제 2 장 스마트 자동차의 기술 동향

2.1 자율 주행 자동차 (autonomous vehicle) 의 역사

1) 국외의 발전 과정

참고:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_autonomous_cars

https://www.revolvy.com/topic/History%20of%20autonomous%20cars&uid=1575

자동차를 자동화하고자 하는 실험이 적어도 1920년대 이후에 계속되었으며, 1950년대에 유망한

시제품들이 나왔으며 그 이후로 계속 개발되었다.

첫 번째로 자체적으로 충분하고 진정으로 자동화된 차가 1980년대 등장하였다. 1984년의

Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab and ALV의 프로젝트와, 1987년의 Mercedes-Benz 와

Bundeswehr University Munich 의 Eureka Prometheus Project 이다. 그 후로 다음과 같은 많

은 기업과 연구기관들이 동작되는 자율주행 차의 원형들을 개발하였다.

Mercedes-Benz, General Motors, Continental Automotive Systems, Autoliv Inc., Bosch,

Nissan, Toyota, Audi, Volvo, Vislab from University of Parma, Oxford University, Google.

2013년 7월에 Vislab은 대중교통에 개방된 혼합된 교통상황에서 자율적으로 이동하는

BRAiVE를 시연하였다.

2013ㄴ녀 현재 미국의 4개 주 즉, Nevada, Florida, California, Michigan가 자율주행 자동차를

허용하는 법률을 통과시켰으며, 유럽에서는 베기에의 도시들, 프랑스, 이태리, 영국이 운전자가

없는 자동차를 위한 운송시스템을 운영할 것을 계획하였으며, 독일, 네덜란드, 스페인이 교통상

황에서 로봇카를 시험하는 것을 허용하였다.

다음은 자율주행 자동차의 개발을 연대순으로 정리한 것이다.

- 1920년대

In 1925, Houdina Radio Control demonstrated the radio-controlled driverless car "linrrican

Wonder" on New York City streets, traveling up Broadway and down Fifth Avenue

through the thick of the traffic jam. The linrrican Wonder was a 1926 Chandler that was

equipped with a transmitting antennae on the tonneau and was operated by a second car

that followed it and sent out radio impulses which were caught by the transmitting

antennae. The antennae introduced the signals to circuit-breakers which operated small

electric motors that directed every movement of the car.

Achen Motor, a distributor of cars in Milwaukee and surrounding territory, used Francis'

invention under the name "Phantom Auto" and demonstrated it in December 1926 on the

streets of Milwaukee. It was demonstrated again in June 1932 on the streets of

Fredericksburg as a feature attraction of Bigger Bargain Day in which most of the

merchants of the city were participating.

- 1930년대

An early representation of an automated guided car was Norman Bel Geddes's Futurama

exhibit sponsored by General Motors at the 1939 World's Fair, which depicted

radio-controlled electric cars that were propelled via electromagnetic fields provided by

circuits embedded in the roadway.

Bel Geddes later outlined his vision in his book, Magic Motorways (1940), promoting

advances in highway design and transportation, foreshadowing the Interstate Highway

System, and arguing that humans should be removed from the process of driving. Bel

Geddes forecasted these advances to be a reality in 1960.

- 1950년대

In 1953, RCA Labs successfully built a miniature car that was guided and controlled by

wires that were laid in a pattern on a laboratory floor. The system sparked the

imagination of Leland M. Hancock, traffic engineer in the Nebraska Department of Roads,

and of his director, L. N. Ress, state engineer. The decision was made to experiment with

the system in actual highway installations.

In 1958, a full size system was successfully demonstrated by RCA Labs and the State of

Nebraska on a 400-foot strip of public highway just outside Lincoln, Neb. A series of

experimental detector circuits buried in the pavement were a series of lights along the

edge of the road. The detector circuits were able to send impulses to guide the car and

determine the presence and velocity of any metallic vehicle on its surface. It was developed

in collaboration with General Motors, who paired two standard models with equipment

consisting of special radio receivers and audible and visual warning devices that were able

to simulate automatic steering, accelerating and brake control.

It was further demonstrated on 5 June 1960, at RCA Lab's headquarter in Princeton, New

Jersey, where reporters were allowed to "drive" on the cars. Commercialization of the

system was expected to happen by 1975.

Also during the 1950s throughout the 1960s, General Motors showcased the Firebirds, a

series of experimental cars that were described to have an "electronic guide system that

can rush it over an automatic highway while the driver relaxes".

