BIOLOGYOF

NON-CHORDATES

Dr. HARISH C. NIGAM M.Sc. (Luck.), Ph.D. (Herpetol); F.I.A.Z.,

Amongst ‘5000 personalities of the World’,Award from Amer. Biog. Inst. U.S.A.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ANDEX-HEAD, ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

LUCKNOW CHRISTIAN P.G. COLLEGE,LUCKNOW (INDIA)

VISHAL PUBLISHING CO.JALANDHAR – DELHIFuture for WINNERS

(INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY)[For B.Sc. Students of Indian Universities]

CONTENTS

Chapter Page No.

1. DIVERSITY OF LIFE 1–12Diversity of Life—classification of organisms, kingdom systems, viruses, viroids, prions, gradesof organisation, animal body plans, animal symmetry, germ layers, diploblastic and triploblastic,metameric segmentation, body cavity or coelom, protostomes and deuterostomes, classificationof animals, the lower nonchordata, the higher nonchordata, diversity of life summarized.

PAPER - I. LOWER NONCHORDATES

KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA, Phylum Protozoa 13–432. Type Euglena—habitat and habit, culture, structure, the pellicle, the flagellum, contractile

vacuole, photoreceptor, the chromatophores, locomotion, nutrition, respiration and osmoregulation,reproduction, behaviour, things to remember, questions. 13–23

3. *Type Monocystis—habitat, structure, physiological adaptations, reproduction and life history,transmission; things to remember, questions. 24–28

4. Type Paramoecium—habitat and habit, structure, pellicle and cilia, infraciliary system,trichocysts, feeding apparatus, contractile vacuoles, locomotion, nutrition, respiration, excretionand osmoregulation, binary fission, conjugation, autogamy, cytogamy, endomixis, hemixis, behaviour,genetics, Kappa particles, things to remember, questions. 29–43

5. PROTOZOA—Characters, classification and selected types 44–75Characters in general, Classification, Mastigophora and selected types, Opalinata, Sarcodinaand types, plasmotomy, paedogamy, parthenogenesis, dimorphism of Elphidium. Sporozoa andexamples, Plasmodium—the malarial parasite, the two hosts, the trophozoite, ultrastructureof the sporozoite, incubation period, schizogony in man, sexual cycle in the mosquito, sporogony,other species, conclusions, malaria as a disease, control conventional and recent, Ciliata andtypes, revised classification of Protozoa, things to remember, questions.

6. PROTOZOA—General organization and essays 76–88Ecological and habitual distribution, Organs of locomotion, Locomotion, Nutrition, Nucleus andnuclear division. Reproduction—asexual and sexual; encystment and spore-formation, Behaviour,Parasitic protozoa, Protozoa and Diseases, Economic importance; things to remember, questions.

7. SUBKINGDOM PARAZOA and Phylum PORIFERA 89–103Towards cellular organization, The sponges and sponge organization, Type 1. Leucosolenia—histology, physiology and reproduction. Type 2. Sycon—structure, histology, canal system, physiologyof water current, ingestion, digestion, respiration and excretion, sensitivity and behaviour, typesof cells—a summary ; reproduction, embryonic development, the larva, things to remember, questions.

8. PORIFERA—Characters, classification and general organization 104–118Characters of the phylum, Calcispongiae and types, Hyalospongiae and examples, Demospongiaeand examples, Distribution, Skeleton, Canal systems, Reproduction by gemmules and gametes,regeneration. Zoological position of sponges; things to remember, questions.

(NON-CHORDATES - PART-A)

* Chapter 3, not meant for Jammu University.

9. DIPLOBLASTICA CNIDARIA 119–132Type 1. Hydra, habit and habitat, external form, body wall and histology (ultrastructure),nematocysts, a penetrant—ultrastructure and detonation, locomotion, nutrition, respiration,excretion and osmoregulation, neuro-sensory system, reproduction—asexual and sexual, bahaviour,things to remember, questions.

10. CNIDARIA 133–142Type 2. Obelia, habit and habitat, the colony and zooids, histology of a polyp, the reproductivezooids, hydromedusa, structure, histology, development; polyp and medusa compared, life history,conclusions, metagenesis, things to remember, questions.

11. *CNIDARIA 143–152Type 3. Aurelia, habit and habitat, structure, symmetry, canal or water-vascular system, gonads,histology, neuro-muscular system, sense organs, reproduction and life history, larval stages,conclusions, Obelia and Aurelia compared.Type 4. Metridium, the sea anemone, structure, the mesenteries, feeding and reproduction, thingsto remember, questions.

12. CNIDARIA—Classification, general organization and essays 153–171Characters of the phylum, Hydrozoa classification and selected types, Scyphozoa classificationand examples, Anthozoa classification, the sea anemones and corals; Hexaradiata and Octoradiatacompared. Body form and size in general, habits, colours, polymorphism; coral formation andcoral reefs; things to remember, questions.

13. *CTENOPHORA 172–173Structure of comb jellies, classification, affinities, things to remember, questions.

14. *Division ACOELOMATA, Phylum PLATYHELMINTHES—TURBELLARIA174–182

The Acoelomate organization, Phylum Platyhelminthes.Type Dugesia, the pond planarian, habit and habitat, external features, body wall, locomotion,alimentary canal, feeding and digestion, excretory system and osmoregulation, nervous systemand sense organs, reproductive system, copulation, regeneration, behaviour, things to remember,questions.

15. *MONOGENETIC FLUKES 183–185Type 1. Diplozoon, opisthaptor, anatomy and life history. Type 2. Polystomum, opisthaptorand anatomy, reproduction, larva and life history, things to remember, questions.

16. PLATYHELMINTHES—CESTODA 186–196Type Taenia solium, habits and externals, body wall, nutrition, respiration, excretory and nervoussystems, reproductive system, reproduction and life history, cysticercus, transmission, pathology.Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, comparision between pork and beef tapeworms of man,things to remember, questions.

17. PLATYHELMINTHES—TREMATODA 197–212Type Fasciola, habitat, externals, body wall, digestive, excretory and nervous systems, reproductivesystem, life history, larval life, transmission, conclusions, polyembryony, heterogamy, effects onhost, pathology and control; reproductive organs of the tapeworm and liver fluke compared, thingsto remember, questions.

* Chapters 11, 13, 14 & 15, not meant for Jammu University.

18. PLATYHELMINTHES—Classification, General organization and essays213–230

Characters in general, Class Turbellaria and selected examples, Monogenea, Cestoda andexamples; representative life histories of tape worms, Class Trematoda and examples, Monogeneaverses Digenea, Pseudometamerism, Life cycles, larval forms, Parasitism and parasitic adaptations,Effects of parasitism, things to remember, questions.

