get enough
sleep. the purpose of writing this letter is to ask you to spare a
weekend preferably this coming one so that you could come here and
spend time with us looking after grandma has really lowered our
nerves we will brighten up again when you come
pass my best regards to your children
yours sincerely
peter
REFERENCES
Heffernan, J.A.W and J.E. Lincoln. (1986) Writing: A college
Handbook W.W. Norton and Company. New York 1986.
Troyka, L.Q, (1987) Handbook for Writers, Prentice-Hall Inc.
Englewood Cliffs New Jersey.
71
LECTURE SIX
THE INTERNET
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet is one of the major technological inventions of this century. People
of all walks of life the world over talk about it and use it. Never before has
mankind witnessed an invention that has enabled people to do so many things that
are strategically important to life in the information society like the internet. It is a
technology that has been integrated and has provided people with new important
capabilities over a wide range of sectors including telecommunication, home
shopping, government services, academics, military, medicine, and entertainment.
Use of the Internet has become such an important skill that understanding it and
knowing how to communicate over it has become modern literacy.
This lecture is about Internet literacy. It is intended to provide you with the
conceptual background and basic Internet skills to become Internet literate.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lecture, you should be able to:
(i) Define the internet;
(ii) Use internet search engines;
(iii) Use multi media on internet;
(iv) Communicate over the internet.
6.2 WHAT IS THE INTERNET?
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The internet refers to a worldwide connection of millions of computers and
networks that follow the internet protocol (IP). The internet protocol is a standard
or linkage among computers that allows for its centers to continue sending and
receiving data packages in case one or more of the network nodes fall in disuse. In
which case information could still get rerouted automatically and reach its address.
This linkage therefore allows for any user on the Internet to communicate with a
million of users regardless of their location.
6.3 INTERNET AS AN ASPECT OF COMMUNICATION
The Internet is a relevant aspect of communication because it plays two roles. The
first is that it is a source of information. You can use the Internet to obtain
information you might require to tell other people or to write something for other
people to read. In fact it is said that the Internet is the richest source of
information on the planet. It can offer about anything that one could ever want to
know. For this reason the Internet is a valuable tool for you as a university student
because it can help you to search for and locate relevant information you may need
for conducting research or writing your academic papers. It is important to say
here that a wide range of database exist across curriculum.
The second role is that of medium of communication. In this role the Internet
functions as mode or medium through which one can receive or deliver
information to an intended target. The target could be an individual person or
group of people whom you may want your message to reach. For this reason, the
Internet is known as an information superhighway.
6.4 WHO IS USING THE INTERNET?
Use of the Internet is extensive, and the growth in number of users has been
phenomenal. Internet users include people from all works of life. Academicians,
business people, government officials, politicians, teachers, doctors, researchers
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students, kids, the elderly, parents, musicians, police, motel workers, the military,
pilots, social workers, disco-jockeys, movie stars - about everyone who wishes to
participate and succeed in the information society has a place in using the internet.
6.5 BRIEF HISTROY OF THE INTERNET
The Internet originated in 1969 in the USA. It began as a project of the US
Department of Defense whose goal was to support military research about how to
build a network that would continue to function when and if one of the network’s
data storage facility were destroyed by an enemy bomb. The intention was to give
the responsibility for delivery of information to the computers on the networks
instead of the network itself. The computers shared equally in the responsibility
for ensuring that communication was accomplished in the event one of the
computers along the way stopped functioning such as in bomb attack. The
information packets would automatically find an alternate route to their
destinations. Thus every computer on the internet was regarded as being equal to
all other computers in the network. Actually this remains a fact even today, no
computer on the Internet is more important than any other and no one computer is
in charge of the others.
6.6 BASIC INTERNET SERVICES
There are many possible things that people can do on the Internet. These
possibilities are organized according to services defined by protocols that specify
how information moves across the network. Following below are some of the
most important services available on the Internet.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-Mail): The Internet allows you to send and receive mail
(called e-mail) to and from anyone connected to the Network. The e-mail is a
highly efficient and convenient mode of global interaction and communication. It
is convenient because it is fast and you can respond to it at your convenience.
Furthermore, electronic mail has improved the way people communicate when
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they can’t talk in person. Nowadays people don’t have to wait for traditional postal
mail delivery which has come to be known as ‘snail mail’ due to its slowness in
delivering mail.
6.7 USING E-MAIL
Each person using e-mail has a unique address also known as an account; an
account enables you to log on the computer that hosts your e-mail service. The
computer that hosts your account is known as your e-mail host computer. On the
host computer, your account consists of a file space where your e-mail is kept for
you to read. You get your account from your Internet Service Provider (ISP)
The Internet address or account has several parts to it.
For example [email protected]
is made up as follows Santa…….. is the e-mail user name
@ …………is found at
hotmail…..is the name of the host computer
com….. stands for commercial site
Besides having an account, when using an e-mail, you have to have a password.
This is a number or word known only to yourself, which you must enter each time
you log on to your account. The password prevents other users of the Internet from
logging on under your name and gaining access to your mail. You must always
remember to keep your password secret because if it is known to others, some
malicious people might use it to sign under your name and send offensive mail
that could cause problems to you.
The electronic mail service has a facility for helping you to keep note of regularly
used e-mail addresses. This saves you rekeying addresses and avoids making
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typographic errors. When you wrongly type an address, it will result in your mail
being returned to you.
6.8 ADVANTAGES OF E-MAIL
(i) Delivery is than traditional mail and replies can be quicker.
(ii) It is much cheaper than the telephone or fax; the cost is not dependant on
the distance the message has traveled.
(iii) It overcomes time zone differences and inconveniences as the recipients do
not have to be there to receive it.
(iv) It allows for one-to-many messaging which is simple, cheap and enables
you to exchange information with people unknown to you.
6.8.1 File Transfer
This service also known as file transfer protocol (FTP) is a standard method for
transferring files over the Internet from one computer to another. It allows you to
search the millions of computers on the network for the information you need by
using convenient search engines and directories.
This service can let you download pictures, files and software that you can in turn
copy into your personal computer. There are millions of files on the Internet that
you can view on your computer. Many of these files are web pages that you can
find with the web based search engines. One such search engine is ARCHIE.
Archie is capable of searching for you the archives consisting of millions of files
that are available on anonymous FTP sites.
6.8.2 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
This is a protocol that allows Internet users to conduct real-time communication
on the computer. It enables people to converse with one another over the Internet.
Internet relay chats are organized into channels. To benefit from this service you
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have to join one or more communication channels and converse with others who
are subscribed to the same channel. Conversations may be public, allowing
everyone in a channel to see what you type, or private between only two people
who may or may not be on the same channel. To join IRC-and there are hundreds
of open IRC hosts worldwide, you may obtain information from the web site
www.irchelp.org/irchelp/networks.
6.8.3 Mailing List
Popularly known as listserv is modelled on the e-mail protocol. It works like and
electronic mailing list, it allows you to send e-mail messages to people whose
names are on the list. This makes it simple for members of a group to
communicate with one another through e-mail.
As a social being, you would want to communicate with other groups of people
using the computer. You might be working on a research project, for example and
you like to send a message to all people working on that project with you. Instead
of having to enter each persons e-mail address each time you want to send the
group a message, you can use your address book to crate mailing lists consisting
of as many users as you like.
There are thousands of listservs that you may be able to join. Almost every subject
imaginable has a listserv already set up for people to receive and exchange
information about that topic. When someone sends a message containing new
information on the listserv, everyone on the list receives a copy of the message.
6.8.4 Joining a Listserv
To join a listserv, you have to send an e-mail message to its host computer saying
that you want to subscribe. Do not expect to get an instant reply; normally it takes
a while for a new subscription to be processed.
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When you join a listserv, you will be instructed on how to address a new message
that you want to send to the listserv. You will be given an address to which to send
your e-mail message, just as if you were sending mail to an individual user. Keep
in mind however, that when you send a message to a listserv, your message will be
sent to a lot of people so you have to be very careful.
6.8.5 Usenet Newsgroups
This service makes it possible for Internet users to join discussion group hold
discussions, ask questions/answer questions or become a part of a special interest
groups. The resource was Usenet newsgroups are based on the concept of
computer conferencing. It has the advantage that anyone can participate in any
discussion at anytime from any place where there is an Internet connection.
This is a useful service to students as it enables them to converse and share
experience with colleagues and fellows with similar academic interests.
6.8.6 World-Wide WEB
This is a networked hypertext system that allows documents to be shared. It
provides access to millions of the hypertext (a text that has been linked) When
one views a hypertext and clicks a word that has been linked, the computer will
launch the object of that link. Links are pathways that interconnect the documents
and resources on the web, without links there would be no Web. You can activate
a link by triggering it. There are two types of triggers; hypertext and hyper picture.
6.8.7 Hypertext Links
These are words or sometime phrases that you click to trigger the events that are
linked to the text. They are also known as ‘hot words’ because they make things
happen when you click them. It is easy to identify hypertext links on the Internet
as they are usually underlined and presented in different colour than the rest of the
text.
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Hyperpicture links: These are pictorial hot spots that you click to trigger events
linked to images on the screen. The images are normally presented as little icons
or larger graphics.
6.9 SEARCH ENGINES
For one to benefit from the research potential of the Internet he or she has to know
how to use the search engines. Search engines provide for an Internet user to
search the web by entering keywords. There are a number of search engines
available. Following below are some of the search engines that are of particular
relevance for academic and research work.
• GOOGLE This is a comprehensive full-text search. It is very useful when one
is searching for obscure Information. It is located at www.google.com.
• EXCITE Is a search engine that can offer in-depth subject arrangement. It can
also be used in concept searching (it automatically searches related terms) and
indexes internet sites and Usenet. Excite is located at www.exite.com
• ALTA VISTA Is a widely used full-text search engine. It is said to be
accessed over 10 million times daily. It is located at www.altavista.com
• LYCOS This is a subject oriented search engine. It limits returns by title,
pictures, sounds, URL, language. Further more results are returned
with good organization by relevance. Lycos can be located at www.lycos.com
• YAHOO This is subject directory to selected resources; it is not a full-text
search engine. Is suitable for browsing for subject categories or overviews of
topics. Its returns are not organized by relevance. Yahoo can be located at
www.yahoo.com
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MAGELLAN Is a search engine that simultaneously presents original editorial
content, a directory of rated and reviewed internet sites. It can help you find what
you are looking for. Magellan sites show ratings on a scale from 1-10, that
indicated how good the viewers think the resources are. You may locate this at
http://www.megellan.com
ERIC: This belongs to the so-called scholarly search engines. The term Eric
stands for Educational Resources Information Centre. It searches education
journals and other scholarly documents, including books, conference proceedings,
symposia, studies and tests. This is found on the Web at
http://www.aspensys.com/eric.