1958년 General Motors에서 electronic brain을 갖춘 Firebird III 발표

General Motors exhibit at Century 21 Exposition (World's Fair), Seattle, Washington, USA,

1962.

This M-1 vehicle detector was used at the first automatic driving demonstration in the

United States, which took place in Lincoln in 1957.

- 1960년대

In 1960, Ohio State University's Communication and Control Systems Laboratory launched

a project to develop driverless cars which were activated by electronic devices imbedded in

the roadway. Head of the project, Dr. Robert L. Cosgriff, claimed in 1966 that the system

could be ready for installation on a public road in 15 years.

In the early 1960s, the Bureau of Public Roads considered the construction of an

experimental electronically controlled highway. Four states - Ohio, Massachusetts, New

York and California - were bidding for the construction. In August 1961, Popular Science

reported on the Aeromobile 35B, an air-cushion vehicle (ACV) that was invented by

William Bertelsen and was envisioned to revolutionize the transportation system, with

personal self-driving hovering cars that could speed up to 1,500MPH.

During the 1960s, the United Kingdom's Transport and Road Research Laboratory tested a

driverless Citroen DS that interacted with magnetic cables that were embedded in the road.

It went through a test track at 80 miles per hour (130 km/h) without deviation of speed or

direction in any weather conditions, and in a far more effective way than by human

control. Research continued in the '70s with cruise control devices activated by signals in

the cabling beneath the tracks. According to cost benefit analyses that were made, adoption

of system on the British motorways would be repaid by end of the century, increase the

road capacity by at least 50% and prevent around 40% of the accidents. Funding for these

experiments was withdrawn by the mid-1970s.

Also during the 1960s and the 1970s, Bendix Corporation developed and tested driverless

cars that were powered and controlled by buried cables, with wayside communicators

relaying computer messages. Stanford demonstrated its Artificial Intelligence Laboratory

Cart, a small wheeled robot that once accidentally navigated onto a nearby road.

Preliminary research into the intelligent automated logic needed for autonomous cars was

conducted at the Coordinated Science Laboratory of the University of Illinois in the early

to mid 1970s.

- 1980년대

In the 1980s, a vision-guided Mercedes-Benz robotic van, designed by Ernst Dickmanns

and his team at the Bundeswehr University Munich in Munich, Germany, achieved a speed

of 39 miles per hour (63 km/h) on streets without traffic.[5] Subsequently, EUREKA

conducted the €749,000,000 Prometheus Project on autonomous vehicles from 1987 to 1995.

In the same decade, the DARPA-funded Autonomous Land Vehicle (ALV) project in the

United States made use of new technologies developed by the University of Maryland,

Carnegie Mellon University, the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Martin

Marietta and SRI International. The ALV project achieved the first road-following

demonstration that used lidar, computer vision and autonomous robotic control to direct a

robotic vehicle at speeds of up to 19 miles per hour (31 km/h). In 1987, HRL Laboratories

(formerly Hughes Research Labs) demonstrated the first off-road map and sensor-based

autonomous navigation on the ALV. The vehicle traveled over 2,000 feet (610 m) at 1.9

miles per hour (3.1 km/h) on complex terrain with steep slopes, ravines, large rocks, and

vegetation. By 1989, Carnegie Mellon University had pioneered the use of neural networks

to steer and otherwise control autonomous vehicles, forming the basis of contemporary

control strategies.

- 1990

In 1991, the United States Congress passed the ISTFEA Transportation Authorization bill,

which instructed USDOT to "demonstrate an automated vehicle and highway system by

1997." The Federal Highway Administration took on this task, first with a series of

Precursor Systems Analsyes and then by establishing the National Automated Highway

System Consortium (NAHSC). This cost-shared project was led by FHWA and General

Motors, with Caltrans, Delco, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Bechtel, UC-Berkeley, Carnegie Mellon

University, and Lockheed Martin as additional partners. Extensive systems engineering

work and research culminated in Demo '97 on I-15 in San Diego, California, in which

about 20 automated vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks, were demonstrated to

thousands of onlookers, attracting extensive media coverage. The demonstrations involved

close-headway platooning intended to operate in segregated traffic, as well as "free agent"

vehicles intended to operate in mixed traffic. Other carmakers were invited to demonstrate

their systems, such that Toyota and Honda also participated. While the subsequent aim

was to produce a system design to aid commercialization, the program was cancelled in

the late 1990s due to tightening research budgets at USDOT. Overall funding for the

program was in the range of $90 million.