19. *Division PSEUDOCOELOMATES, ASCHELMINTHES NEMATODA 231–245Type 1. Ascaris lumbricoides, habit and habitat, body form and externals, body wall, ascaroidmuscles, neuromuscular system, locomotion, body cavity, alimentary canal and nutrition, excretion,respiration, nervous system, sense organs, reproductive system, life history, pathology, things toremember, questions.

20. *ASCHELMINTHES NEMATODA 246–252Type 2. Ancylostoma duodenale, habit, infection in Man, externals, the bursa, alimentary canal,feeding and digestion, renette glands, nervous system, reproductive system, egg and hatching,life history, pathology, things to remember, questions.

21. *ASCHELMINTHES NEMATODA—Classification and General organization253–259

Characters, classification and common examples, variety of worms infecting Man, Body form,body wall, reproductive organs, life histories, summary of common nematodes of man, parasitism,things to remember, questions.

PAPER - II. HIGHER NONCHORDATES22. ANNELIDA POLYCHAETA—Coelomate organization, Eucoelomates 260–275

Coelomates compared with Acoelomates, Type 1. Nereis, habits, externals, the head, parapodia,locomotion, T.S. body, coelom, body wall, alimentary canal, feeding, blood vascular system,respiration, excretory system, nervous system, sense organs, gonads and reproduction, theheteronereis compared with nereis, Life history, the trochophore larva, things to remember, questiosn.

23. ANNELIDA OLIGOCHAETA 276–291Type : Pheretima (Metaphire), habits and habitat, externals, body wall and locomotion, coelom,alimentary canal, the gizzard, calciferous glands, blood glands, chlorogogen cells, feeding anddigestion, respiration, blood vascular system, nephridia and excretion, nervous system, receptors,reproductive system, copulation and cocoon formation, things to remember, questions.

24. *ANNELIDA HIRUDINEA 292–311Type : Hirudinaria (leech), habit, externals, segmentation, body wall, botryoidal tissue, locomotion,alimentary canal, feeding, coelom, haemocoelomic system, the nephridia, the nervous system,receptors, reproductive system, copulation and cocoon formation. Alimentary canals of Nereis,Pheretima and Hirudinaria compared, parasitic adaptations, things to remember, questions.

25. ANNELIDA—Characters, Classification, General organization and essays, andPhylum Echiurida 312–327Characters in general, classification, Polychaeta and common examples. Oligochaeta and examples,Oligochaeta verses Polychaeta, Hirudinea and common leeches. Archiannelida, Coelom in annelids,Nephridia and genital ducts, Feeding in Polychaetes, Chlorogogen tissue, Receptors, Reproduction.

* Chapters 19, 20, 21 & 24, not meant for Jammu University.

Phylum Echiurida, Bonellia; Nephridia of Nereis, Pheretima and Hirudinaria compared,things to remember, questions.

26. *ARTHROPODA 328–333General and special characteristics, Trilobita, Onychophora, Type : Peripatus, externals, bodywall, digestive, respiratory, excretory, nervous and reproductive systems, Affinities, questions.

27. ARTHROPODA CRUSTACEA 334–358Type : Palaemon (Macrobrachium), the river prawn ; habit and habitat, externals, exoskeleton,body segments, cephalic, thoracic and abdominal appendages, locomotion, integument, endoskeleton,respiratory organs and breathing, alimentary canal, the “gastric mill”, hepatopancreas, feedingand digestion, Blood and vascular system, the kidneys (green glands), nervous system, compoundeyes, statocysts, other receptors, reproductive system, breeding, things to remember, questions.

28. ARTHROPODA CRUSTACEA—Characters, Classification, general organizationand short essays 359–371General characters, Division-Mandibulata and class Crustacea, classification and commonexamples, General organization : the somites, breathing organs, larval forms, crustacea of economicvalues, things to remember, questions.

29. *ARTHROPODA—CHILOPODA, DIPLOPODA AND CHELICERATA 372–381General characters, Chilopoda verses Diplopoda, Centipedes,millipedes, and Spiders, examples,Limulus ; things to remember, questions.

30. *ARTHROPODA INSECTA 382–397Type 1. Periplaneta, habit and habitat, integument, externals, the mouth parts, wings, legsand locomotion, the abdomen, body cavity—haemocoel, fat bodies, alimentary canal and digestion,circulatory system, breathing (tracheal) system, excretory organs, Malpighian tubules, nervoussystem, receptors, reproductive system and reproduction, ootheca and nymph, things to remember.

31. *ARTHROPODA INSECTA 398–411Type 2. Apis, the honey bee, a social insect, the hive, externals, mouth parts, legs—pollen collection,wax glands, castes and society, sting apparatus, food, alimentary canal, stomodaeal valve, trachealsystem, circulatory system, nervous system and receptors, bee-biocommunication, bee dances,reproductive system, life history, economic values—honey and wax, things to remember, questions.

32. ARTHROPODA INSECTA—Characters, classification and common examples412–431

General characters, selected orders and examples, silk moth, mosquito, house fly. Culex andAnopheles compared, fleas, bugs, lice and lac insect. Some orders, significant characters andexamples summarized, things to remember, questions.

33. *ARTHROPODA INSECTA—General organization and short essays 432–455The exoskeleton, endoskeleton, head and appendages, mouth parts—a variety, thorax andappendages, abdomen and its apendages, fat bodies, digestive system, excretory system, circulatorysystem and blood, breathing organs, bioluminescence, sense organs, reproductive system andreproduction, cleavage and development, metamorphosis, larval and pupal forms. Insects anddiseases, insecticides and pesticides, endocrine glands and hormones, pheromones, things toremember, questions.

34. MOLLUSCA 456–475Type 1. Pila globosa, the apple snail, habit and habitat, the shell, anatomy of soft parts, the

* Chapters 26, 29, 30, 31 & 33, not meant for Jammu University.

head, foot, visceral mass, pallial complex, alimentary canal, buccal mass and radula, feedingand digestion, aquatic and aerial respiration, coelom, blood and vascular system, kidney, nervoussystem, receptors, reproductive system, copulation and oviposition, gastropod larvae, visceralhump and coiling, torsion—purpose and mechanism, adaptations, things to remember, questions.

35. MOLLUSCA 476–490Type 2. Lamellidens, the mussel, habit and habitat, externals, the shell, pearl formation, themantle, muscles and pallial cavity; the gill system, physiology of water current, digestive system,the crystalline style, blood vascular system, locomotion and foot control, the kidneys and Keber’sorgans, nervous system and receptors, nervous system of Pila and Lamellidens compared,reproductive organs, the glochidium larva, things to remember, questions.