6.10 METASEARCH ENGINES
These are search engines which can search a multiple engines at once. They
provide an alternative to trying many individual search engines to find the
information you look for. These are types of search engines that can invoke other
search engines to automatically conduct different kinds of searches, collate the
results into one list of results and report them back. Following are some
metasearch engines;
DOGPILE This is a metasearch engine that can send queries to a multiple other
search engines at once. When you open Dogpile it automatically opens you up to
other search engines such as Yahoo, Lycos, Excite, World Wide Web, Worm,
Yellow pages, Webcrawler, Infoseek, Opentext, AltaVista Hotbot, Looksmart that
the Mining co. Dogpile is located at www.dogpile.com
METACRAWLER This mega search engine can conduct searches by sending
queries to several web search engines simultaneously. The search engines linked
to metacrawler include Lycos, Excite, AltaVista, Yahoo, Hotbot and Galaxy.
Metacrawler is found at http:// www.metacrawler.com.
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REFDESK.COM This is a very thorough and well organized search engine. Its
links include facts search desk, current news and features, links to a host of online
information databases and much more. Refdesk is found on the web at
www.refdesk.com
STATUS OF WEB SOURCES
Websites are usually created differently. It is therefore important that, when
using web resources, you should be careful to examine all potential resources,
print and non-print for relevance, bias, accuracy and so forth. Furthermore,
resources found on the Internet should be carefully scrutinized this is necessary for
the simple reason that anyone who possesses a computer and an Internet access
provider can post his or her own web page without minding to check for facts or to
edit information.
6.11 WEB SEARCHING
6.11.1 Surfing the Web
Surfing the web simply means searching for information on the Net. It enables you
to navigate the system of interconnected information, discover new sites you
didn’t know existed, and download things that interest you. By mastering the art of
navigating the Net, you can be able to get where you want quickly and locate the
information you want more easily. In order for you to locate relevant information
on the Internet you have to understand how information is organized in the
Internet.
Documents are stored on the websites, these are locations on the web where
persons, institutions and organizations store their collections of web pages,
images, audio files, videos and any other files used in conjunction with their
Web pages. This section intends to give you basic notions that would help you
to locate information, send mail or participate in a discussion via the internet.
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6.11.2 Web Address – a URL
Every site you wish to go to on the web has an address known as a URL.You will
probably recognize these, as they are now becoming common place, signalled
regularly in magazines and the press. URL is a short form for Uniform resource
locator. The resources referred here are hypertext documents, but they can also be
application softwares, animations, pictures, sounds or even movies. URLs can
also bring up search engines, newsgroups, chartrooms or real time audio and video
streams (i.e. music and movies).
6.11.3 Elements of a URL
A URL is made up of two main parts, protocol and server name which always
appear in the same order.
(a) Protocol
Refers to the hypertext transfer protocol; it forms the beginning of
every web page of the URL.
(b) Server Name
This is the identity of the computer or file server on which a particular resource is
located. The server name is subcategorized in three component parts; host name,
sub domain and top-level domain. The host name refers to the computer or server
that hosts the resource while the sub domain names the network to which the
computer is connected. The top-lever domain indicates the institutional
affiliations of the website or the country from which a particular web site
originates.
Following below are examples of common top-level domains.
.edu educational institutions site
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.com commercial site
.org non-profit organization
.gov government site
.mil military site
.net large computer network
.au Australia
.tz Tanzania
.za South Africa
.uk United kingdom
Basing on this description, the URL for The Open University of Tanzania
(OUT) Website has the following elements.
http://www.out.ac.tz
PROTOCAL HOST SERVER NAME
http www out
Subdomain
ac. tz
topleveldomains
The brief description of the site provided by your search engine should contribute
to your decision about whether the site deserves a much closer scrutiny.
EXERCISES
1. Get your web browser on and go to URL
http://www.catalog.com/vivian/interest-group-search.html
2. Explore the higher levels of that URL by stripping off items from
the end of it. For example what do you find when you strip off
interest-group-search from the URL. See what you get when you
take away Vivian
3. Find out the domain name of the computer network at your
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institution or place of work. If you have an e-mail address on
that network, the domain name will be the part of your e-mail
address after the @ sign. For example, if your e-mail address is
[email protected], the domain name is
toymakers.northpole.com.
4. Match the Internet services on the left with the description of
what they enable you to do.
______ e-mail A. Participate in an online conference
about a particular topic.
______ listserv B. Transfer a file from one computer to
another.
______ USENET newsgroups C. A global hypertext system.
______ chat D. Send a message to a list full of people.
E. Send a message to an individual.
______ telnet F. Converse with one or more people in
real times over the Internet.
G. log on remotely to another computer
on the Internet.
______ World Wide Web H. A hierarchically organized menuing
REFERENCES
Norton, B. and Cathy Smith,(1998) The Internet in Business. Hodder
&Stoughton. United Kingdom.
Computer Training Manuals:
http://www.ckls.org/%crippel/computerlab/tutorials.
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Wiredgrid: http://www.wiredgrid.com/index.html.
Learn the Internet: http:// www.learnthenet.com/english/index.html
AARP Learn the Internet: http://www.ivpl.org/Basic-internet.html.
About the Web: http://www.about-the-web.com.
BLANK
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Part Two English Language Grammar
Lecture Seven: Standard Pattern of the English Sentence
Lecture Eight: Types of Sentence
Lecture Nine: Formal Agreement in the Sentence
Lecture Ten: Common Errors in English
Lecture Eleven: Text Cohesion
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LECTURE SEVEN
THE STANDARD PATTERN OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
When we communicate with other people in speech or writing we always do so by
using one or more units of information. The most basic of these units contains a
complete utterance and is formed according to a certain definite pattern. The unit
we are referring to is the sentence.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Define the sentence;
(ii) Identify a sentence in spoken and written discourse;
(iii) Describe the elements of a standard written English sentence;
(iv) Write accurate sentences following the standard pattern of English
sentence.
7.2 WHAT IS A SENTENCE
In writing, the acceptable convention stipulates that a sentence is a group words
which make sense and which are marked off by a capital letter at the beginning
and a period, a question mark or an exclamation point at the end. While in spoken
language, the boundaries of a sentence are described in Gardener’s definition
(Theory of Speech and Language …… p. 98). A sentence is a word or a set of
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words followed by a pause and revealing an intelligible purpose. In the following
sections of this lecture we will focus our attention more on the definition of a
written sentence.
According to the description above, a sentence may be made up of one or more
words. One-word sentences despite being less commonly used are a very
significant phenomenon in normal communication. It is important therefore that
we also examine the types and uses of these one-word sentences.
7.3 ONE-WORD SENTENCES
The commonly used one-word sentences are of the following types:
7.3.1 Exclamations
These are remarks used to signal strong emotion. They express surprise, anger,
fear, joy, gratitude, like. What! Danger! Thanks!
7.3.2 Imperatives
These are remarks that express commands, requests and are used to give orders or
directions. Example, Stop, Look, Quickly, Steady.
7.3.3 Vocatives
These are remarks that refer to particular persons as sentence they are used to draw
someone’s attention like: Mother!. Teacher! Agnes!
7.3.4 Others
These include single word remarks intended to express a variety of intentions like
questions (What? Where? Why? Who? )
Question (Yes! OK!. Sure! True! Certainly
Disagreement (no., impossible., never.)
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As you may have correctly figured from the examples shown above, the meanings
of these sentences can only be intelligible in connection with a particular situation
shared by the speakers or with a statement made, or a question asked in another
sentence.
7.4 STANDARD SENTENCE ELEMENTS
A common phenomenon in normal communication are sentences which consist of
more than one word.
7.4.1 What is the Standard Pattern of an English Sentence
Let us now look at the form of such sentences. A Standard English sentence
consisting more than one word by the rule, is comprised of two nuclei or main
parts. One indicating the person or thing about whom or which the sentence is
made or a question is asked and the other containing the statement or the question
being made. The two nuclei constitute the two main parts of a sentence. The part
containing words indicating the thing or person referred to is called the subject of
the sentence: Whereas the other part that contains the statement or the question of
the sentence is called the predicate.
Example 7.1
Subject Predicate
Benson has arrived from the USA
My uncle is allergic to cigarette smoke
France may win the 2006 world cup
Fadhili’s car was stolen last night
The old doctor treated the ailing woman
My sister married young
(you) bring me the report
She chased away the wizards
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Who chased the wizards?
In the sentences above we can clearly see the two parts of the sentence. It should
not, however, mean that in every sentence, the subject part must always come
before the predicates as the following examples show the subject of the sentence
does not have a definite place in a sentence. It can occur in the beginning, the
middle or as in the case of question sentences, the subject can appear in the end of
the sentence.
Examples 7.2:
1. In the middle of the night the thief was arrested.
2. There was little water in the pot.
3. Where is the supermarket?
4. Since when has Katembo been captain?
5. Did the prime minister attend the conference in Venezuela?
6. (You) Collect all rubbish from the garden
EXERCISES
Some of the groups of words listed below are sentences while others
are not. Distinguish sentences from mere groups of words. Discuss
your decisions with your colleague.
1. Small children with big stomachs.
2. Walking along the hedges of the compound and admiring goldfish
in the pond.
3. The smoke in the kitchen made me choke.
4. The most respected student in our school.
5. A terrible headache the morning after the party.
6. The young children in our school.
7. David Maillu wrote five books before he was thirty
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8. The game of pool is becoming popular in Tanzania.
9. Ghana lost a decisive world cup match to Brazil.
10. Dived in deep sea water and survived.
In writing, a sentence is marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a
question mark, a fullstop or an exclamation mark at the end. Within these two
boundaries, every sentence ought to contain a subject and a predicate that fit
together to make a statement, ask a question or give a command.
7.4.2 The Subject
The subject is that part of the sentence which has as its headword a nominal that is
either a noun, pronoun, a noun phrase or noun clause. In some cases the subject is
realized as a verbial which acts as a noun, especially the gerund.
Example 7.3:
1. Ahmed asked many questions. (noun)
2. She asked to see her children. (pronoun)
3. The beautiful bride walked gracefully. (noun phrase)
4. Why we intend to see the minister is well explained. (noun clause)
5. Writing stories has been Bertha’s hobby since her school days. (gerund)
TAKE NOTE
The noun clause is not the same as a noun phrase. The two are
different. The noun clause is a dependent clause which is used like a
noun, as a subject or object of the sentence.
Example 7.4:
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That John became our leader is a known fact
NOUN CLAUSE
The noun phrase on the other hand is a group of related words in which the noun is
a head word but unlike the clause lacks a subject predicate combination.
Example 7.5:
I saw the slim girl over the wall
NOUN PHRASE
The subject as you may have noted in the examples above may appear as a single
word or as a group of words. When the subject is group of words it is called a
complete subject that is, it is a combination of the headword which is the main
focus of the sentence and modifiers that qualify the head word. The headword of
the subject alone is called the simple subject.
Example 7.6:
The two old men who killed the buffalo were praised.
Complete subject: The two old men who killed the buffalo
Simple subject: men
In the following sentences the complete subject is shown in italics, the simple
subject is shown in bold.