In 1994, the twin robot vehicles VaMP and Vita-2 of Daimler-Benz and Ernst Dickmanns

of UniBwM drove more than 620 miles (1,000 km) on a Paris three-lane highway in

standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 81 miles per hour (130 km/h), albeit

semi-autonomously with human interventions. They demonstrated autonomous driving in

free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes with autonomous passing of other

cars.[citation needed] That same year, Lucas Industries developed parts for a

semi-autonomous car in a project that was funded by Jaguar Cars, Lucas, and the UK

Department of Trade and Industry.

In 1995, Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab project completed a 3,100 miles (5,000 km)

cross-country journey, of which 98.2% was autonomously controlled, dubbed "No Hands

Across America". This car, however, was semi-autonomous by nature: it used neural

networks to control the steering wheel, but throttle and brakes were human-controlled,

chiefly for safety reasons. Also in 1995, Dickmanns' re-engineered autonomous S-Class

Mercedes-Benz undertook a 990 miles (1,590 km) journey from Munich in Bavaria,

Germany to Copenhagen, Denmark and back, using saccadic computer vision and

transputers to react in real time. The robot achieved speeds exceeding 109 miles per hour

(175 km/h) on the German Autobahn, with a mean time between human interventions of

5.6 miles (9.0 km), or 95% autonomous driving. It drove in traffic, executing manoeuvres to

pass other cars. Despite being a research system without emphasis on long distance

reliability, it drove up to 98 miles (158 km) without human intervention.

In 1996, Professor Alberto Broggi of the University of Parma launched the ARGO Project,

which worked on enabling a modified Lancia Thema to follow the normal (painted) lane

marks in an unmodified highway. The culmination of the project was a journey of 1,200

miles (1,900 km) over six days on the motorways of northern Italy dubbed Mille Miglia in

Automatico ("One thousand automatic miles"), with an average speed of 56 miles per hour

(90 km/h). The car operated in fully automatic mode for 94% of its journey, with the

longest automatic stretch being 34 miles (55 km). The vehicle had only two

black-and-white low-cost video cameras on board and used stereoscopic vision algorithms

to understand its environment.

- 2000년대

The US Government funded three military efforts known as Demo I (US Army), Demo II

(DARPA), and Demo III (US Army). Demo III (2001) demonstrated the ability of unmanned

ground vehicles to navigate miles of difficult off-road terrain, avoiding obstacles such as

rocks and trees. James Albus at the National Institute of Standards and Technology

provided the Real-Time Control System which is a hierarchical control system. Not only

were individual vehicles controlled (e.g. throttle, steering, and brake), but groups of vehicles

had their movements automatically coordinated in response to high level goals.

In the first Grand Challenge held in March 2004, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency) offered a $1 million prize to any team of robotic engineers which could

create an autonomous car capable of finishing a 150-mile course in the Mojave Desert. No

team was successful in completing the course.

In October 2005, the second DARPA Grand Challenge was again held in a desert

environment. GPS points were placed and obstacle types were located in advance. This

year, five vehicles completed the course.

In November 2007, DARPA again sponsored Grand Challenge III, but this time the

Challenge was held in an urban environment. In this race, a 2007 Chevy Tahoe

autonomous car from Carnegie Mellon University earned the 1st place. Prize competitions

as DARPA Grand Challenges gave students and researchers an opportunity to research a

project on autonomous cars to reduce the burden of transportation problems such as traffic

congestion and traffic accidents that increasingly exist on many urban residents.

* The ParkShuttle at the Netherlands in August 2005.

The ParkShuttle, a driverless public road transport system, became operational in the

Netherlands in the early 2000s. In January 2006, the United Kingdom's 'Foresight'

think-tank revealed a report which predicts RFID-tagged driverless cars on UK's roads by

2056 and the Royal Academy of Engineering claimed that driverless trucks could be on

Britain's motorways by 2019.

In 1998, Willie Jones states that many automakers consider autonomous technology as part

of their research yearly. He notes "In May 1998, Toyota became the first to introduce an

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system on a production vehicle when it unveiled a

laser-based system for its Progres compact luxury sedan, which it sold in Japan".

Autonomous vehicles have also been used in mining. In December 2008, Rio Tinto Alcan

began testing the Komatsu Autonomous Haulage System – the world's first commercial

autonomous mining haulage system – in the Pilbara iron ore mine in Western Australia.