36. MOLLUSCA—Characters, classification and general organization 491–509General characters, the Monoplacophora, Neopilina galathae, a connecting link, Amphineuraand examples, Gastropoda classification and examples, Scaphopoda and example,Lemellibranchiata and examples, Cephalopoda, the cuttle fishes, squids, octopuses and nautilids.General organization : Form, size and habit of molluscs, the foot, Molluscan stomach and digestiveglands, breathing organs, economics, things to remember, questions.

37. ECHINODERMATA 510–524Type : Pentaceros, the sea pentagon, symmetry and externals, pedicellariae and dermal gills,body wall, body cavity, digestive system, feeding and digestion, reproductive system, coelomicsystems, dipleurula, water vascular system, locomotion, the axial complex, haemal system, nervoussystem and sense organs, T.S. of arm, reproduction, larva, metamorphosis, regeneration, behaviour,things to remember, questions.

38. ECHINODERMATA—Classification, general organization and short essays525–536

General characters, classification, Echinozoa, Crinozoa, Astrozoa, Some living forms, comparisonsand contrasts between the four living classes. Body form and symmetry, integumemt, pedicellariae,sphaeridia, coelomic systems, gonads and reproduction, mode of life, relationships, questions.GLOSSARY (i)–(viii)INDEX (i)–(viii)

CELL BIOLOGY AND CYTOGENETICS(PART - B)

UNIT - I1. Animal Cell 1—6

Ultrastructure, electron microscope, structure of cell, plasma membrane, fluid-mosaic model;cell junctions, functions of plasma membrane ;

UNIT - II2. Cellular Components and Organelles 7—15

Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosomes; mitochondria, centrioles, microtubules, microbodies;the nucleus; chromosomes and genes.

UNIT - III3. Nucleic Acids, The DNA Molecule and Protein Synthesis 16—35

Nucleotides, Chargaff’s rule, nucleosides; DNA model, forms of DNA; self-replication of DNA,

replication is semi-conservative; role of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis and gene concept.The ribosomes, the messenger RNA and transcription, introns and exons, the transfer RNA,aminoacid code always a three-letter code ; frame-shifting. Steps in protein synthesis; signalmechanism. Genetic units in the cytoplasm; Teminism.

4. Chromosomal DNA and the Genes 36—45Histones, the nucleosomes; The genes; Functional units of genes : Overlapping and included genes;Split genes; Jumping genes; Cheating genes and house keeping genes.

5. Cell Cycle and Gross Structure of Chromosomes 46—52The cell cycle, phases in the cycle ; events in the interphase ; cell cycle and cell surface ; switchesin the cycle; Finer structure of chromosome ; the chromatids, the centromere, telomere ; Lampbrushchromosomes ; polytene or giant chromosomes; puffs and Balbiani rings.

6. Cell division, Gametogenesis, Parthenogenesis, and Embryo transfer technology.53—63

Mitotic cell division, phases in division, significance of mitosis ; Meiotic division, homologouschromosomes, phases of meiosis, chiasmata and crossing-over; comparision between mitosis andmeiosis ; gametogenesis and fertilization. Parthenogenesis.

7. Cytogenetics 64—76Mendel’s work, Mendel’s laws of Heredity; monohybrid and dihybrid crosses; dominance, termsused in heredity. Foundations of cytogenetics; genes and mechanism of inheritance, trihybridcross; incomplete dominance, blending, back cross and test cross, Linkage and crossing over, linearorder of genes, chromosome maps.

8. Interaction of Genes 77—93Interaction of genes; multiple-gene inheritance, quantitative inheritance, lethal genes, complementaryand supplementary genes; epistasis, inhibitory genes, Applied genetics. Variations.

UNIT - IV9. Sex Determination 94—102

Sex determination, Sex-linkage, colour blindness, haemophilia, sex-limited and sex influencedcharacters; Non-genetic sex determination, gynandromorphs, syndromes.

10. Genetic Changes—Mutations 103—112Modern view of the gene, mutations—an example, phenylketonuria, alcaptonuria. Sickel-cell geneand anaemia, pleiotropy, transition and transversion; haemoglobins. Chromosomal aberrations,the chromosome numbers, structural changes in the chromosomes—chromosomal mutations, Non-sense mutation, silent mutation, spontaneous mutation, tautomerism, base analogues, chemicalmutation.

11. Human Genetics 113–125Introduction : Study of human chromosomes, Karyotyping, Karyogram, Chromosomal abnormalities—the syndromes, autosomal syndromes, albinism, taste blindness, heterosomal syndromes (sexabnormalities), non-disjunction, chromatin or Barr bodies. Prenatal sex and diagnosis—amniocentesis, new techniques. Human hereditary traits, Blood groups, sub-groups A1 and A2,blood groupings, inheritance of blood groups, the Rh factor, legal aspect of blood groups, changingthe blood group, artificial blood-Fluosol, Genes affecting man’s intelligence, genes affecting man’shealth, inbreeding and outbreeding. Gene mapping, some human hereditary traits at a glance.DNA fingerprinting, new techniques. Gene probes and DNA analysis. Eugenics, Geneology.GLOSSARY (i)INDEX (i—iii)

INDEXA

Aardonyx-celestae 223Abelson 300Abbot Girand Soulavie 5Acanthodes (Spiny Sharks) 194Acanthodii 194Acephala 54Acicularia 89Anomodonts 211Acritarchara 76Acritarchs 105Acrothele 9Actinoceras 54Actinopterygian 57, 197Adaptation 310-311Adaptive radiation 320Adaptive variation 273, 310Adductor muscle impressions 125, 133Aegytopithecus 263Agnatha 57, 191, 192Alcyonaria 118Alethopteris 97Algae 48Allied sciences 10Allogromiidae 62Alveolina 71Ambulacral 176Ammodiscus 70Amniotic egg 210Amphibia 57, 203-209Amphipods (frog, toads, Ichthyostega)

55, 194, 199Analogous 339Amphistegina 66Anal-siphon 133Anapsida 193, 212, 213Anaximander 295Anderson 42Ankylosauria 215Ankylosaurus 215, 226Aneuploidy 308Angiospermae (Anthophyta) 104Angiosperms 51, 107

Angra flora (kuznetz flora) 112Animal distribution 358-382

–Bathymetric 373–Eras, periods 376–Factors affecting (barriers) 360–Geological 376–Kinds 358–Means of dispersal 362–Zoogeographical regions 364