Example 7.7:
1. The two bathrooms at the end of the corridor were quite filthy.
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2. My aunt Kylie Atuku is a wonderful woman
3. The three hundred shillings I borrowed were for my fees
4. He new Japanese-made car is broken again
5. The village of Makowa is five miles away
Sometimes you also have a compound subject. This is the subject of a sentence
that is made up by joining together more than one element.
Example 7.8:
1. Fruits, Vegetables and other foodstuffs were cheap this morning.
2. Biscuits, sweets and chocolates are not good for children.
3. Nether History nor Geography was taught in my school.
4. Either Joan or her brother Nesta will be sent to bring the letter.
7.4.3 The Predicate
The predicate, as we have seen earlier, makes a statement about the subject. The
headword of the predicate may be any of the various types of the verb. (We will
study them in detail in the next lecture). These may be a finite verb, a linking verb
or a combination of a finite with a helping verb.
Example 7.9:
1. She failed to keep her appointment. (finite)
2. The guy you see over there is a thief. (linking)
3. The order to vacate has been given today. (finite with helping
verbs)
Like in the case of the subject, the predicate may also be either complete, simple
or compound. The complete predicate is made up of the verb together with all the
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words that help it to make a statement about the subject. The verb alone in the
predicate constitutes the simple predicate of the sentence.
In the following sentences the complete predicate is shown in italic and the simple
predicate is in bold face.
Example 7.10:
1. Sarah repairs old diesel automobiles.
2. She quickly closed the door behind her.
3. The book has been very carefully printed.
4. The headache drove Marina nearly mad.
On the other hand the compound predicate is made of two or more verbs when
they are joined together by a conjunction. In the following examples the
compound predicate is shown in italics.
Example 7.11:
1. The villagers caught the thief and beat him up thoroughly
2. Her car was burnt and completely destroyed
3. The tsunami came in the morning and swept our entire village
More on compound subject and compound predicate will be discussed when we
come to the topic of grammatical agreement in sentences.
In the following sentences identify the subject and the predicate. Then distinguish
between simple and complete subject and between simple and complete predicate.
EXERCISES
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1. The village in which I was born is called Mwala.
2. Teresita gave me an old coat of hers.
3. The brave captain was shot through the heart.
4. He bit his lips but said nothing.
5. In his right hand she carried a green bottle.
6. The dog at once knew his masters voice.
7. Mastura loved to read magazines and newspapers.
8. Will you decide what men shall live, what men shall die?
9. In a short time he rose to the rank of Colonel.
11. Men, women and children, in a word, the whole population of
the township had turned out to welcome the new president.
12. Write five sentences. Draw a dividing line between the complete
subject and complete predicate. Then draw a line under the
simple subject and two lines under the simple predicate.
Example
An unidentified flying object, appeared suddenly in the eastern sky.
OTHER PREDICATE ELEMENTS
We have said elsewhere that the verb is the most important word in the predicate.
This is because one has to have the verb in order to make a statement about a
subject. Without the verb there can be no statement. In a very simple sentence a
verb can stand alone as a predicate. But in most cases sentence predicates consist
of more words than the verb alone. It may also include other parts like objects,
complements and other words called modifiers whose work is to help describe
other elements.
7.4.4 The Object (0)
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In some sentences we observe that the verb is followed by nouns or noun
substitutes that denote agents who are affected by the action of the verb, directly
or indirectly. Such nominal words are collectively called objects of the sentence.
Examples 7.12:
Carlos wrote a long letter.
Carlos wrote my mother a long letter.
In the sentences above a long letter is the element that is directly affected by the
action denoted by the verb. Whereas my mother is not that much affected.
In these examples a long letter is the direct object of the sentence and my mother
is the indirect object.
7.4.5 Direct Object (Od)
The direct object is the element in the sentence that tells us who or what directly
receives the action done by the subject and expressed by the verb.
Examples 7.13:
1. She bought an apple for twenty cents.
Verb Od
2. My father built a big house in Mafia.
Verb Od
3. He wrote the book last year.
Verb Od
The direct object is usually represented by a noun or a noun substitute such as a
pronoun, a gerund or a noun clause. It answers the question “who”, “what” about
the verb.
Examples 7.14:
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1. I met President Kabila in Kisangani
Od
(The direct object is a noun Kabila; it answers the question WHO?)
2. In met him last year.
Od
(The direct object is a pronoun him; it answers the question WHO?)
3. Allan enjoys swimming at Koko beach.
Od
(The direct object is a gerund swimming. It answers the question
What)
4. I heard all what you said last night.
Od
(The direct object is a noun clause what you said. It answers the question
WHAT?
7.4.6 Indirect Object (Oil)
Sometimes, as we said earlier, the verb may have two objects, one which directly
receives the action of the verb and the second one which denotes to whom or for
whom the action is done.
Examples 7.15:
We bought Margareta a kilo of meat
Od
In this sentence meat is actually what was bought. It is the element that receives
the direct action of the verb hence is the direct object. But note that the meat was
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bought for Margareta. This element is the indirect recipient of the verb action. It
is the indirect object.
Examples 7.16: 1. The children sang us their national anthem. Oi Od (The indirect object answers the question FOR WHOM? 2. Jafaar sent Amina a golden ring. Oi Od (The indirect object answers the question TO WHOM?
EXERCISES
Identify the subject, direct object and indirect object in the following
sentences. Discuss your decisions with your colleague.
1. Give me an hour and you will have the results.
2. The wind swept the smell of freshly roasted meat to our huts.
3. You must tell Katiza what your views are.
4. They bought the old man a new walking stick.
5. The retreating battalion sold us their weapons.
6. Domina showed them the secrets of the caves
7. Ask the Prime Minister your questions.
8. Aminata told Chama all her secrets
9. Heroes Day celebration gives us pride of our past
10. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.
11. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.
7.4.7 Complement
Not all predicates denote action some predicates denote existence of something
(like is, are) or indicate appearances or state of being (like look, seem, appear,
feel).
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In predicates that denote existence, appearance or state of being, the nominal
words that follow the verb function to complete the descriptions of the subject or
the objects. In this way we have the subject complements and the object
complement.
(a) Subject Complements
These are words which add the description of the subject but are located on the
other side of the verb. The verb that joins a subject and its complement is called a
linking verb. Its function is to link or join a subject to some further description of
itself that is not included in the subject.
Examples 7.17:
John is a member of parliament.
(Here member of parliament describes the subject John.)
After lunch the children fell ill.
(In this sentence ill describes a state of being of the subject children.)
The soup tastes bitter.
(The complement bitter describes a feeling emanating from drinking the soup.)
(b) Object Complements
These are always nouns or adjective words which come immediately after direct
objects and help complete the description of the direct object.
Examples 7.18:
Zarina called her dog Domingo.
(The word Domingo qualifies the object dog)
Jose always liked his shorts dyed blue.
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(dyed blue compliments the object shorts.)
Hamdani liked to keep his hair short.
(short describes the object hair.)
EXERCISES
Identify subject complements and object complements in the
sentences below:
1. In the evenings the compound was quiet and frightening.
2. We found Loba’s commodities cheap
3. I was often late to the evening classes.
4. In the morning I like my tea warm.
5. He fastened the ropes tight.
Write three sentences which have subject complements and three
sentences with object complements. Discuss your answer with your
colleague
SUMMARY
A sentence is a group of words which makes sense. It is able to
make sense because it is patterned in two parts of information. There
is a part which names the thing that is talked about, called the subject
and the part that makes a statement about the thing named called the
predicate. In writing, the sentence is marked off by a capital letter at
the beginning and a period, a question mark or an exclamation point
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at the end. The subject and the object of the sentence can either be
simple, complete or compound. Other elements of the sentence are
the object which can be either direct or indirect and the complement
which may also be complement of the subject or complement of the
object.
LECTURE EIGHT
TYPES OF SENTENCES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The main focus of this lecture is the understanding that the many sentences that we
hear or use everyday in our speech or writing differ in many ways and can be
classified accordingly. In this lecture we are going to learn the main criteria for
classifying sentences and identify the different types of sentences.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Identify the main criteria for classifying sentences:
(ii) Classify sentences according to different categories of
classification:
(iii) Identify different types of sentences from written discourses:
(iv) Construct sentences of different type
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8.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF SENTENCE TYPES
Knowledge of the types of sentences is important in improving your skill of
communication. It would make you be aware of the structure of sentences of
different varieties of texts you will be required to read and the ones you will be
required to write. Awareness of sentence types will thus increase your scope of
styles of sentences you may use in writing your academic essays and research
papers.
8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
8.3.1 Criteria for Classifying Sentences
There are different bases upon which one may classify sentences. For the purpose
of this lecture we will examine two important criteria of classifying sentences.
These are the criterion of purpose of the sentence and the criterion of structure of
sentence. By purpose we mean what the sentence purports to say and by structure
we mean how it is constructed.
When we examine sentences from the criterion of purpose we can identify four
types of them: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
And if we categorize sentences on the basis of their structure we come up with
simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.
8.4 SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
Let us now examine one by one, types of sentences on this category.
8.4.1 Declarative Sentences
These are sentences that make statements. They are used to give information by
expressing facts, opinions or propositions. The statements in so doing may be
affirmative or negative that is they may state a fact or negate it.
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Example 8.1
Sarah came yesterday. (affirmative)
Sarah did not (didn’t) come yesterday. (negative)
Negative sentences are characterized by a negative word, usually not.
Example 8.2
Rosana drove me home. (affirmative)
Rosana did note (didn’t) drive me home. (negative)
I will go home alone. (Affirmative)
I will not (won’t) go home alone. (negative)
In conclusion, one may say that declarative sentences are simply statements.
In writing they end with a full stop.
8.4.2 Interrogative Sentences
These sentences ask questions. They are used to seek information or request
permission. In writing they end with a question mark (?)
Example 8.3:
What is the most popular film?
Did the car cost you much?
Can I visit aunt Lisa this week?
How much did the car cost you?
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As you can notice from the examples above, of all the questions that we ask there
have only two forms of asking. The first form is represented by the sentence.
Did the car cost you much? In this form of interrogative question the answer
elicited will be Yes/No. This type of sentences is called polar interrogative
sentence. It is referred to as polar because the answer it seeks to obtain is of
extreme nature, either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ other examples of polar interrogative sentences
are:
Example 8.4:
Do you like tea in the morning?
Can you do me a favour?
Should we visit aunt Lisa today?
Polar interrogative sentences usually begin with an auxiliary verb (can, should, do,
is, would)
The second type of interrogative sentences are called WH-Interrogative
sentences. These usually open with an interrogative pronoun (where, when, how,
why, who) and the answers expected are always a piece of information.
Example 8.5:
How did you come here?
When will we go to visit aunt Lisa?
Who spoke to the general manager of this office?
Why did you shoot him down?
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Sometimes a question may take the form of a statement, especially when an
affirmative answer is expected:
(You have come alone?)
(You asked to see my ID?)
