http://www.jstor.orgOdysseus, Agammemnon and ApolloAuthor(s): Pura Nieto HernndezSource: The Classical Journal, Vol. 97, No. 4, (Apr. - May, 2002), pp. 319-334Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3298447Accessed: 06/06/2008 04:15Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONANDAPOLLO eryearly inthe poem, the Odyssey introducesthe story of Agamemnon andhisreturn from Troy,' hismiserablefate serving asa counterpoint tothe solidarity of Odysseus' household.2 Although the paradigm oftheAtridaeis particularly pronounced in the first four booksofthe poem, thecontrastbetween thestoriesofthesetwoheroesis pervasive inthe Odyssey andis important for understanding the poem asawhole.3Insome cases, thiscontrastismade explicit,4 inother passages, certainelements Cf.1.29-31.Orestesherereceivesinhisfirstmentioninthe poem, the adjectiveTrlXEKXUT6o whichsomehave interpreted asaveiledallusionto Telemachus; cf. Andersen1992: 16 n.23. 2 The comparison alsointroducesan uncertaintyconcerningOdysseus' own family, which justmight actlikethatof Agamemnon, withthesamefatal consequences forthe hero, as many criticshave emphasized. SeeHeubeck1981: XXVII-XXVIII; Clarke1967: 11 and 21; Freiert 1972: 338-344; Garvie1986: ix-xiii; March 1987: 84 ff.; etc. 3 SeeWest1991: 60 ff.: "The themeis almostintroducedatthestartofthe poem (i 29 ff.), andis particularlyprominent in i-iv (cf. i 298 ff., iii193 ff., 306 ff., iv512 ff.), though the poet returnstoitelsewhere (xi 409 ff., xiii 383 ff., xxiv193 ff.). Itoffers both analogy and antithesis." Passages fromthe Telemachy: 1. 298 ff.; 3.193 ff.; 3.254 ff.; 3.306 ff.; 4.512ff.See Beye 1966: 175-6, Thornton1970: 3andGriffin1987:67. Olson1990 remarkesthat the story of Agamemnon and his family is not merely a"foil to the larger story of Odysseus and his family" (57) and its contentsand purpose"vary in each retelling,depending on whois repeating the story, whois listening to it, and what information, presuppositions or intentionsthevarious partiesbring withthem tothe narrative"(70). Olson1995: 76 aptly notesthatTelemachus rejects theOrestes- modelforhimselfinthecourseofhisconversationwithNestor (3.203-9). Onthe different ways inwhich Agamemnon'sstory is presented inthe Odyssey, seealso Holscher2000: 300-305. 4 Inadditiontothe passages in n.2, see Agamemnon's conversationwith Odysseus inHades (11.409ff.,11.441-453); Odysseus' conversationwithAthena (13.383-385), inwhichhe compares himself explicitly with Agamemnon; and, finally, Agamemnon'sexchange withthe recently deceasedsuitorsinHades (24.192ff.). Cf. Thornton1970: 10:"InBook11 Agamemnon warns Odysseus not, oratleastnot wholly totrust Penelope even though he acknowledges theexcellenceofhermind andcharacter.ButattheendoftheUnderworldsceneinBook24 Agamemnon praisesPenelope withoutreservefor her 'great virtue'in contrasttotheevildeedsof hisown wife, Clytemnestra." THE CLASSICAL JOURNAL 97.4 (2002) 319-334 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ in thecontext evoke itwithout explicit mention of Agamemnon or his family.5 Not only arethestoriesofthesetwoheroes' homecoming antithetical; their personalities andtheirbehaviorsdifferin fundamental respects aswell.6Whatis more, the opposition betweenthetwoisnotexclusivetothe Odyssey, but may be observed intheIliadtoo.7 Thus, it appears thattheHomeric traditionmore than once presents Odysseus as an anti-Agamemnon. 5For example, several yearsago, P.Pucci (1987: 134 andn. 13) aptly observed how, just as Odysseus is on the point of slaying the suitors, the poetemploys the very expression thathehad placed inthemouthof Agamemnon's shadeasherecounts the way inwhichhewasassassinated (cf. 22.309 = 11.420: 8-rTErov8'iaravadiaaTt 6uev). Pucciconcludes (n. 134): "The bloodofthesuitors recalls, by contrast, thatof Agamemnon, whowasmurdered by the suitor of his wife. Odysseus is simultaneously the anti-Agamemnon." Theeffectoftheechois clearinthiscase:thelisteneror reader ofthe Odyssey recallsthe deathof Agamemnon and recognizes thedifferences betweenthetwocases:whereas Agamemnon wasavictimof injustice,Odysseus is the executionerwhoreestablishes justice andthe dueorder of things. This analogy is signalled also by Rutherford1992: 57, although he doesnot cite Pucci. 