Animalia 49, 56Anisomyarian 133Annularia 92Anomodonts 211Anthocyrtium 82Anthozoa (Actinozoa) 52, 115

–Classification 118–Fossils 120–Geological distribution 120–Morphology 115

Arthopoda 54, 164-173Anthropoidea 262Aplacophora 54Apoda 205, 209Apomorphies 44Apus 55Araacarities 102Arachnida 55Araucaria 102Archaeocytha 52Archaeodiskodon 260Archaeorestis 88Archosauria 212Archeopteris 108Archeopteryx 57, 231, 232, 233, 234-236Arcto carboniferous flora 111Ardipithecus 265, 274Aristotle 4, 178Arnold & Anderson 40Articulata 125, 128Asphatic oil 14Assilina 72Achyris 130Atrypa 130

403

404 PALAEONTOLOGY

Asthenodont 137Asterozoa (Asteroids, ophiuroids) 56Atlanthropus 240Auracarites 102-103Auriform 147Australopithecus 264, 265Auto-catalytic system 301Aves 57, 231-237Avicenna 4Avicularia 122Axial coastae 144

BBacteria 49, 61Bahadur 300Baltic amber 14Barakar, Megafloristic equisetacae 104Barnacles (Balanus) 55Beelzebufo ampingo 208Belton 17Benard & Munier-chalmas 137Bernard Palissy 4Beyrichia 84Bionomial nomenclature 35Bionome 35Biostratigraphic correlation 10Biostratigraphy 5, 6, 22, 74Biostratinomy 27Birkenia 193Biserial 184Bivalvia 54, 132Bloom 62Blue green algae 89Blum 302Boldwood 38Bothro-dendrobus 91Bothrodendron 91Brachial skeleton 125,129Brachial siphon 133Brachial valve 124Brachiopoda 53, 124-131

–Classification 128–Fossils 129–Geological distribution 129–Morphology 124

Branehipus 55Brachyphyllum 102

Brett 17Brongniart 5Brontosaurus 222, 223Broth 299Bryophyta 50, 89Bryozoa 53, 122-123

–Classification 122–Geological distribution 123–Morphology 122

Buchiola 54Buffon 306Buliminidae 67Burrows and tubes 16

CCalamites 51, 92Calceola 120Calcarina 66, 72Calcispongea 51Calpionellidae 82Calvin Melvin 300Calyx 116Cambell, A 58Camptosaurus 215, 224, 225Candiena 68Cannonbone 252Capsulites gondwanensis 89Cardaitales 101Catarrhini 262Carinate 63Cautley, P.T. 7Centipedes (Scolopendra) 55Cephalaspis 192Cephalaspida 192Cephalization 190Cephalochordata (Amphioxus) 57Cephalopoda 54, 151–163

–Classification 156–Evolutionary history-Ammonoidea

159–Fossils 162–Geological history 158–Morphology 152–Shell shapes 155

Ceratobulina 66Chaemoautotrophs 303Chelonia 211

INDEX 405

Chelone 211Chaetoderma 54Chaetoplura 54Chara 50, 89Characea 50Charles Darwin 293, 306Chelicerata 55Chemical Paleogenetics 321Chemostratigraphy 78Chilostomella 67Chimpanzee 263Chitons 54Choanichthyes 197Chondrichthyes 57, 195Chondrostei 57, 197Chonectes 130Chordata 56, 180Chromosome aberrations 317Chronostratigraply 77Cidaris 56, 179, 181Ciliata (infosoria) 82Cirripedia 55Cladophlebis 51, 94, 95Cleidoic egg 210Climatius 195Cliona 51Cnidaria (coelenterata) 52, 115-128Coacervates 301, 302Coacoliths 61Coccolithophorida 50Coccosteus 57, 195Coelenteron 115Coiling-Evolute & involute 63Columella 145Conchidium 130Coniferophyta 51, 90, 101, 104Connecting links 339Conodonts 56, 85-87Cope 55Copepoda 53Coprocardium 54Coprolite 17Corallite 116, 117

Corallium 116Corals

–Economic Importance 119–Extinction 119

Cordaitales 101Cotylosauria 211-212Craniata 189, 231Craniostylic 238Crocodilia 214Crinozoa 56Crossopterygian 57, 198Crustacea 55Curvilinear 56Cuvier 5Cyclostomata 57, 194

–Lanpreys-Petromyzon–Hagfishes-Myxine

Cyanophyta 89Cycadofillicales 98Cycadophyta 47, 95, 97Cycloidea 55Cyclodont 137Cyclops 55Cynobacteria 61Cypridea 85Cypris 85Cythere 85

Dd’orbigny 5Dadoxylon 101Dallasaurus 212Danaeopis 95Dane Nicolaus Steno 4De Baer 323Decapods (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps) 55Deep sea Hiatus 78Deffeyes & Martin 42Deltidium 120Delthyrium 120Dentition in Lamellibranchia 135

–Anamalodont 136–Asthenodont 133–Cyclodont 137–Desmodont 137–Diaganodont 137

406 PALAEONTOLOGY

–Edentulous 137–Dysodont 136–Heterodont 136–Isodont (Pachydont) 136–Schizodont 136–Taxodont 135–Pentadont 137

Descriptive Catalogue of Siwalik 7Desmodont 137Desmophyllum 102Dextral 65, 143Dhar & Mukerjee 300Diaganodont 137Diapsida 212Diatomacea 49Diatoms 61Dicranograptus 186Dictylophyllum 108Dictyozamites 100Diener, C 7Dimorphism 65Dimorphographtus 185Dimyamarian form 133Dinoflagellata 50, 60Dinosaurs 215–230Diplograptus 184Diploblastic 52, 115Dipnoi (Lungfishes) 57, 197Discoaster 83Discocoelia 52Discocyelina 72Discina 129Dissepiments 116Dissocladella 89Divaricator (Diadductor) muscles 125Dobzhansky 312Dolomitization 201Dombrovsky 14Dorn, Fairhill, Schell & Takaslima 40Dryopithecus 263Dadoxylon 101DSDP 74Duane Gish 337Duerotay de Bulainville 3Durham & Hymen 58

EEames & Arnold 89Ebrenberg 5Echinodermata 55,174-182

–Classification 174Echinoidea 174

–Classification 179–Evolutionary trends 180–Fossils 181–Geological distribution 181–Morphology 175

Echinozoa (Holothuroidea, Echinoidea) 56Echthyodorites 200Ectoprocta 53, 120Edentulous 137Elatocladus 102Elasmobranchii (Sharks, skates, rays)