8.4.3 Imperative Sentences
These are sentences that express commands or requests. They are used to give
orders or directions. When a request is intended and not a command usually the
word ‘please’ is added.
Example 8.6:
Put your books on the shelf. (command)
Show your identity card, please .(request)
Come in everyday. (command)
You all take your seats, please. (request)
8.4.4 Exclamatory Sentences
These are sentences that connote strong feelings or emotions. They are used to
express anger, fear, shock, surprise joy and some other emotions. Exclamatory
questions always end with an exclamation mark (!)
Example 8.7:
Watch out, the roof is falling!
The lion has come out of its cage!
I don’t want to see you!
EXERCISES
Identify the type of the each of the following sentences. For
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interrogative sentences state whether they are polar interrogatives or
wh-interrogatives.
1. Don’t speak to me like that again!
2. You didn’t see him in Tanga.
3. Didn’t you see him in Tanga?
4. The tea she served me was stale.
5. The mango trees are in full bloom?
6. From Dar es Salaam we drove south east to Utete
7. Would you show me your passport please?
8. Don’t fool with mother nature.
9. Nothing will ever change my mind now.
10. When did you arrive?
8.5 SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
As stated in the beginning of this lecture the classification of sentences according
to structure identifies the following types:
8.5.1 Simple Sentence (S)
A simple sentence is a construction that contains only one clause which is
independent; i.e. able to stand alone grammatically.
Example 8.8:
The Prime Minister met with his cabinet for hours.
The term simple does not refer to shortness of the construction or simplicity of
structure; since a simple sentence may consist of several phrases. It may even
have compound subject and compound verb. The simplicity is based on the
number of clauses it contains. Such a construction can have a single clause
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containing a subject and one main verb that together form a complete and clear
message.
Example 8.9:
The lion roared.
The principal secretary of the Ministry of Finance decided to prosecute all
defaulters of the newly introduced tax, VAT.
The naughty nursery school kids wanted toys from the missionary nuns.
These sentences are simple as they each contain only one independent clause and
no appended clauses.
8.5.2 Compound Sentences (Cd)
This is construction that consists of two or more independent clauses usually
joined together by a coordinating conjunction like and, but no, or for, yet, so.
Sometimes the clauses of the compound sentences are joined by a comma (,) a
colon (:) or a semicolon (;).
Example 8.10:
1. The sun burnt the earth but some crops thrived.
2. My father came home early and entered the house quietly.
3. The couple were in a hurry, she looked up the papers for advertisements, he
drove around inquiring and they finally located a house that suited them.
8.5.3 Complex Sentence (Cx)
This is the sentence that is composed of an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. An independent clause is one which can stand by itself as a
complete sentence. While a dependent clause cannot stand by itself to make
sense. A dependent clause is introduced by subordinating conjunction. In the
examples below the dependent clauses are shown in italic.
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Example 8.11:
1. He came to see us because he wanted to borrow some money from us.
2. Halima asked us if we approved of what she had said.
3. Although Alinze was reputed to be the best wrestler of the land, he was
shamefully dethroned by an amateur athlete.
8.5.4 Compound-Complex (Cc)
This is a sentence that combines together the features of the compound sentence
and those of the complex sentence. The compound-complex sentence thus is
made up of two or more independent clauses and a least one dependent clause. In
the examples below, dependent clauses are shown in italics.
Example 8.12:
1. The soldiers came to our house, forced the door open and took whatever
document they saw.
2. After Musa had arrived home, the rain started to fall and it went on raining
until past midnight.
3. Salima met Twaha in town but she did not tell him what had happed back
home.
EXERCISES
Classify the following sentences as simple (s), complex (Cx),
compound (Cd) or compound-complex (Cc).
1. The bride herself remained cheerful throughout the party.
2. The morning went by quickly with the temperature rising to 95
degrees.
3. Hamza claimed that by staying awake at night, he could prepare
himself better for the examinations.
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4. What we heard was not the sound of a big lorry but the noise of
an elephant pulling down a hut.
5. After we had talked for about an hour Celina began to fall asleep.
6. Roxanne had a choice between majoring in history or English.
7. The president will address the nation tonight because tomorrow is
a public holiday.
8. Have you ever imagined what you would do if you won a ten
million shillings lottery?
9. It is upsetting to see so many women, who could work, begging
for food for their children.
10. The street children represent a burden on the country and
whoever finds a solution to this problem deserves our praise.
11. Write two sentences of your own for each of the following
sentence types: declaratives, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory, simple compound, complex and compound-
complex.
SUMMARY
Knowledge of the types of sentences is important in improving your
skill of communication. When you are aware of the structure and
purpose of sentence types, you will increase your scope of styles of
sentences you may use in writing your academic essays and research
papers.
Sentences can be classified along two criteria. On the criterion of
sentence purpose we identify the declarative, interrogative, imperative
and exclamatory sentences, while on the criterion of sentence structure
we identify the simple, compound, complex and compound - complex
sentences.
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REFERENCES
Day, Susan, (1989), Reading and the writing Process. Macmillan
Publishing Company. New York.
Fennell, Francis, (1987), Collegiate English Handbook. Irwin
Homewoods. Illinois
Gere, A.R. (1988), Writing and Learning. Macmillan Publishing
Company. New York.
Howell, J. and D. Memering, (1986), Brief Handbook for Writers
Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs New Jersey
Lannon, John, (1988); The writing Process. Scott, Foresman and
Company. Boston.
Stoddard, TD et al, (1985), Effective Writing: A Practical Grammar
Review.
Zandvoort, R.W., (1962), A Handbook of English Grammar.
Longman’s Green and Co. Limited London.
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LECTURE NINE
FORMAL AGREEMENT IN THE SENTENCE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The words that combine to form sentences that we write or speak everyday do so
by following definite conventions. This lecture intends to guide your into looking
at the principles which relate words-one to another, to produce intelligible
sentences. A number of such relationships exist in sentences hence a single
lecture like this one cannot exhaustively examine all the grammatical relations.
However, for the purpose of this lecture, we are going to examine only three kinds
of formal agreement principles which we consider to be of relevance toward
enhancing communication ability. The three types are: agreement of subject and
verb; agreement of pronoun (or possessive adjective) and its antecedent, and the
agreement of demonstrative adjectives, and the nouns that they correspond with.
agreement of demonstrative adjectives and the nouns that they correspond with.
111
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Define formal agreement;
(ii) Formulate sentences with correct formal agreement of subject and
verb;
(iii) Construct sentences with appropriate formal agreement of pronoun
and its antecedent;
(iv) Write sentences with appropriate formal agreement of
demonstrative adjectives and the nouns they represent.
9.2 MEANING OF FORMAL AGREEMENT
The term formal agreement is used to refer to the grammatical relationship that
ought to exist between one word or phrase and another word or phrase that is
closely connected to it in a sentence. Such could be the relationship that exists
between a subject and a verb or a pronoun and its antecedent. Formal agreement
also referred to as concordial agreement, states the rules by which different
elements of the sentence are grammatically related one to another.
9.3 AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB
The subject-verb agreement specifies the kind of relationship that should exist
between the subject of the sentence and its verb. It states how number and person
of the subject should be matched with that of the verb. By number we mean
whether the subject is singular or plural and by person we mean whether the
subject is in first, second or third person.
9.3.1 Agreement of Person and Number
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In order to see how the verb agrees in person and number with its subject it is
helpful first to carefully study the following table showing different persons and
number.
FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON
CASE Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural SUBJECTIVE I We You You She/He/It They
OBJECTIVE Me Us You You Her
Him
It
Them
POSSESSIVE My Our Your Your Her His It
Their
Table 1:1 Possessive and Subjective Case Pronouns
In this table only the person in the subjective and possessive cases are relevant to
our present discussion.
The main principle guiding how the subject and verb ought to match may be
summarized as follows: when the subject is plural its verb must be plural. When
the subject is in first, second or third person, the verb must match it.
Following below is an elaboration of this general principle. The suffix –s (or –es)
on the subject noun generally denotes that the noun is plural. The absence of the
suffix –s (or –es) on the subject noun generally denotes that the noun is singular.
Example 9.1:
Singular Verb Plural Verb
kicks (-s) kick
breaks (-s) break
tries (-es) try
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does (es) do
Likewise the suffix –s (or –es) on the verb in the present tense usually signifies
that the verb is singular. The absence of the suffix –s (or –es) on the verb usually
tells that the verb is in plural.
Example 9.2:
Singular Noun Plural Noun
lesson (+s) lessons
valley (+s) valleys
mango (+es) mangoes
glass (+es) glasses
Principle 1: In the present tense singular subject nouns which usually do not end
in –s must accompany singular verbs which usually do end in –s
Example 9.3:
The hunter kills wild pig
Singular subject has no –s ending Singular verb has –es ending
The shed needs repair.
The bus passes very early.
The soldier walks many miles every day
The absence of the suffix –s (or –es) after the nouns shade, bus and soldier denotes
that all these subject nouns are singular. The suffix –s on needs, walks and then
suffix –es on passes show that all these verbs in the third person are singular.
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Principle 2: Plural subject nouns which usually do end in –s (or –es) must be
accompanied by plural verbs which usually do not end in –s (or –es).
Example 9.4
The hunters kill wild pigs
Plural subject has s ending Plural verb has no -s ending
The shades need painting
The buses pass very early
The soldiers walk many miles everyday
The -es in shades, buses and -s in soldiers indicate that these subject nouns are all
plural. Similarly, the absence of the -s (or -es) on the verbs need, pass and walk
shows that they are all in plural.
TAKE NOTE
When singular subject nouns are followed by such expressions as well
as, with, accompanied by, together with they will take singular verbs.
This is because the phrases introduced by such expressions are not part
of the subject. They are simply elements which are introduced between
the subject and the verb.
Example 9.5:
WRONG: The teacher, as well as the pupils were trapped in the cave
CORRECT: The teacher, as well as the pupils was trapped in the cave.
WRONG: Salma, accompanied by Dora were seen entering the night
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club.
CORRECT: Salma accompanied by Dora was seen entering the night
club.
Note that some nouns do not use the suffix –s to form plural forms. No matter
what the form is, a plural subject must require a plural verb. Following below are
some of the nouns which are not pluralized by adding the suffix –s.
Example 9.6:
People speak freely.
Children dream a lot.
Men come to see her daily
Oxen pull ploughs
EXERCISES
1. For each of the following sentences, identify the subject and tell
its person and number.
(a) The pollution of water resources is preceding rapidly.
(b) Some students question whether literature has any relevance
to them.
(c) A female student called out at night saying there was a thief
in the compound.
(d) A dog and a cat are seldom friends.
(e) Alina walked into the meeting hall late.
(f) When I am tired I go to sleep early.
(g) You seem to understand the trick well.
(h) They sang together the whole night.
(i) There song that moved us most was “I salute you”.
(j) My sister along with her friends danced throughout the night.
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2. Choose the verb that matches well with the subject of each sentence
in the following passage.