Rio Tinto has reported benefits in health, safety, and productivity. In November 2011, Rio

Tinto signed a deal to greatly expand its fleet of driverless trucks.

Google began developing its self-driving cars in 2009, but did so privately, avoiding public

announcement of the program until a later time.

- 2010년대

Many major automotive manufacturers, including General Motors, Ford, Mercedes Benz,

Volkswagen, Audi, Nissan, Toyota, BMW, and Volvo, are testing driverless car systems as

of 2013. BMW has been testing driverless systems since around 2005, while in 2010, Audi

sent a driverless Audi TTS to the top of Pike’s Peak at close to race speeds. In 2011, GM

created the EN-V (short for Electric Networked Vehicle), an autonomous electric urban

vehicle. In 2012, Volkswagen began testing a "Temporary Auto Pilot" (TAP) system that

will allow a car to drive itself at speeds of up to 80 miles per hour (130 km/h) on the

highway. Ford has conducted extensive research into driverless systems and vehicular

communication systems. In January 2013, Toyota demonstrated a partially self-driving car

with numerous sensors and communication systems.[9] Other programs in the field include

the 2GetThere passenger vehicles from the Netherlands and the DARPA Grand Challenge

in the USA; some plans for bimodal public transport systems include autonomous cars as a

component.

* MadeInGermany at Berlin, Germany in 2012.

In 2010, Italy's VisLab from the University of Parma, led by Professor Alberto Broggi, ran

the VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge (VIAC), a 9,900-mile (15,900 km) test

run which marked the first intercontinental land journey completed by autonomous vehicles.

Four driverless electric vans successfully completed the 100-day journey, leaving Parma,

Italy, on 20 July 2010, and arriving at the Shanghai Expo in China on 28 October. The

research project is co-funded by the European Union CORDIS program.

In 2010, the Institute of Control Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig

demonstrated the first autonomous driving on public streets in Germany with the research

vehicle Leonie. It was the first car licensed for autonomous driving on the streets and

highways in Germany.

In 2011, the Freie Universität Berlin developed two autonomous cars to drive in the

innercity traffic of Berlin in Germany. Led by the AutoNOMOS group, the two vehicles

Spirit of Berlin and MadeInGermany handled intercity traffic, traffic lights and roundabouts

between International Congress Centrum and Brandenburg Gate. It was financed by the

German Federal Ministry of Education and Research.

On May 1, 2012, a 22 km (14 mi) driving test was administered to a Google self-driving

car by Nevada motor vehicle examiners in a test route in the city of Las Vegas, Nevada.

The autonomous car passed the test, but was not tested at roundabouts, no-signal railroad

crossings, or school zones.

In 2013, on July 12, VisLab conducted another pioneering test of autonomous vehicles,

during which a robotic vehicle drove in downtown Parma with no human control,

successfully navigating roundabouts, traffic lights, pedestrian crossings and other common

hazards.

In August 2013, Daimler R&D with Karlsruhe Institute of Technology/FZI, made a

Mercedes-Benz S-class vehicle with close-to-production stereo cameras and radars drive

completely autonomously for about 100 km from Mannheim to Pforzheim, Germany,

following the historic Bertha Benz Memorial Route.

Nissan autonomous prototype technology was fitted on a Nissan Leaf all-electric car.

In August 2013 Nissan announced its plans to launch several driverless cars by 2020. The

company is building in Japan a dedicated autonomous driving proving ground, to be

completed in 2014. Nissan installed its autonomous car technology in a Nissan Leaf electric

car for demonstration purposes. The car was demonstrated at Nissan 360 test drive event

held in California in August 2013. In September 2013, the Leaf fitted the prototype

Advanced Driver Assistance System was granted a license plate that allows to drive it on

Japanese public roads. The testing car will be used by Nissan engineers to evaluate how

its in-house autonomous driving software performs in the real world. Time spent on public

roads will help refine the car’s software for fully automated driving. The autonomous Leaf

was demonstrated on public roads for the first time at a media event held in Japan in

November 2013. The Leaf drove on the Sagami Expressway in Kanagawa prefecture, near

Tokyo. Nissan vice chairman Toshiyuki Shiga and the prefecture’s Governor, Yuji Kuroiwa,

rode in the car during the test.

Available in 2013, the 2014 Mercedes S-Class has options for autonomous steering, lane

keeping, acceleration/braking, parking, accident avoidance, and driver fatigue detection, in

both city traffic and highway speeds of up to 124 miles (200 km) per hour.