57, 195Elephantoides 260Elphidium 72Ellipsopoly-morphina 67Elpiner & Sobolbaya 302Empedocles 4, 306Emu 236Endoprocta 122Endoskeleton-fishes 191Endothyride 66Enigmocarpon 108Enteropneusta 56Entomis 84Eoanthropus dowsoni 270Eobiogenesis 304Eobionts (Protobionts) 302Epigenesis 19Epitheca 116Ethmophyllum 52Eukaryota 48, 49Eunicites 53Euploidy 307Euryphyllum 111Eusphonella 48Evidences of Evolution 338-350

–Comparative anatomy 338–Comparative physiology & biochemistry 343–Embryology 342

INDEX 407

–Molecular biology 346–Palaeontological 347–Taxonomy 338–Zoogeography 347

Evolution 337–Biological 317–Chemical 317–Divergent 329–Mechanism 306–Patterns 328–Rate 332–Theories 321-328–Trends 334

Evolutionary history–Camelus 251–Llama 254–Phylogeny 252–Pliauchenia 254–Poebrotherium 252–Procamellus 253, 255–Protomeryx 252–Protylopus 252

Evolutionary history–Equus 242, 250Evolutionary–Changes 242, 243

–Anchitherium 245, 246–Eohippus (Dawn horse) 244–Epihippus 245–Eqqus (modern horse) 249, 250–Hipparion 248–Hippidion (True horse) 249–Hyracotherium 244–Merychippus 246–Mesohippus 245–Miohippus 245–Onohippidium 249–Orohippus (mountain horse) 245–Parahippus 246–Plesihippus 249–Pliohippus 248–Protohippus 247

Evolutionary history–Giraffa 255–Brahamatherium 255–Giraffa 255–Halodotherium 256–Hydaspitherium 255–Indratherium 256–Okapi 255

–Palaeomeryx 256–Palaeotragus 257–Progiraffa 256–Sivatherium 257–Vishnutherium 256

Evolutionary history–Elephas 257, 260–Barytherium 258–Dibeladon 258–Dinotherium 258–E. maximus 260–Loxodonta africana 260–Mastodon 259, 260–Moeritherium 257–Palaeomastodon 259–Phiomia 259–Phylogeny 261–Stegomastodon 260–Tetrabeladon 259

Evolutionary history-Man & Cultural-Chronology 262-283

Exhalent siphon 133Extinction of Dinosaurs 227, 230Extinction and Causes (factors) 351-357

FFalconer & Walker 7Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis 7Fayum De pression 263Figured stones 4Filicineae 51Finrays fishes 196Fins in fishes 2011Fischer Van Waldherum 3Flora 100Florkin 301Foraminifera 9, 62, 82

–Geological distribution 67–Foraminiferous ooze 67–Important fossils 70–In oil exploration 69–Palaeontological significance 69

Foraminiferal test 63Fossil Geometry 17

–nomenclature 32, 35–types 20-22–significance 22-31

408 PALAEONTOLOGY

–consolidation 34–collections 32–preparations 33–extraction 33

Fossil 13–(a) Dynamic aspect (physico-chemical

conditions of fossilization) 18-20–(b) Static aspect (morphology of

fossils) 13-18Fossil-dating 38-42

–(a) Potassium Argon method 42–(b) Radio active clock method 38–(c) Radio carbon method 39

Fossiliferous horizons 6Fossilization 13-20Fossils

–Ammonoidea 154–Dibranchia 157–Fishes 191–Lamillibranchia 132–Nautiloidea 153

Fossula 117F. Stolio 3ka 8Fox & Harade 300Fox, Abelson, Oro, Kamat 300F.R.F. Van Huene 8Fusulina 66

GGaea 304Gangamopteris 95, 96, 97Garstrang 308Gastrocentrous vertebrae 230Gastropoda 54, 143-151

–Shells form 145–Classification 147–Morphology 143–Evolutionary trends 148–Geological distribution 149–Fossils 149

Genus–artificial 33–natural 33

Geochronology 72Geological history

–Cephalopoda 158–Distribution 158, 163

George Bauer 4

G.E. Plimgrim 8Gibbons 263Gigantopteris flora 111Gill types 129Ginkgoales 51, 101Giraffa-camel 255Girvanella 89Glaborotalia 72Glaessner 63, 67Glassopteris flora 96, 103, 110Glauconitization 20Globigerina 62, 66, 68, 71Globotruncana 72Glossopteris 51, 95, 96, 103, 110Gludoxylum 107Glycimeris 142Gnathostomes 189, 193Go-elde-ploeg 14Gondwana basin 103Gondwana sequence 103Gondwanadium 96, 97Gontatites 154Gonyaulax 62Graptolites 183Graptolithina, Graptozoa 56, 183

–Classification 185–Evolutionary trends 186–Fossils 188–Geological distribution 187–Morphology 183

Gryphea 133Guide fossils 24Gunflintia 88Gymnodinium 62Gymnospermae 51, 95Gymnosperms 95

HH.T. Colebrook 7Haeckel 304, 327Haldane J.B.S. 298Half-life 38Hall 5Halislites 121Halysites 121

INDEX 409

Hantkenina 9Harvey 257Hematization 20Hemiaster 181, 182Hemichordata 56, 174Hepaticites 89Herbert & Gerard 8Herbert Spencer 207Herodotus 4Hesperornis 236Heterodont 136Heterosporae 90Hexapoda (insecta) 54Hierarchial system 48Hilgenorf 45Hinge-apparatus 135Hinge-area 125Hinge-line 125Hippurites 133Histometabasis 19Historical geology 10H. Falconer 7Holocephali (Chimaeras) 57, 195, 197Homalozoa (carpoids) 56Homo floresiensis 273Homo neanderthalensis 268Homo rhodesiensis 270Homo sapiens fossilis 270Homo sapiens sapiens 275Homo-habilis 265, 266Homo-heidelbergensis 267Homologous 339Homosporae 90Homoxylum 102Hugo De Vries 268Huroniospora 86Huxley, T.H. 295Hyalospongea (hexactinellid) 49Hyde & Williams 100Hydrozoa 52, 40, 115Hylobates 244Hypoparian 166

IIchnofossils 16, 20Ichthyornis 236

Ichthyosaurus 17Ichthyostega 57Imperfection

–Geological recods 43-47–Causes 43-47

Imprints 15Inarticulate 125-128Index fossil 23-24Indian Biostratigraphy 284-292

–Cambrian 284–Carboniferous 286–Cretaceous 288–Devonian 285–Ecocene 290–Jurassic 288–Miocene 291–Oligocene 290–Ordovician 285–Palaeocene 289–Permian 286–Pliestocene 291–Pliocene 291–Proterozoic 284–Recent 292–Silurian 285–Triassic 287