People (says, say) that Domina, accompanied by Bertha (were,
was) seen walking quickly towards Kalima forest. The two girls
are now reported missing. The police are questioning Albert on
the disappearance of the girls. But Albert, with his two children
(do, does) not know why he is held responsible for this incidence.
The common belief is that Albert, as well as his children (were,
was) in position to note the unusual behaviours of the two girls.
However, so far neither the police nor Albert himself (are, is)
willing to talk about the incidence.
9.4 AGREEMENT OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS
A compound subject, as noted in lecture one, is a subject that is formed by joining
together more than one element. The common way of forming compound subject
is by joining two or more nouns, pronouns or normal phrases. Here we are going
to look at how different forms of compound subjects pattern with verbs to form
grammatically accurate sentences.
9.4.1 Compound Subjects Formed by Conjuctions, and, both
Principle 3: When and and both are used, consider these subjects as plural even
when the elements forming it are all in singulars use a plural verb.
Example 9.7:
Sakina and Sebba are coming tonight.
Both her car and van have been stolen.
Karachi and Dar es Salaam are the world’s dirtiest cities.
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9.4.2 Compound Subjects Formed By Conjuction or
Principle 4: When the conjunction or is used to form the subject, it implies a
choice of either one of the elements as a separate entity. This being the case, when
the separate entities are in singular form, considers the subject as singular. Use a
singular verb.
Example 9.8:
Adam or Aden is called in by the principal.
A poet or a singer was entertaining the guests.
A car or a house shows that one in rich.
Asha or Lisa does better work.
Principle 5: However, when the compound subject uses or and each of the
entities is in plural form, consider it a plural subject; use a plural verb.
Example 9.9:
Wives or husbands are wanted by the counselor.
Trains or buses were appropriate means of transport.
Cars or houses show that one is rich.
9.4.3 Compound Subjects Formed By either….. or and neither ….. nor
In this type of compound subjects, the verb patterns with the person and number
of the element which is nearest to it. This order of forming agreement is called the
rule of proximity which states in general that, the subject part nearest to the
predicate verb determines the person and number of the subject.
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Example 9.10:
Either the sisters or John is coming home tonight.
Either John or the Sisters are coming tonight.
Neither the sisters nor John is coming home tonight.
Neither John nor the Sisters are coming home tonight.
Either Agata nor the boys sing in the chair.
Either the boys or Agata sings in the chair.
9.5 AGREEMENT IN SUBJECTS FORMED BY COLLECTIVE NOUNS
When the subject is a collective noun, agreement patterning depends on the
intention of the speaker. If the noun is considered as one unit, use a singular verb.
If the noun is considered as a group of individuals acting separately, use a plural
verb.
Example 9.11:
The committee was meeting in the director’s office.
The committee were not able to reach a consensus.
Our team was defeated last night.
The team were playing a disorganized game.
The audience was shocked by the play.
The audience were shocked by the play.
9.6 AGREEMENT IN SUBJECTS FORMED BY NOUNS WITH
SUMMATION PLURALS
Nouns with summation plurals denote entities or things consisting of two parts of
the same size or which look similar. Such nouns are always expressed as plurals.
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For example; spectacles, trousers, jeans, wages, goods, scales, pajamas,
binoculars, archives, scales, pants, bowels. These subject nouns always require
plural verbs.
Example 9.12:
My trousers are torn
Note this sentence is different from my pair of trousers is torn.
The difference is that in the second sentence the subject is a pair which is third
person singular. It thus necessitates the use of the singular verb is.
Example 9.13:
Our wages are ridiculously low.
The goods in the warehouse were spoilt by the rain.
The bowels were to be emptied immediately.
9.7 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT
A pronoun used in the sentence has to relate to the noun it represents. When
pronouns are used ambiguously they bring about a distortion or even complete loss
of meaning.
1. In matching the relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent observe
that person and number of the pronoun does not differ from that of the
antecedent.
Example 9.14:
The football player put his boots in a blue bag.
ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
Third person, singular Third person, singular
The children lost their way in the forest.
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ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
Third person plural Third person plural
John and I began our journey early.
ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
First person plural First person plural
2. When two or more antecedents are joined by and use a plural pronoun to
refer to them.
Example 9.15:
Emma and Rauna have sold their houses.
Mr. Erick and I have registered our names.
3. If two or more antecedents are joined by or or nor use a singular pronoun to
refer to them.
Example 9.16:
Neither Madina nor Nesta has finished her work.
Either Teddy or Halima has paid her rent.
4. If none of the antecedents joined by or or nor is singular and the other is
plural, make the pronoun agree with the antecedent nearest to the verb.
Example 9.17:
Neither John nor the two girls have given their evidence.
Neither the two girls nor John has given his evidence
EXERCISES
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In the following sentences identify any errors in agreement in
accordance with formal usage and make appropriate corrections.
Discuss answers with your colleagues.
1. A thousand shillings are more than my family can afford to pay
as rent.
2. Among my favourite novels are King Solomon’s mines by
Athol Fuggard.
3. Either the mayor or his counsellors was ill-informed about the
Kitopeni project.
4. The burden of VAT have fallen on the shoulders of the
consumers.
5. The source of our problem are overpopulation and
unemployment.
6. Each of the visitors have a special request to make.
7. There is a good many reasons for the tension between the
Congo and Rwanda.
8. The people to be addressed is the villagers themselves.
9. Neither the children nor their teacher are to be blamed.
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LECTURE TEN
COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The term English error refers to the mistakes of language grammar that speakers
or writers of English make. Very few people if there are any, can claim that they
can speak or write in any language without making grammatical errors. However,
for discourse to be able to make sense, it must be grammatically correct. Your
written work will be judged on the level how it is perceived to be correct. A state
of grammatical correctness is therefore the standard which all language users
strive to achieve in our speech or writing. Readers expect us to write discourses
whose sentences are complete and accurate.
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The grammatical errors that speakers and writers of English make are as vast as
the language itself. The errors belong to different categories of grammar. In this
lecture we are going to examine just some of these categories and see how errors
are made in them. The errors which many English language users or have a high
incidence of occurrence in speech and written discourses.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecturer, you should be able to:
(i) Identify and correct fragmented and confused sentences;
(ii) Identify and correct sentences with agreement faults;
(iii) Identify and correct sentences with pronoun errors;
(iv) Identify and correct sentences with faulty modification.
10.2 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
A complete sentence as we saw in lecture one has to have a subject and a
predicate. A sentence fragment is an incomplete construction. It is structurally
simply a part of a sentence that is made to look like a whole one.
Example 10.1:
(i) To avoid children hurting themselves.
(ii) Showing an ability to escape danger.
(iii) The water boiling in the pot.
(iv) Can neither read nor write well
Each of the fragments above looks like a sentence as each begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full-stop; and each gives information. But none of them is a
sentence. The first two fragments invite the question ‘what about it’ implying that
the information they contain is incomplete. In the structure of the sentence they
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can function only as qualifiers of the subject. The third construction can function
only as subject or object of a sentence. The fourth fragment invites the question
‘who’ as it mentions a performance (negatively) without identifying the actor.
?
What are the causes of sentence fragments?
Sentence fragments often are caused by wrong use of punctuation marks.
Example 10.2:
Fragmented: The minister spoke forcefully. To convince his audience of the
need for VAT.
Corrected: The minister spoke forcefully to convince his audience of the need
for VAT
The wrongly placed full-stop in the first construction cuts off the second part into
a fragment which makes the construction look disorganized.
Another cause of fragmented sentence is overloading of information making the
construction too long. In a long sentence it is possible for the writer to omit a
word that is strategic to the structure of the sentence. The following example
shows this.
Fragmented: One of the big names in African history, Professor B. Ogot who
developed a profound interest in African pre-history, especially in the conditions
which precipitated the communal mode of life.
This construction is incomplete because it lacks a predicate, the part that makes a
statement about the person that is mentioned. The whole construction is simply a
nominal phrase.
EXERCISES
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From the following list of word groups distinguish sentences from fragments. 1. The bank manager stood behind the car which was parked at the
entrance of the bank.
2. Decided to put more stamps on the envelope.
3. But the revels rejected the proposals made by the Kabila
government.
4. To seek the views of the public about the white paper.
5. The people who want to join our club.
6. Sarah had no time to go to see her brother.
7. After spending six hours in the military prisons.
8. Behind the window of the backyard room.
9. That can play for several hours.
10. Whenever I see fatty meat hanging on the butchery windows.
10.3 CORRECTING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Before you are able to correct a sentence fragment you must be able to determine
the structure of the fragment. The most important question to ask yourself is: does
the sentence have a subject and predicate? If one aspect is missing be sure the
construction is a fragment and you have to supply the missing part to complete the
construction.
?
How can we correct sentence fragments?
As there are several kinds of fragments, there is no one uniform method of
correcting them. Each type of fragment is thus treated differently, as it will be
shown in the following examples.
10.3.1 Prepositional Phrase Fragments
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Avoid punctuating off a prepositional phrase from the words they modify.
Example 10.3
Wrong: We waited patiently. In the empty hall
Prepositional phrase
In the empty hall is a sentence fragment that can be corrected by removing the full
stop mark that sets it off from the rest of the sentence. The correct sentence
should read. We waited patiently in the empty hall.
Example 10.4:
Wrong: This is a fact. According to Karl Marx.
Correct: This is a fact according to Karl Marx.
Wrong: The gun exploded. In front of the spectators.
Correct: The gun exploded in front of the spectators.
10.3.2 Dependent Clause Fragments
Do not separate a dependent clause from its independent counterpart. The two
work together to complete the sense of the sentence.
Example 10.5:
Wrong: An incident occurred this morning. After the bridge had collapsed
CLAUSE DEPENDENT
Correct: An incidence occurred this morning after the bridge had collapsed
Wrong: We are certain the children had caused fire. Because they were
playing with matches.
Correct: We are certain the children had caused fire because they were playing
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with matches.
It is also possible to correct this fragment by turning the dependent clause into a
second independent clause as follows.
Example 10.6:
Correct: We are certain the children had caused fire. We had seen them
playing with matches. (INDEPENDENT CLAUSES)
Wrong: Uncle Malinga had been a wealthy man. Although he died poor.
Also correct: Although uncle Malinga had been a wealthy man he died poor.
10.3.3 Verbal Phrase Fragments
Verbal phrases of all kinds (infinitives, gerunds and participle phrases) should not
be set off from the words they modify.
Example 10.7:
Wrong: The UNITA rebels are fighting. To remove the government of Angola.
(INFINITIVEPHRASE)
Correct: The UNITA rebels are fighting to remove the government of Angola.
Wrong: Peering through the window. I saw Jack running (GERUND).
Correct: Peering through the window, I saw Jack running.
Wrong: Twice elected to the Presidency. Wakil wanted a third term.
( PARTICIPLE)
Correct: Twice elected to the Presidency Wakil wanted a third term.
Also correct: Having been elected twice to the Presidency, Wakil wanted
a third term.