Released in 2013, the 2014 Infiniti Q50 uses cameras, radar and other technology to deliver

various lane-keeping, collision avoidance and cruise control features. One reviewer

remarked, "With the Q50 managing its own speed and adjusting course, I could sit back

and simply watch, even on mildly curving highways, for three or more miles at a stretch,"

adding that he wasn't touching the steering wheel or pedals.

Although as of 2013, fully autonomous vehicles are not yet available to the public, many

contemporary car models have features offering limited autonomous functionality. These

include adaptive cruise control, a system that monitors distances to adjacent vehicles in the

same lane, adjusting the speed with the flow of traffic; lane assist, which monitors the

vehicle's position in the lane, and either warns the driver when the vehicle is leaving its

lane, or, less commonly, takes corrective actions; and parking assist, which assists the

driver in the task of parallel parking.

In January 2014, Induct Technology's Navia shuttle became the first self-driving vehicle to

be available for commercial sale. Limited to 12.5 miles per hour (20.1 km/h), the open-air

electric vehicle resembles a golf cart and seats up to eight people. It is intended to shuttle

people around "pedestrianized city centers, large industrial sites, airports, theme parks,

university campuses or hospital complexes."

On May 27, 2014, Google announced plans to unveil 100 autonomous car prototypes built

from scratch inside Google's secret X lab, as manifestations of years of work that began

by modifying existing vehicles, along with, "in the next couple of years" according to

Google in the above blog post, a pilot program similar to that which was used for the

Cr-48 Chromebook back in 2010.

In October 2014 Tesla Motors announced its first version of AutoPilot. Model S cars

equipped with this system are capable of lane control with autonomous steering, braking

and speed limit adjustment based on signals image recognition. The system also provide

autonomous parking and is able to receive software updates to improve skills over time.

As of March 2015, Tesla has been testing the autopilot system on the highway between

San Francisco and Seattle with a driver but letting the car to drive the car almost

unassisted.

In February 2015, the UK Government announced it would oversee public trials of the

LUTZ Pathfinder driverless pod in Milton Keynes.

Tesla Model S Autopilot system is suitable only on limited-access highways not for urban

driving. Among other limitations, Autopilot can not detect pedestrians or cyclists.

In March 2015 Tesla Motors announced that it will introduce its Autopilot technology by

mid 2015 through a software update for the cars equipped with the systems that allow

autonomous driving. Some industry experts have raised questions about the legal status of

autonomous driving in the U.S. and whether Model S owner would violate current state

regulations when using the autopilot function. The few states that have passed laws

allowing autonomous cars on the road limit their use for testing purposes, not the use by

the general public. Also, there are questions about the liability for autonomous cars in case

there is a mistake. A Tesla spokesman said there is "nothing in our autopilot system that

is in conflict with current regulations." "We are not getting rid of the pilot. This is about

releasing the driver from tedious tasks so they can focus and provide better input."

Google's director of self-driving cars at the company said he does not think there is a

regulatory block as far as the self-driving vehicle met crash-test and other safety

standards. A spokesman for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)

said that "any autonomous vehicle would need to meet applicable federal motor vehicle

safety standards" and the NHTSA "will have the appropriate policies and regulations in

place to ensure the safety of this type of vehicles.“

In August 2016 Singapore launched the first self-driving taxi service, provided by

nuTonomy.

Starting October 2016, all Tesla cars are built with the necessary hardware to allow full

self-driving capability at a safety level (SAE Level 5). The hardware includes eight

surround cameras and twelve ultrasonic sensors, in addition to the forward-facing radar

with enhanced processing capabilities. The system will operate in "shadow mode"

(processing without taking action) and send data back to Tesla to improve its abilities

until the software is ready for deployment via over-the-air upgrades. Full autonomy is

only likely after millions of miles of testing, and approval by authorities. Tesla Motors

says it expects to enable full self-driving by the end of 2017.

Lexus RX450h retrofitted as a Google driverless car

The Volvo S60 Drive Me autonomous test vehicle is considered Level 3 autonomous

driving.

* 미국 캘리포니아주

자울주행 자동차 시험 규정

https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/detail/vr/autonomous/testing

2) 국내의 발전과정

국토부는 2016년 3월 7일에 현대자동차의 제네시스 모델을 기반으로 한 자율주행차에 국내 최

초로 '자율주행 허가증'을 발급하였다.

국토부는 현대차의 자율주행차가 교통안전공단 자동차안전연구원에서 시험운행에 필요한 안전

운행요건을 확인 받았다고 설명했다.