Indopolia 89Inhalent or branchial siphon 133Intergripalliata 134Isastrea 120Isolation 312Isomyarian forms 134Isopods 55Isotope stratigraphy 78Isua rocks 282

JJ. Croford 7J. Warren 6J. William Schopf 262J.B. Pent 7J.R. Sewage 289Jamoytius 193Jean Baptise 219

410 PALAEONTOLOGY

KKakabekia 88Karoosediments 219Kenyapithecus 263Khorana 304Konardvon Genser 4Kuznetz (Angara) flora 111, 112

LL. Pasteur 257Labyrinthodontia 204, 205Laevidentalium 54Lagenidea 65Lamark 5Lamellibranchia (Acephala) 54, 132–143

–Classification 139–Evolutionary trends 140–Fossils 142–Geological distribution 141–Morphology 133

Latimaria 198Laurasia 109, 111Law of priority 37Learned societies 7Leonardo de vinci 4Lead method 38Lepido-carpaceae 91Lepidocyclina 70Lepidodendron flora 110Lepidodendron 50, 90Lepidosauria 212Lepto-chirognathus 80, 82Lhuyd 4Libby, W.F. 39, 40Limonitization 20Limulus 57Linsley & Usinger 58Lingula 53, 129Linnaean nomenclature 35Linnaeus C.G. 5, 35, 48Lithosphere 298Lithostronbon 120Lithothumnion 89Lituolidea 66Loess 18Lomonosov 5

Lopha 142Lophophore 124Lovnez 82Lovelock & Marguilis 304Loxodonta 257Lunule 134, 135Lycopodiaceae 90Lycopodium 90Lycopsida 50, 89, 90Lycopsids 50

MM.R. Sahani 8Mac-Ginitite d Mae Ginitie 54Maillet 5Mammalia 57, 237-283

–Characters 238–Classification 239

Mantle cavity 124, 133Mantle 124, 278Margularis 304Marker fossil 24Marsh 5Mastigophora 50Matley, C.A. 8Mayer 58McKerrow 164Malacostraca 51Medusa 115Megafossils 88Megalospheric 65Meretrix 134Mergus 237Merified & Lamer 29Merostromata 55Mesenteries 115, 116Miadesmiaceae 91Microfossils 61, 88Microgeology 5, 57, 69Micropalaeontology 3, 6, 7, 59Microspheras 263Microspheric 65Miliolidia 66Millepora 54Miller, S.L. 270Miller & Urey 270

INDEX 411

Millipedes (Julus) 55Miogypsinoides 66Miring 14Modern Concept of Origin of life 297Modern synthetic theory 289Mollusca 53, 58, 132-163

–Classification 132Momentus 245Monera 49Monograptus 184Monomyarian 134Monoplacophora 53, 132Monothalamus 63Montivaltia 120Monumental morgraphs 7Mosaic evolution 214Mosses & Liverworts 50Muller S.W. 58Mutation 307Myriapoda 55Mytilus 142Myxine (Hag fish) 57

NNai-data lanceolata 89Nass & Nass 304Nautilus 54Neocoledus 85, 86Neobalus 9Neobiogenesis 265Neognathae 237Neomeris 89Neontology 3Neopilina 53Neornithes 237Neotremata 120Neuropteris 97Nilssonia 100Nipaniophyllum 99Nodosaria 66, 72Noeggerathiopsis 101Non-vascular plants 50, 88–89Nonionella 66Notochordata 189Nucula 54

Nummulitic 11Nummulites 72

OOceanic biostratigraphy 74Oceanic Microplaeontology 74Odontognathae 236Odontophore 132, 143Odontopleryx 237Okapi 255Oligopression 263Oligostegina 83Onychophora (Peripatus, Aysheia) 55Oparin, A 298, 302Oparin-Haldane theory of BiochemicalOrigin 298Opisthoparian 166Orbitocides 66Orbitolina 66Origin of earth 298Origin of life 293Ornithischia 212, 220Orthis 130Orthogenesis 242Osteichthyes 57, 191, 197Ostrea 138, 142Ostracoda 55, 85Ostracodermi 84Ostracoda-fossils 85

–Geological distribution 84Otozamites 100Ovicell 119Oxygen and carbon isotope-stratigraphy 78

PPalaeobiology 3Palaeoclimate 25Palaeobiochemistry 19Palaeobio-geography 6, 24Palaeobioturbation 16Palaeobotany 3, 88Palaeognathae 236Palaeogravity 30Palaeoichnology 16Palaeoloxodon 260

412 PALAEONTOLOGY

Palaeoneurology 30Palaeontologica indica 7Palaeontology 3, 10, 28Palaeo-oceanography 81Palaeophysics 29Palaeopithecus 266Palaeoproteins 19Palaeorotational 29Paleotremata 128Palecanus 237Paleo-ecology 6, 26Paleozoology 3Pallial line 134Pallial sinus 134Palmoxylon 108Palynology 3, 9, 29, 105–107Pan 283Pandow, Mackey & Wolf 40Pantodont 137Parachaetes 89Paraconformities 12Paranthropus 247Parsimoniously 48Patellifrom 147Pasteur 257Pauling 321Pavlovsky & Pasynski 300Pearly layer 138Pecopteris 95Pecten 136–138Pedicle valve 124Pellatispira 9Pelycepoda 54Pelecosauria 217Penguins 236Pentamenus 130Pentamerous radial symmetry 178Pentaxylon 97, 98Periostracum 138Permineralization 19Petit & Prevost 27Petrifaction 19Ptrology 11Phalacrocorax 237Phororhacos 237

Photoautotrophs 303Phyllites 106Phyllotheca 92, 104Physa 54, 145, 148Pisces 57, 191Pithecanthropus 264-267Placenta 239Placodontia 202Placoderm 191Placodermi 191, 194Planorbulina 66Plantae 49Plant-Kingdom 48Platyrhinis 262Pleisiomorphic 48Podozamites 102Polymorphina 66Polyp 115, 122Polyplacophora 54Polyploidy 307Polythalamus 62Polyzoa 53, 122-123Pondicherria 107Pongidae 263Pongo 263Ponnamperuma, sagan, Marner 300Porifera 51Prebiotic soup 299Prebiotic structures 263Preservation 13

–Baltic amber 14–hard parts 15–soft parts 14

Primates 262Primordial soup 279Prismatic layer 138Proconsul 263Productus 130Prokaryota 49Proparian 166Propliopithecus 263Prosifonatee 153Prosimii 262Protactor-muscles 133Proteolepus 55