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10.3.4 Absolute Construction Fragments
Avoid setting off absolute constructions from the clauses they modify. Use a
comma to join them.
Example 10.8:
Wrong: Her hands in red gloves. The first lady waved to the people.
(ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION)
Correct: Her hands in red gloves, the first lady waved to the people.
Wrong: His second attempt failing. Dr. Katima left the country quietly.
Correct: His second attempt failing, Dr. Katima left the country quietly.
Also correct: Having failed in his second attempt, Dr. Katima left the
country quietly.
Wrong: Her face looking tired. Jasmine went for a walk.
Correct: Her face looking tired, Jasmine went for a walk.
Also correct: Jasmine went for a walk with her face looking tired.
10.3.5 Compound Predicate Fragments
A compound predicate is a predicate that is made up of more than one verb.
Avoid punctuating off the verbs of the sentence. Use a coordinating conjunction
to join them together.
Example 10.9:
Wrong: The boy picked up a stone. And threw it to the advancing
Policemen.
Correct: The boy picked up a stone and threw it to the advancing policemen.
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Wrong: The magician created many illusions. And astounded his audience.
Correct: The magician created many illusions and astounded his audience.
Wrong: The clothes were bought. Donated to the war victims.
Correct: The clothes were bought and donated to the war victims.
Identify fragments in the following sentences. State what type of fragment it is,
then correct the segment by attaching it to the main sentence.
EXERCISES
Identify fragments in the following sentences. State what type of
fragment it is, then correct the segment by attaching it to the main
sentence.
1. Although the air conditioner was working. Jane still felt sweaty
in the room. She wondered if she had a fever.
2. When Marina got into her bedroom. She discovered that she
had left the window open. The beddings and carpet were
soaked. Since it had rained all afternoon.
3. After playing in rain water all morning. The boy looked like a
toy. His mother gave him a hot, perfumed bath.
4. Sadiki chopped off the grass. That hanged over the windows.
When a green snake slid out of the grass. He dropped the cutter
and ran away.
5. Because he had eaten and drunk too much at the picnic. He had
to go home early. His stomach felt like a volcano that was about
to erupt.
6. The dog eyed me with suspicion. Not knowing whether its
master was at home. I hesitated to open the door.
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7. Glistering with sweat. The dancers heaved and jumped up and
down. We immensely employed the shows.
8. Agatha is pleased with the new medicine she is taking.
Claiming that it calms her pain quickly.
9. I have worked at many jobs in the past. Among them,
policeman, but driver and kitchen hand.
Vernon walked quickly to the bank. To have his check cashed.
Otherwise, he would have no money for the weekend.
10.4 AGREEMENT FAULTS
Having seen the sentence fragment in rather a detailed way, let us now look at the
area of grammatical agreement to see what common errors people make there.
?
What is Agreement Faulty?
An agreement fault is any one of a wide range of grammatical errors which violets
the logical relationship between parts of speech in a sentence or one which fails to
show correspondence in the form of one word with another to indicate number,
person or gender. Agreement fault refers also to the inconsistency observed
among the various components of a sentence; such as the verb not agreeing with
the subject or a pronoun not agreeing with its antecedent.
10.5 CORRECTING AGREEMENT FAULTS
We can conveniently specify the methods of correcting errors of agreement by
looking at the various different types of agreement faults that commonly occur in
sentences. The following are some of them.
10.5.1 Incorrect Subject-Verb Agreement
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In faults of this kind, the form of a subject and the form of the verb in a sentence
do not agree. Such constructions do not follow the principle that singular subjects
must take singular verbs, and plural subjects must take plural verbs. Below are
situations that can lead to difficulties with subject-verb agreement.
(a) Singular subjects and present tense verbs
In the present tense, singular subjects except for I and Your require an -s or
-es ending on regular verbs.
Example 10.10:
Wrong: Our child play on the field.
Correct: Our child plays on the field.
Wrong: The rain usually fall in the morning.
Correct: The rain usually falls in the morning.
TAKE NOTE
This rule does not apply to irregular verbs. These have special verb
forms that do not use the –s and es endings. Like have, is,
(b) Compound Subjects
When the subject of a sentence is a combination of singular words thus the subject
is plural and requires a plural verb.
Example 10.11:
Lina sings well. (Singular)
Lina and Stella sing well. (Plural)
However, when singular subjects are joined with or they take a singular verb.
EXAMPLES
132
Lina or Stella sings well (Singular).
A policeman or a judge comes home (singular).
(c) False Subjects
These occur when the writer mistakes or forgets the actual subject of a sentence
and makes the verb agree with a wrong word, usually one that is closer to the verb.
Example 10.12:
Wrong: One of the shops in our street close late.
Correct: One of the shops in our street closes late.
The faulty in the first sentence is that it mistakes the subject to be shops (plural)
instead of one of the shops (singular).
Wrong: The smell of the mangoes are refreshing.
Correct: The smell of the mangoes is refreshing.
Note: The first sentence perceives the subject to be mangoes instead of smell.
(d) Postponed Subjects
These are sentence subjects which occur following the verb. As in the normal
cases, the postponed subject should determine the form of the verb.
Example 10.13:
Entering the hall is the military general.
Verb Subject
Entering the hall are the military generals.
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Verb Subject
About to sing now is Nana Moskouri.
Verb Subject
About to sing now are Nana and Georges.
Verb Subject
Also sentences which begin with the words there or here are a similar
phenomenon of postponed subject constructions.
Example 10.14:
Here is hiding a big python.
Verb Subject
Here are hiding huge pythons.
Verb Subject
There is a policeman across the road.
Verb Subject
There are policemen across the road.
Verb Subject
EXERCISES
Change the infinitives shown in brackets into the correct forms of the
present tense verb.
1. The head teacher in each of the schools (to report) directly the
District Education Officer.
2. The colour of the chemicals (to change) frequently.
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3. Each of the players (to have) a pair of stockings.
4. Behind the door (to stand) the statue of the king.
5. Each man and woman in the room (to need) fresh air.
6. Elina is the only one of the board members who (to give)
consideration to our needs.
7. A trouser and a shirt (to be) all you need.
8. The branches of the mango tree (to shake) in the wind.
10.6 RUN-TOGETHER SENTENCES
Run-together sentences are the reverse of sentence fragments which were
discussed earlier on. The difference between them is that, whereas sentence
fragments contain too little, run-together sentences contain too much. A run-
together sentence carries two or more sentences in a form meant to express one
sentence. The sentences below are run-together constructions.
Example 10.15:
The vehicle had broken down the journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister was addressing the really.
10.6.1 Correcting Run-Together Sentences
Run-together sentences can be corrected by using anyone of the following
methods.
10.6.2 Combine the Run-Together Sentence by using Subordinating Words
Example 10.16
After the vehicle had broken down, the journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister as he was addressing the rally.
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10.6.3 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Full Stop (Period)
EXAMPLE 10.17:
The vehicle had broken down. The journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister. He was addressing the rally.
10.6.4 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Semicolon
Example 10.18:
The vehicle had broken down; the journey was aborted.
The minister was addressing the rally; people were listening to him.
10.6.5 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Coordinating Word
Example 10.19:
The vehicle had broken down and the journey was aborted.
The minister was addressing the rally and people were listening to him.
EXERCISES
Correct each of the following run-together sentences by using all
of the four methods discussed above.
1. The Chairman closed the meeting we went home.
2. Gossiping was the only way of passing time in our school we
gossiped a lot.
3. I am sure the children burnt the house I sow them playing with
matches.
10.7 FAULTY PARALLELISM
A non-parallel sentence is one that contains a pair or a series of items that do not
fit with the main part of the sentence. In a non-parallel sentence, the structure is
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not balanced as the items in a pair or a series are not expressed in parallel. Non-
parallel sentences are confusing to readers because they cannot help readers to
predict and follow meaning clearly. The following are examples of non-parallel
constructions:
Example 10.20:
Salima likes to read, singing and to dance (Two infinitives and a gerund)
In the afternoon she locks her door, goes out and jogged on the sea shore.
(Two habitual condition verbs, one past tense verb)
10.7.1 Correcting Non-Parallel Sentences
Non-parallel sentences can be corrected by changing the items in the series so that
they all are expressed in the same form.
Example 10.21:
Salima likes to read, to sing and to dance. (All infinitives)
or
Salima likes reading, singing and dancing.(All gerunds)
In the afternoon she locked her door, went out and jogged on the sea shore. (All
past tense verbs).
or
In the afternoon she locks her door, goes out and jogs on the sea shore. (All
habitual condition verbs).
EXERCISES
1. Revise the following sentences so that all items in a series are
expressed in the same form
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(i) The children spent their holidays traveling, camping and at
the beach.
(ii) Power, good health and having lots of money were
Mustafa’s primary ambitions.
(iii) Allan liked visiting her neighbours more than writing his
assignments or to his laboratory experiments.
(iv) Every time you buy a new electric appliances, remember
to check its voltage, to assess its power resistance and
noting its year of manufacture.
(v) Reaching the main entrance, Dick turned back, saw
Marina and greets her.
2. The following paragraph has mixed up tenses. Select the tense
you find more suitable and rewrite the paragraph.
Hyena, one of a large family of dog-like animals is a native of the
savannah plains of Africa. It resembled a dog and has sports like
a leopard. The hyena liked to hide in dark isolated places during
the day. At night it comes out to look for food. The hyena fed on
small animals and left out bones. Nowadays the hyena is also
found in the subcontinent of India and the plains of Central
America.
10.8 PRONOUN REFERENCE ERRORS
Following below are rules of correcting some of the common errors of pronoun
use.
10.8.1 Use a Singular Pronoun to an Indefinite Singular Pronoun
Indefinite pronouns refer to words such as; one, anyone, everyone, anybody, each,
neither, either.
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Example 10.22:
Each bridge has its own design.
Neither of the boys came in with his parents
Either of the boxes had its top smashed in.
10.8.2 Use a Plural Pronoun to Refer to Antecedents Joined by the Word
And
Example 10.23:
You and I will take our leave in September
Johnson and his wife have taken their luggage.
10.8.3 Use a singular pronoun to refer to singular antecedents joined by or or nor
Example 10.24:
It is Juma or Sadiki who lost his money
Sakina or Rebecca is coming with her singers.
However, the situation changes when or or nor joins a singular antecedent to
another that is plural. The pronoun should agree with the antecedent closer to it.
Example 10.25:
Neither Albert nor his sister had their letters replied.
Neither the sisters nor Albert had his letter replied.
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10.8.4 Ambiguous Pronouns
When a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, it is ambiguous.
Avoid using pronouns ambiguously.
Example 10.24:
Sheila put a cat in a basket but it fell down. (it could be referring to a basket
or a cat)
Carrie went in to see her mother but she came out immediately.
(She may be referring to Carrie or her mother).
These two sentences could be revised as follows:
Sheila put a cat in a basket but the cat fell down.
As soon as she went in to see her mother, Carrie came out.
or
Carrie’s mother came out immediately after Carrie had gone in to see her.