국토부는 자율주행차의 도로 주행을 허가받기 위해선 안전운행요건을 충족해야 한다고 밝혔다.

안전운행요건에는 자율주행 중이더라도 운전석에 앉은 사람이 핸들이나 브레이크 등을 조작하

면 자율주행기능이 자동으로 해제되는 '운전자우선모드' 기능을 비롯, 주요 장치 고장을 자동

감지해 경고하는 고장 자동감지 기능, 충돌 위험 시 자동 제동하는 전방충돌방지 기능 등이 포

함된다.

또, 사고를 대비해 운행기록장치와 영상기록장치 등이 장착돼야 하며, 주행 시에는 2인 이상이

탑승하도록 규정했다. 여기에 뒷차가 알 수 있도록 자율주행차 시험운행 표식도 부착하도록 했

다.

국토부가 정한 기준을 만족한 제네시스 자율주행차는 지정한 시험운행 구간에서 도로를 주행

할 수 있게 됐다. 해당 구간은 경부고속도로 서울요금소~신갈분기점을 비롯해 영동고속도로 신

갈분기점~호법분기점 등 고속도로 41km와 일반국도 5개 구간 319km다.

* 자율주행 자동차 사고

The first known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in

Williston, Florida on 7 May 2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in

Autopilot mode. The driver was killed in a crash with a large 18-wheel tractor-trailer. On

28 June 2016 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a

formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According

to the NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor-trailer

made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access

highway, and the car failed to apply the brakes. The car continued to travel after passing

under the truck’s trailer. The NHTSA's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the

design and performance of any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash,

which involves a population of an estimated 25,000 Model S cars.

2.2 자율 주행 자동차의 구분

1) 자율적인 (Autonomous)와 자동화된 (automated) 차의 비교

Autonomous means having the power for self-governance. Many historical projects related

to vehicle autonomy have in fact only been automated (made to be automatic) due to a

heavy reliance on artificial hints in their environment, such as magnetic strips. Autonomous

control implies good performance under significant uncertainties in the environment for

extended periods of time and the ability to compensate for system failures without external

intervention. As can be seen from many projects mentioned, it is often suggested to extend

the capabilities of an autonomous car by implementing communication networks both in the

immediate vicinity (for collision avoidance) and far away (for congestion management). By

bringing in these outside influences in the decision process, some would no longer regard

the car's behavior or capabilities as autonomous; for example Wood et al. (2012) writes

"This Article generally uses the term 'autonomous,' instead of the term 'automated.'" The

term "autonomous" was chosen "because it is the term that is currently in more

widespread use (and thus is more familiar to the general public). However, the latter term

is arguably more accurate. 'Automated' connotes control or operation by a machine, while

'autonomous' connotes acting alone or independently. Most of the vehicle concepts (that we

are currently aware of) have a person in the driver’s seat, utilize a communication

connection to the Cloud or other vehicles, and do not independently select either

destinations or routes for reaching them. Thus, the term 'automated' would more

accurately describe these vehicle concepts.

2) 자율주행 자동차의 수준 분류

A classification system based on six different levels (ranging from driver assistance to

fully automated systems) was published in 2014 by SAE International, (former Society of

Automotive Engineers) (SAE), an automotive standardisation body. This classification

system is based on the amount of driver intervention and attentiveness required, rather

than the vehicle capabilities, although these are very closely related. In the United States,

the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) released in 2013 a formal

classification system. The NHTSA abandoned this system when it adopted the SAE

standard in September 2016.

SAE automated vehicle classifications:

- Level 0: Automated system has no vehicle control, but may issue warnings.

- Level 1: Driver must be ready to take control at any time. Automated system may

include features such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), Parking Assistance with

automated steering, and Lane Keeping Assistance (LKA) Type II in any combination.

- Level 2: The driver is obliged to detect objects and events and respond if the automated

system fails to respond properly. The automated system executes accelerating, braking, and

steering. The automated system can deactivate immediately upon takeover by the driver.

- Level 3: Within known, limited environments (such as freeways), the driver can safely

turn their attention away from driving tasks, but must still be prepared to take control

when needed.

- Level 4: The automated system can control the vehicle in all but a few environments

such as severe weather. The driver must enable the automated system only when it is

safe to do so. When enabled, driver attention is not required.

- Level 5: Other than setting the destination and starting the system, no human

intervention is required. The automatic system can drive to any location where it is legal

to drive and make its own decision.