INDEX 413

Protista 49Proto-bionts (Proto-cells) 302Protolepidodendrons 90Protomedusae 52, 115Protorosauria 212Proto-spongia 51Protozoa 50, 62Protremata 128Pseudodeltidium 126Pseudomorph 20Pseudomorphosis 19Psilophytales 50, 90Psilophyton 50, 90Psilopsida 50, 89Pteridophyta 51, 90Pteridospermae 51, 95Pterobranchia 56Pterodactyle 5Pteropods 76Pteropsida 51, 89, 94Pterosauria 213Pterygotus 55Ptilophyllum flora 103, 112Pupaeform 147Ptilophyllum 99Pygidium 164, 167, 170Pyritization 20

QQuanqueloeulina 73Quantitative stratigraphy 81

RR. Lydekkar 7Radiolaria 50, 62, 75Radiolarian chert 82Radiolarian oozes 82Radula 143Raff & Mahler 304Rama Rao & Julius Pia 8Rama Rao & Spath 8Ramapithecus 264Recrystallization 20Rectilinear 64Red-algae 58Redtides 62

Reed & Sahani 8Renaissance & Leonardo de vinci 4Reptilia–Classification 211, 212Resilium 135Retractor muscles 133Rhabdopleura 56Rhabdammina 70Rhabdosomes 184Rhamphotheca 231Rhacopteris flora 110–111Rhizopalmoxylon 107–108Rhizostoma 52Rhynchocephalia 212Rhynconella 130Rhynia 90Richard owen 215Ris & Plant 304Robert Hooke 4Romer. A 350Rophidonema 52Rostroconchia 54Rotalids 68Rotalia 72Rugosa 118

SS.L. Hora 8S.W. Fox 301Saccamina 66Sahni 8Sahnianthus 108Sahnipushpam 108Saltation 307Samarapsis 101Sarcodina 50, 62Saurischia 212, 215, 216, 220Saxitoxin 62Scales-fishes 199Scaphopoda 54Schizocorallia 118Schizodont 136Schizoneura 93Scipionyx samniticus 218Scloram & Nitecki 15Scolecodonts 83Scyphozoa 52, 115

414 PALAEONTOLOGY

Sea-mosses 122Seilacher 16Selaginella 90Semetextularia 67Sequoia 100Serological test 344Serpula 53Seymouria 207, 208Seymouriamorpha 205, 207, 208Shell-microscopy 138

(i) Periostracum 138(ii) Prismatic 138

(iii) Pearly layer 138Shrock & Twenhofel 118Sigillaria 90Sigillariostrobus 90Silenopora 87Silicification 20Silicoflagellata 50, 61Sinanthropus 267Sinistral 43, 65Sinypalliata 134Sipunculid worms 53Sivapithecus 8, 264Smith 5Soulavie 5Spallanzani 295Speciation 319Species concept 317, 319Species types 37Species 37Sphagnum papillosum 89Sphenopleridium 109Sphenoplyllum 91Sphenopsida 51, 89, 91Sphenopteris 97Spicules 83Spirifer 124, 125, 127, 130Spirillina 66Spondylus 136, 142Sporangiophores 91Sporozoa 50Stegocephalian 210Stegodon 259Stegosaurus 225, 226

Steinkerns 15Stele 89Stereoconus 85, 86Steward 30Stigmaria 91Stoliczkar F. 8Stomatopora 53Stomochord 183Stomodaeum 115Stratigraphic Palaeontology 5Stratigraphical Geology 6Stratigraphy 10Stromatolites 61, 89Strontium Isotope stratigraphy 80Strophomena 130Structural Geology 6, 12Struthio 218Suctoria 50Suture line 154Stylina 120Swain, Bratt & Kirkwood 321Swertzoft, A.N. 303Sydney Fox 263Synonyms 37

–objective–subjective

Systematics 48

TTabulae 116Tabulata 118Taeniopteris 100Talchir-Megafloristic Pteridospermae 104Taphonomy 18Tarlo (1967) 321Taxa 48Taxodont 135Taxonomy 48Textularia 70Teeth fishes 196Teleostei 197Telotremate 128Terafornis 227Terebratula 130Terebratullina 130

INDEX 415

Tethys sea 109Tetragraptus 184Tetrapoda (Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves &Mammals) 56, 190Textularia 70Thallophyta 88Thecodontia 213Theophratus 4Theories of evolution 321-328Theory Materialistic 298Theory of Protobiogenesis of Fox & Dose

298Theory (Special creation, spontaneous,Abiogenesis, Biogenesis, Catatrophism,Cosmozoic, interplanatory, Panspermia)

295-296Thinnfeldia 97Tiktaalik roseae 191Trigonia 139Trilobitomorpha 164Trilobita 164

–Classification 167–Evolutionary trends 168–Fossils 172–Geological distribution 171–Morphology 164

Triserial 64Trochammina 66Tubipora 52, 118Turbinate 147Turreted 147Tylopoda 252Tyrannosaurus 216–219

UUmblicus 64, 145Umblicate 145Umbo 64, 134Unio 143Unitatherium 5Urochordata (Sea-squirts or tunicate-

Herdmania) 56Urodela (Caudata) 209

VValve-shape 126

–Length 127

Variations 314, 317Vascular plants 50, 47, 89Velociraptor 218Vendotaenia 89Venus 135, 136, 139, 143Vernuilina 66Vertebral column 189Vertebraria 95, 97Vertebrata 56Vestigial organs 300Vibracula 122Viruses 49Voy Sey H.W. 6

WWaegen W 7Walcott 15Walter 228Warren, J. 6Webb W. 7We isma nn 321Weizsacker Alfen Hoyle 259Wells 29Whittakar 48William Smith 5Williamsonia 99Woods 122Worms 56Wyckoff & Doderenz 19

XXenophanes 4

ZZamites 97Zaphrentis 52, 120Zinjianthropus 267Zoantharia 118Zone-fossils 23Zooecium 122Zucker Kandl & Pauling 321Zucker Kandl 321Zygomatic arch 238

INDEXA

Aberrations 107Acrocentric 14, 49Acrosome 59Activators 41Albinism 85, 105Alcapton 105Alcaptonuria 105Alleles 65Allopolyploidy 107Allosomes 94Alopecia 99Amictic 60Amino acid code 27Amitosis 53Amniocentesis 96Amphidiploidy 108Anaphase 55Aneuploidy 107Animal cell 1Annuli 13Apomeiotic 61Arrhenotoky 60Aster 54Autopolyploidy 107Autosomes 94

BBack cross 71Balbiani rings 51Baldness 99Barr bodies 96, 118Base analogues 111Blastogenic 91Blending 71Blood groups 86Bouquet stage 50