10.8.5 Vague Pronouns
A vague pronoun does not refer to a specific antecedent.
Example 10.25:
The teacher wants us to eat samolina with guests something I find very difficult.
(Does something meant to refer to eating samolina or eating with the guests. (The
antecedent is unclear).
House rent was raised without notice, which surprised all of us.
(The pronoun which does not refer to anything that is stated in the sentence. It is
vague reference. These errors could be corrected by revising sentences in the
following ways.
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The teacher wants us to eat samolina with the guests but we find eating semolina
difficult.
or
The teacher wants us to eat samolina with the guests but we are not used to eating
with guests.
or
House rent was raised without notice. We found thing surprising.
House rent was raised without notice, a fact which surprised everybody.
10.9 Overuse of Pronouns
Using too many pronouns in one sentence makes the sentence sound repetitious
and may result into producing an immature.
Example 10.26:
Robert knew that he should tell the truth, he believed he should do so to clear
himself but he kept quiet for he was unsure what would happen to him.
This could be revised as follows:
Robert knew and believed that he should tell the truth to clear himself but he kept
quiet because he was unsure what would happen to him.
10.9 FAULTY MODIFICATION
A modifier is a single word, phrase or clause that limits, describes or defines
some elements of a sentence. The common modifying words are adjectives
and adverbs. When modifiers are used appropriately they can add power, interest
and precision to your writing. However, there are some problems in the use of
modifiers. Discussed below are some of common errors related to modification.
10.9.1 Misplaced Modifiers
141
These are modifiers which are not placed close enough to the words they are
meant to modify. All modifiers should be placed immediately before the words
they modify.
Do not allow modifiers to stay too far away from the words they are meant to
modify as this may produce confusing (and sometimes unintentionally amusing)
sentences.
Example 10 27:
Wrong: A young group of girls was called in.
Correct: A group of young girls was called in.
Wrong: The baby is being attended by Mr. Amos who was born this morning.
Correct: The baby who was born this morning is being attended by Mr. Amos.
TAKE NOTE
Always make sure that adverbs such as nearly, merely, hardly, almost,
scarcely, refer clearly and logically to the words they modify.
Consider the following uses and misuses of adverbs.
We saw only the teacher in the class room. (FORMAL)
We only saw the teacher in the classroom. (INFORMAL)
Salma nearly chocked until she fainted. (ILLOGICAL)
Salma chocked until she nearly fainted. (CLEAR)
We almost recited the whole alphabet chart. (MISPLACED)
We recited almost the whole alphabet chart. (CLEA
EXERCISES
142
Change the following sentences by placing adverbs nearer the words
they modify.
1. Adam almost seemed annoyed.
2. Mv. Ujamaa just docked here last week.
3. She merely refused my invitation because she wanted to go out.
4. The patient needed the nurse to bandage his wounds badly.
5. You will only will receive your reports after the examinations are
marked and recorded.
6. For a year I almost did not know that Juma was sick.
7. We scarcely planted any crops last year.
8. The bandits nearly terrorized the villagers for two hour.
TAKE NOTE
Make sure that modifying phrases refer clearly to the words they
modify.
Consider the following uses and misuses of modifying clauses.
That woman gave me chocolates in blue dress. (ILLOGICAL)
That woman in blue dress gave me chocolates. (CLEAR)
That poison attracts rats with the smell of cheese. (ILLOGICAL)
That poison with the smell of cheese attracts rats. (CLEAR)
Consider the following uses and misuses of modifying clauses.
Felicia bought an egg from her neighbour that was rotten.
(ILLOGICAL)
Felicia bought an egg that was rotten from her neighbour. (CLEAR)
A dog is a good company that is trained well. (ILLOGICAL)
A dog that is trained well is a good company well. (CLEAR)
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There is a sparrow in the cage that sings well. (ILLOGICAL)
In the cage there is a sparrow that sings well. (LOGICAL)
EXERCISES
In the following sentences place the modifying phrases nearer the
words they modify.
1. The football fans stormed the stadium with their club colours up.
2. The bulb exploded after the children has left the room with a loud
Burst.
3. The audience watched the women dancers with admiring eyes.
4. Thomas was rescued after the nearly drowned by the his mother.
5. The astronauts looked forward to landing on the moon for several
Years.
6. The president announced that he would confer with his cabinet at
His press conference last night.
7. Stella dropped out of school after those years attendance last
Friday.
8. She gave me the book to mend with a torn cover.
9. We watched the match on TV that our team lost.
10. Karina bought a car from a dealer that had been painted blue.
11. She uses hair colouring on her hair which she bought in Paris.
12. I took a bus at Kigogo that was traveling upcountry.
13. Rigobert secured a job after he graduated from the University
which lasted Twenty years.
14. The new house was next to the creek with three bedrooms.
10.9.2 Squinting Modifiers
144
A squinting modifier is one that appears to modify either the preceding word or
the following word. It ‘squints’ so to
say, at the words on its right and left and leaves the reader puzzled or confused.
Example 10.28:
Squinting: His doctor tells him everyday to do some exercises.
Correct: His doctor everyday tells him to do some exercises.
Correct: His doctor tells him to do some exercises everyday.
Squinting: The probe team which was studying the matter yesterday
submitted its findings.
Correct: The probe teach which was studying the matter submitted its
findings yesterday.
Correct: The probe team which spent yesterday studying the matter
submitted its findings.
EXERCISES
Recast the following sentences to eliminate squinting modifiers.
Discuss your answers with a colleagues.
1. The motorcycle he was riding happily lost control.
2. The president said today taxes would be cut.
3. I promised Sitna I would meet her at the corner with the story
book.
4. The soldiers who were beating at the wall widely began shooting.
5. The wax sculpture she was making slowly began to melt at midday.
10.10 DANGLING MODIFIERS
145
These are modifiers which are not clearly attached to anything in a sentence. A
dangling construction may be a phrase, or clause that either modifies nothing in
the sentence or that appears to modify a word to which it is not logically related.
There are several types of dangling constructions. If not avoided these may affect
your writing by producing ineffective or even misleading sentences.
10.10.1 Correcting Dangling Modifiers
(a) Avoid dangling participles
A dangling participle very often obscures the proper subject of the sentence which
it intends to modify.
Example 10.29:
Wrong: Walking down the road, beautiful flowers can be seen.
In this sentence the subject is not mentioned. Who walks down the road; not the
beautiful flowers of course:
Correct: Walking down the road, we could see beautiful flowers.
Wrong: Taking a bath in the river, a crocodile jumped in.
Correct: Taking a bath in the river, I saw a crocodile jump in.
You can correct a dangling participial phrase by making clear the noun it intends
to modify.
EXERCISES
Revise the following sentences by eliminating the dangling participial
phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. Kilimanjaro mountain is impressive, viewing it from the Place.
2. Knowing little about Asian customs, our tour there was a flop.
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3. Hiding in backyard, the police arrested the fugitive.
4. The movie was boring showing only red Indians being Killed.
5. Driving at high speed, suddenly the road took an
Unexpected turn to the left.
10.10.2 Provide a Subject to a Dangling Gerund
A gerund is a verb form which ends with an -ing and is used as a noun. You must
identify the actor clearly in the main clause in order to avoid producing confused
or meaningless sentences.
Example 10. 30:
Dangling: After scoring a goal the crowd roared.
Correct: After scoring a goal I heard the crowd roar.
Dangling: Before leaving the house, the door was fastened.
Correct: Before leaving the house I fastened the door.
Dangling: While viewing the parade, planes flew overhead.
Correct: While viewing the parade we saw planes flying over head.
EXERCISES
Revise the following sentences by providing an actor to the
dangling gerund phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. On hearing the news, tears of joy filled his eyes.
2. While parking the bag, a pillow was forgotten.
3. Upon opening the door, the dog jumped out.
4. By eating hard foodstuffs, the doctor recommended an
operation for him.
By visiting many villages, many traditional medicines were
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discovered.
10.10.3 Avoid Dangling Infinitives
An infinitive is a verb form that is usually preceded by to and used as a noun,
adjective or adverb. Like in the other verbials discussed previously, dangling
infinitive phrases must be provided with a subject in its main clause.
Example 10.31:
Dangling: To swim well, practice is necessary.
Correct: To swim well, one needs to practice.
Dangling: To mend a punctured tyre, The wheel must be removed.
Correct: If you wish to mend a punctuated wheel, you must remove the
wheel.
EXERCISES
Revise the following sentences by providing the actor to eliminate
dangling infinitive phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. To become a professional boxer, many hours of training are
required.
2. To eliminate poverty, cash crops have to be grown extensively.
3. To find vaccination for malaria, many researches have to be
conducted.
4. To impress a prospective customer, use of polite language is
necessary.
5. To guarantee safety from burglars, the front door lock had to be
changed.
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REFERENCES
Day, Susan, (1989), Reading and the Writing Process Macmillan
Publishing Company. New York.
Fennell, Francis, (1987), Collegiate English Handbook.
Gere, A.R. (1988), Writing and Learning Macmillan Publishing
Company. New York.
Howell, J. and D. Memering, (1986), Brief Handbook for Writers
Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs New Jersey.
Lannon, John, (1988), The Writing Process. Scott, Foresman and
Company. Boston.
Stoddard, TD et al, (1985), Effective Writing: A Practical Grammar
Review.
Zandvoort, R.W., (1962), A Handbook of English Grammar.
Longman’s Green and Co. Limited London.
LECTURE ELEVEN
TEXT GRAMMAR: COHESION
149
11.1 INTRODUCTION
When people communicate using language they usually do so by using a string of
sentences. To use the language effectively both in speaking and writing, we must
ensure that our language "holds together" into a coherent, and thereby intelligible
whole. Coherence itself is product of many different factors, which combine to
make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning
of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than
coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if
their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of
coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to;
(i) Describe text cohesion;
(ii) Mention types of interclausal cohesive ties;
(iii) Identify cohesive ties used in authentic text materials
11.2 TEXT AND TEXTUALITY
For the words to convey sensible message, they have to be joined together into a
unified whole. A passage of meaningfully linked words is what we refer to as
text. When we speak of a text therefore, we refer to any passage, spoken or
written, of whatever length that forms a meaningful unified whole. The question
that is put first is: what are the features that distinguish text from a collection of
unrelated sentences? According to the famous linguist Michael Halliday, every
text has to have a texture. A text derives its texture from the fact that it functions
as a unit with respect to its environment. The concept of Texture is entirely
appropriate to express the property of 'being a text.’ A text has texture, and this is
what distinguishes it from being something that is not a text. There are certain
150
linguistic features that contribute to textual unity. The unity of text is described by
the concept of cohesion. Cohesion is a semantic concept which refers to relations
of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as text. Cohesion occurs
where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of
another element. Formulated in other words, cohesion implies semantic resources
for linking a sentence with that has gone before it. Cohesion helps to create text by
making it possible for discourse to unfold .
This unit aims at surveying the text phenomenon cohesion by describing it using a
number of authentic language texts.