6It is possible to interpret inthis light a passage ofthe Odyssey thathasIliadic overtonesandhas provoked a great dealof speculation: thefamousfirst song of Demodocus (8.73-82). TherewearetoldofafeudbetweenAchillesand Odysseus that hadbeen prophesied to bethe beginning of evil, andhow Agamemnonrejoiced in it.Scholars havecast doubtonthe authenticity ofthe text, given thatwedonot havereferencesinthetraditiontothisalternativeversionofthe beginning ofthe war.Broeniman1996 (withbibliography) readsthe passage asaninventionofthe Phaeacians, whoare definedasan"aberrant society" (8) andlivetoofar away from theworldtoknowwith anyaccuracy whatinfactwas going on.Theextensive analysisby Nagy (1979: 45 ff.) points to a source independent of bothIliad and Odyssey asthe origin ofthis story.Nagy takesit together withIliad 9.347, aversethat Aristarchushad alreadyinterpreted asareferencetothissametraditionofa fight between Agamemnon and Odysseus. Whateverwemakeofthis passage, the importantpoint for usisthat it showsthe different comportment of Agamemnon and Odysseus in comparable situations-theone rejoices, whiletheothertakesthematter very seriously. 7Heis explicitly contrastedwith Agamemnon inBook3ofthe Iliad, when HelendescribestoPriamtheAchaeanleaders: Agamemnon comesfirstand immediately after him Odysseus (3.160 ff.). In the Iliad too one mayperceive acertain antagonism betweenthetwo.Itis even possible to speak ofa"wrath"of Odysseus againstAgamemnon: heisthe only hero, apart from Achilles, whobecomes truly angry with Agamemnon, andthisontwooccasions (4.339-57 and 14.74-95, seeHaft 1989: 98). Odysseus doesnot violentlyopposeAgamemnon as Achillesdoes, butrather uses words; heissuccessful just where Agamemnon failsorisonthe point of committing afoolisherror.Thus, intheassemblies inBook 2and again inBook14, when Agamemnon launchestheideaof returning home, Odysseus succeedsin convincing theothersthatitis preferable toremainin Troy andcontinuethewar. Theseconfrontationswith Agamemnon havethemore significanceprecisely because Odysseusappears in critical situationsto be intimate withhimandremains extremely loyal (see Haft1989: 100). It ishewhois charged with returningChryseis inBook1, who passionately defends Agamemnon beforeThersitesinBook 2, whois oneofthe ambassadorswhom Agamemnon sendsto Achilles in Book 9, etc. 320 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONAND APOLLO In this paper I will try to add another factor to this opposition between thetwo heroes: more precisely, I shallconcentrateon the rapport thatbothcharactershavewiththe godApollo,8 examining in particular their contrasting behaviortowards individuals who belong to spheres of activity that are protected by this god:poetry, his priests, and divination.9 1. The Relationship that the Two Heroes Maintainwith&oiSoi. When Odysseus departed Ithacato join theAchaeansinthe Trojan War, heleft everything inthecareof Penelope (cf. Od. 18.266-70,19.524-31),10 including full responsibility forhousehold management, the raising of Telemachus, and, throughmarriage, the disposition of Odysseus' property. In Mycenae, on theother hand, things are more ambiguous. When Agamemnon leftfor Troy, he entrusted the care and custody of Clytemnestra to an &otb6S: the poet adverts solely totheissueofmoral supervision, and Agamemnon's arrangements for public and privateauthority remain opaque (cf.3.265-72).1 Now, thefactthat Agamemnon 8Scholarshavemoreoften compared eachoftheseheroeswithAchilles.For Achillesand Agamemnon, see Jackson 1982: 7-16, andCollins1988: 89-103, andfor Achillesand Odysseus, Edwards1985. 9 The associationof this god with poetry anddivinationis archaic.For Dumezil (1982), bothare aspects ofthe first function, whereasthe characteristicbowof Apollo expresses the second, andhis healingpowers, thethird. Homer, though,only mentionshim explicitly as patron of poets inOd. 8.488.Onthis passage, andfor further references, seeFord1992:121 n.45. 