CCatalase 13Cell cycle 46

(i)

Cell division 53Cell drinking 5Cell membrane 2Centrioles 12Centromere 14, 49Cerebral palsy 120Chargaff’s rule 18Cheating genes 44Chiasmata 57Christmas disease 98Chromatid 14, 48Chromatin 14Chromomeres 14, 50, 54Chromonemata 49Chromosome maps 74Chromosome 48Chromosomes 14Cisternae 7Cistron 23, 38Clover-leaf model 27Codominance 86Codon 28, 29Colour blindness 98Colur linkage 98Complementary genes 80Cordocentesis 97Cristae 11Crossing over 57, 73Cross-over value 73Cystic fibrosis 120Cytokinesis 55Cytoskeleton 7

DDaltonism 98Degenerate codons 29Deletion 108Desmosomes 5Determinant 65Diakinesis 57

Didmoad syndrome 120Dihybrid cross 65Diplotene 57DNA model 18DNA Polymerase 21Down’s syndrome 115Drumstick’s bodies 119DSSR gene 96Duplicate genes 44Duplication 109Dysgenics 123

EEdward’s syndrome 115Electron microscope 2Endomitosis 51Endoplasmic reticulum

3, 7EndopolyploidyEndosymbiont theory 12Enzyme induction 42Enzymes of cell-cycle 47Episome 35Epistasis 82Ergosome 25Erythroblastosis 88Eucaryotic 2Euchromatin 118Eugenics 123Euploidy 107Exons 26Feeblemindedness 119Feminisation gene 95Fertilization 59Fluid mosaic model 3Frame shift mutation

30, 31Frames 30Freemartins 100

GG6PD deficiency 123

Gametogenesis 56Gene action 40Gene concept 23Gene interaction 77Gene pool 44Gene regulation 40Gene switching 40Gene 38, 103Genealogy 124Genes 14Genetic code 30Genetics 64Genic balance theory 95Genital ridges 95Genome 38, 107Genotype 68Glutathione 53Glycocalyces 4Glycosidic bond 18Golgi body 8Gynandromorphs 101Gynecomastia 100Gynogenesis 61

HHaemoglobins 105Haemolytic anaemia 106Haemophilia 98Helices 21Helix 18Heredity 64Heterochromatin 118Heterogametic 95Heteroploidy 107Heteropyknotic 118Heterosomes 94Heterozygous 68Histones 37Holandric gene 95Homogametic 95Homologous pair 56

(ii)

Homozygous 68h-RNA 26H-Y antigen 95Hyaloplasm 2Hybrids 65Hyperploidy 107Hypoploidy 107

IIdiogram 115Inbreeding 122Incomplete dominance 71Intelligence quotient 119Interphase 46, 54, 47Introns 26Inversion 109

JJumping genes 44Junctional membranes 5

KKaryokinesis 53Karyolymph 14Karyotype 114Karyotyping 113Klienfelter’s syndrome

116

LLampbrush chromosome

50Leptotene 56Lethal genes 80Ligase 21Linear order of genes 73Linkage 72Linker DNA 38Lysosomes 9

MMaculae adhaerens 5Master codes 30

Matrix 11MeiosisMelanin 105Mendel’s Laws 65Meristic 91Mesosomes 7Messenger RNA 25Metacentric 14, 49Metaphase 54Micelles 3Microbodies 12Microfibril 48Microsomes 7Microtubules 7Microvilli 3, 48Mitochondria 10Mitosis 53Mongolism 115Monohybrid cross 65Monomers 16Monosomes 23Monosomy 107Morphogens 43Mulatoo 78Multiple genes 77Mutagens 103Mutations 91, 103Muton 38

NNon-disjunction 107, 117Nuclear spindle 54Nucleic acids 16Nucleolar organizer 25Nucleolus 14Nucleonema 14Nucleoside 18Nucleosomes 37Nucleotides 17, 18Nucleus 13Nullisomy 107

OOkazaki fragments 21Oncogenes 80Oogenesis 59Ootid 61Operator gene 42Operon 41Organelles 7Outbreeding 122Oxysomes 11

PPachytene 57Paranemic 57Pars amorpha 14Parthenogenesis 60Parthenot 60Peptide bond 32Peptidyl transferase 32Peroxiosomes 13Phagocytosis 5Phases of cell cycle 46Phenocopies 92Phenotype 68Phenylketonuria 105Philadelphia chromosome

110Pinocytosis 5Plasmagenes 38Plasmon 38Platysome 38Plectonemic 57Pleiotropy 106Point mutation 105Polar body 59Polycistronic 25, 38Polygenes 77Polyploidy 107Polyribosome 25Polysomes 25, 32Polysomic syndromes

117Polytene chromosomes

50

Prenatal sex 96Primer 21Procaryotic 2Prophase 54Protamines 37Protanopia 98Protein synthesis 23Pseudodominance 67Puffs 51Purines 16Pyrimidines 16

QQuantitative inheritance

79

RRecessive 65Recombination frequency

73Recon 38Regression 10Regulator gene 42Replication 19Repressors 41Restitution 61Restriction enzymes 22Retinitis pigmentosa 120Retinoic acid 43Rh factor 86, 88Rho-factor 26Ribosome 7Ribosomes 23Ribozymes 30

SSatellite body 50Satellites 12Segregation 65Selfing 64Semi-conservative 22Sex determination 94Sex influenced 100

(iii)

Sex limited 99Sex linkage 97Sickle-cell gene 105Sickle-cell anaemia 105Sigma factor 25Signal hypothesis 33Solenoid fibre 38Somatogenic 91Spermatogenesis 58Spermatoleosis 58Spherosomes 13Spliceosomes 26Split genes 44Stromatin 2Structural gene 42Substantive 91Substitution 105Suicide bags 9Supplementary genes 81Svedberg units 23Synapsis 57Synaptotene 57Syndromes 115

TTaste blindness 86TATA-box 42Tautomerism 111Telocentric 49Telomere 50Telophase 55Teminism 35Template 21Termination codons 33Test cross 71Thelytoky 60Tonofibrils 5Traction fibers 55Transcription factors 41Transcription 23, 25Transgenics 90Translation 32

Translocases 5Translocation 32, 109Transposons 44Transversion 106Trilaminar 3Triple X syndrome 117Trisomy 107, 115Triticale 90t-RNA 27Tubulin 7, 54Turner’s syndrome 116Twins 119

UUltrafibril 48Unwindase 21

VVariation 64Variations 90

YY-spot 119

ZZygotene 57Zymogen globules 9

Zymogens 33