11.3 WHAT IS COHESION?
As described in the previous section, the term cohesion refers to relations of
meaning that exist within a text and that define it as text. Text as we know is
made up of a series of ideas realized as a collection of unrelated sentences. For
these unrelated ideas to form unified meaning, they have to be linked together into
a unified whole. This is the concept of cohesion. It explains how the different
parts and units of a text are able to be semantically linked. Text cohesion is
facilitated by the use of content text-structuring words commonly known as
cohesive ties (also cohesive devices).
11.4 COHESIVE TIES
Cohesive ties or devices are text elements that are used to tie pieces of text
together in specific ways. One of the earliest accounts concerning the role of
interclausal cohesive ties was proposed and described the linguists Michael
Halliday and Rukaya Hassan. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion
is displayed in the ties that exist within text between a presupposed item and a
presupposing item. For example, in the sentences Rukia makes good meals. Last
night she cooked matoke. The pronoun she in the second sentence is the
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presupposing item. And Rukia in the first sentence is the presupposed item.
Halliday and Hasan claim that text derives texture, i.e., coherence, from these
cohesive ties. Hence they suggest that: “The concept of ties makes it possible to
analyze a text in terms of its cohesive properties and give a systematic account of
its patterns of texture.”
Halliday and Hasan present a taxonomy of various types of cohesive ties or
relations in five main groups:
(a) Reference
including antecedent anaphor relations, the definite article the, and demonstrative
pronouns;
(b) Substitution
including such various pronoun-like forms as one, do, so, etc,
(c) Conjunction
Involving words like and, but, yet, etc., and
(d) Lexical Cohesion
Which has to do with repeated occurrences of the same or related lexical items,
and
(e) Ellipsis
Which involves the omission of items like words or phrases in a clause.
Specifically Halliday and Hassan (1976) have identified and described five major
types of grammatical cohesive ties for English language.
11.4.1 Ties of Reference
Reference elements establish a semantic relationship between them, in which one
of the elements provide the other with the meaning. There are two basic types of
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reference. The first is reference to the “shared world” outside of the text. This is
called exophoric reference. The second one is reference to elements in the text.
This is called endophoric reference. Only the second one is purely cohesive,
although both of them are important to create texture. Within endophoric
references there are two types: if they refer to preceding elements they are called
anaphoric; if they refer to following elements they are called cataphoric.
Below are presented some of the several linguistic items which can create
reference;
(a) Personal Reference
Personal pronouns (subject and object), possessive determiners and pronouns. We
can use pronouns in a way that ties them to certain nouns in the text. This occurs
when a pronoun refers across a clause boundary to the referent noun. There are
two ways of using pronouns for grammatical reference.
Anaphoric pronoun. The anaphoric pronoun ties that point back to a previously
established referent noun.
Example 11.1:
I could tell that my mother was upset by the look she had on her face.
In the sentence above we can see that “she” refers back to “my mother” which is
mentioned earlier on the sentence.
Cataphoric pronoun. This pronoun ties portions of text by referring forward to
the referent noun rather than back to noun.
EXAMPLE. When she called me, Amina had not yet seen the examination result’s. Table 2: Personal and Possessive Pronouns
FIRST PERSON SECOND THIRD PERSON
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CASE PERSON
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
SUBJECTIVE I We You You She/He/It They
OBJECTIVE Me Us You You Her
Him
It
Them
POSSESSIVE My Our Your Your Her
His
It
Their
(b) Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative pronouns are words which point to the thing they modify,
specifying its position in space or time. These can also function as interclausal
cohesive ties by making reference to an item that is described earlier on the text.
These include ‘this’ and ‘these’ which specify closer position; ‘that’ and ‘those’
specify more remote position.
EXAMPLE. The pupils came to the school rather late, this really upset Mrs. Udomo.
Demonstrative determiners include location adverbs (here, now, there, then).
(c) Comparative Reference
A comparative can provide a tie to a referent and most of them are used for
anaphoric reference. These include adjectives in comparative degree and certain
adjectives and adverbs
(same, identical, equal, similar, additional, other, different, else,
identically, similarly, likewise, so, such, differently, otherwise).
Comparative reference also includes transition words. These are words or phrases
that introduce a sentence and indicate its relationship to the previous sentence.
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Example 11.2:
The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of bottles of
cola we must forgo. Similarly, the opportunity cost of producing an additional
bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo.
There are many different transition signals. There are transition signals to indicate
sequence; logical divisions of an idea; time; example; comparison; contrast;
addition; opposition and conclusion.
11.4.2 Ties of Substitution
Substitution refers to a class of items. Substitution can be seen as tying the marker
and group together and this forms a more cohesive text. Substitutions can be made
for nominal, verbs, and clauses.
Example 11.3:
You do what you can to ease your pain. ‘ I know how you feel, ‘ your friends
don’t: ‘
In this sentence ‘don’t ‘ substitutes ‘know how I feel’.
(a) Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the
speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be
raised. Hence we can think of ellipsis as a zero tie because it is not actually said in
the text. We can use it to create ties to nouns, verbs and clauses.
There are basically three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal.
(i) Nominal ellipsis means the omission of a noun head.
Example 11.4:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue.
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The word ‘car’ is ellipsed.
(ii) Verbal ellipsis involves the omission of the verb head while the auxiliary
element remains explicit.
A: Will you come to the party?
B: Yes, I will. (…come to the party)
(iii) Clausal ellipsis represents the omission of a part of the clause. For instance,
the subject-pronoun element is frequently omitted, especially in spoken texts.
(b) Substitution
Is a half way point between reference and ellipsis. It involves nouns, verbs and
clause elements, as for ellipsis, but instead of omitting them, they are substituted
by a pro-form: one(s), do, so/not, same.
Example 11.5:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue one.
The word ‘car’ is substituted by ‘one’
11.4.3 Conjunction
The fourth type of creating cohesion is through conjunction. Conjunctions reflect
the writer’s positioning of one point in relation to another in creating a text, thus
they are used to signal “a relationship between segments of the discourse” which
is the specific function of conjunctions. We have to note however that
conjunctions have not been defined as away of simply joining sentences. Their
role in the text is wider than that, because they provide the listener/reader with
information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists
prefer to describe them as discourse markers.
Conjunctions can be categorized according to the meaning they express in relating
clauses. Although language allows for limitless means of relating ideas, we will
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normally encounter four different kinds of logical relations that conjunctions can
express. Some of these cannot cross more than one clause, but others can. The
following are some common types.
(a) Additive
This is by far the most common of the logical relationships; it involves the simple
addition of information similar to what has already been mentioned. At their most
basic, additive conjunctions link two or more parallel parts of speech
(b) Adversative
These are conjunctive logical relations that expresses the opposition of their
meanings. (c) Causal
These relations are used to express a cause or a reason for what is said in the main
clause. Where the relation between the subordinate clause and the main clause is
one of cause and effect. For example, Therefore, and because (d) Temporal
These are conjunctive links that show time or transition in the clauses.
Example 11.6:
My sister, four years younger than I, comes down from her bedroom, asks
frantically what that smell is, then goes past and outside. Then she’s back,
Proper use of conjunctions is important to writers as they help the writers to signal
the links between ideas.
11.4.4 Lexical Ties
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There are several types of lexical ties. They can cross short or large pieces of
discourse.
(a) Repetition
The repetition of the same lexical item stem strengthens the text cohesion. See
how the words ‘poems’ and ‘dismissing’ are used in the following text.
Seventeen years ago I sent my first manuscript book of poems to a university Press
for review. They were family poems, mostly, the book itself a pale version of
Joyce’s portrait of the Artist as a Young man. Months later the word came back in
effect dismissing not only the poems, but—what to me was unforgivable
dismissing the very existence of the world I’d written about
(b) Collocation
Collocation can tie the lexical items together. That is, when we think of a war, we
also think of the soldiers, the wounded, and the death. Note the cohesion created
by collocation in the following paragraph.
But then I remember that I left my blue-collar world long ago. Sure, I still mow
my lawn, weed the garden, paint the house. But I have my card fixed, my house
cleaned, my kitchen rebuilt by carpenters, my washing machine repaired, my
antenna removed, all by members of the working class, all jobs my father and
two of my three brothers still do for themselves .
SUMMARY
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A text is any piece of language, spoken or written, of whatever length,
which forms a unified whole. A speaker of a language can easily
distinguish between a text and a collection of sentences. This is because
texts have texture, that is, the quality of functioning as a unity.
For a text to have texture it must include “ties” that bind it together.
These “ties” are called cohesive ties and, given that cohesion is
expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary,
there are different types of cohesive ties, such as: reference, substitution,
ellipsis, conjunctionand lexical cohesion.
These ties produce cohesion. Cohesion “refers to relations of meaning
that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.” (Halliday & Hasan,
1976:4). There is cohesion when the interpretation of an element in the
text is dependent on that of another, that is, “cohesion is a semantic
relation between an element in the text and some other element that is
crucial to the interpretation of it.”
EXERCISES
Read the following text and then answer the questions that follow after it.
At around one pound for a large fruit, the pineapple is no longer the
special-occasion fruit it was in my childhood. (If there is a pineapple in
the fruit bowl, then it must be Christmas.) More recently, in the lush,
tropical heat of Zanzibar, the fruit became a daily ritual during a beach-
bum holiday. Armed with a plump pineapple, chosen for its ripeness and
stripped of its inedible skin by the stallholder’s fearsome machete, we
would wander far along the deserted beach to make the most of the fruit
and its sticky juice.
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Six months later, in the frost-covered gardens of Versailles, the statues
and urns wrapped up for the winter, such a fruit seemed even more
welcome, cheering us up as our teeth chattered and we dripped juice into
the snow as we walked. It is this fruit’s impeccable timing, turning up
sweet and gold in the depths of winter, that probably makes it so
popular.
1. Identify the antecedents which the highlighted pronouns represent
2. What type of cohesive ties do the underlined phrases belong to?
REFERENCES
Hatch, Evelyn. (1994); Discourse and Language Education. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Mariani, Paul. (1994); Class. In Robert Park and Jay Parini (Eds.),
American Identities: Contemporary Multicultural Voices. (pp 139-
150). Hanover: Middlebury College Press.
Carrell,Patricia (1982); Cohesion Is Not Coherence TESO
QUARTERLY 16 (479-488)
Halliday, M.A.K & Hassan, R. (1976) Cohesion in English. Longman.
London
Hassan, R. (1984) Coherence and Cohesive Harmony. In J. Flood (Ed)
Understanding Reading Comprehension. International Reading
Association.
Campbell, Kim (1995); Coherence, Continuity and Cohesion:
Theoretical Foundations for Document Design. Hillsdale. Erlbaum
Connor, Ulla (1984); A Study of Cohesion and Coherence in English as
Second Language. Papers In Linguistics 17: (301-316)
Blass, Regina (1986); Cohesion, Coherence and Relevance. Notes on
Linguistics 34. (41-64)
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