10 Cf., however, Od. 2.225-7: "among themrose up Mentor, whooncehadbeen the companion of statelyOdysseus, and Odysseus,going onthe ships, hadturned overthehouseholdtotheold man, to keep it well, andsoallshould obey him." Nevertheless, asWestad loc. notes, thereis nootherindicationthatMentorhasthe least responsibility in theadministrationofthe household, nordoesTelemachusseek hiscounselor moral support at any time. (All translationsofHomer's passages are from R. Lattimore. The Greek text is quoted from OCT). " The story is toldto Telemachus by Nestor: T8' TOL T)O Tp'V pEV aVaiEToEpyOV6EIKES, Sa KXUTa:pVTroTprI ()pEai yapKEXpTT'ayacOioi. trap' 8' p' Env Kai aoi6oSavrip, vTrr6XA'iTETEAXEV 'ATpEiSriSTpoirlv8E KICV E'puo0altaKOlTlV. aXX'OTE8f plvp6oTpa OE&cV ETTU5rioeBapafval, 8TTOTETOVpEVaoi86V&6ycvEVIOOV Epiplpv KaXAIT-TEV OlCeovOtOiEACopKai KUppalyEVEo8a,. TTV8' EEOXcovE6E0ouoaav a6vyayEv O6vE6SOov8E. 321 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ assigned to a poet the responsibility of looking after Clytemnestra has piqued the curiosity ofcriticssince antiquity.Many have considered itan extremely odd mission for a poet, the strangest, indeed, of all such charges in epic as we know it, and it stands out as anomalous and enigmatic.'2 Besides revealing to us the peculiar mission ofthe poet, the passage informs usaswellofhis unhappy fate, namely that Aegisthus abandonshimon a deserted island (cf. 3.270-71) so that hewillnot interfere withhis plans to marry Clytemnestra and eliminate Agamemnon. Agamemnon isthus a dismalfailurein his attempt to havea poet tend the queen in his behalf, and heseems atleast indirectlyresponsible for the poet's unfortunateend.In addition, his family sends into exilea singer whohadremained loyal to the king, indeed for that very reason. Whatever the meaning of the singer's assignment may be, then, this passage seems to suggest another contrastbetween Agamemnon and Odysseus (cf., in this connection, Anderson 1992: 13-14). Odysseus' relationship with poets isalso marked, but very differentinkind. Among theindividualswhom Odysseus encounters in his palace upon hisreturnis Phemius, the bard, who, under compulsion, hasbeen singing for thesuitors. Nevertheless, Odysseus, atthebehestof Telemachus, spares hislifeatthe momentof vengeance, since, as Phemius asserts in hisown defense, "itwas againstmy will, and withno desireon mypart, thatI servedthesuitors herein your house and sang attheir feasting. They were too many and too strong, and they forced me todo it" "Nowin time before, beautiful Klytaimestra wouldnot consenttotheact of shame, for her ownnaturewas honest, andalsoa man was there, a singer, whom Agamemnon, whenhewentto Troy, had givenmany instructionsto keep watch onhis wife; butwhenthe doomofthe gods had entangled the singer inthe needof death, Aigisthos took him away andleft him on a desertislandfor the birds of prey to spoil and feed on, andtook her back to his house, and she was willing as hewas." 12 Cf. West, 1991: 177; sherefers alsoto Page 1972. Page believesthatthe passage reflectsa very oldstateofaffairsinwhich poets had many functions, andwere teachers, philosophers,practically priests. Butthefactisthatthe poets who appear in Homerneverreflectthese characteristics; consequently, thebardof Clytemnestra is entirelyexceptional.Scully 1981, for his part,disagrees with Page andassertsthat the role of this singer "must in some way be characteristic ofall poets."Agamemnon, according to Scully, trustedinthe ethicalfunctionof epic to the detrimentofitsother functions:the singer reminds Clytemnestra ofherduties. Scully'sinterpretation, thoughinteresting, is overstated (see the critical remarks in Andersen 1992, who gives an up-to-datebibliography onthe subject); seealsoLowenstam1993:230 n.198; Garvie1986: ix-xiii. 322 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONAND APOLLO (22.351-53).Thus, Odysseus and Telemachus spare thelifeofthe poet whohadallied himselfwith"the enemy" during theabsence of the king-just the opposite, that is to say, of what Agamemnon's family did.I haveexamined elsewherethevarious associations that Odysseus haswith poets,'3 a role thathehimselfassumes in the Odyssey (Books 9-12) whenherelateshisadventures tothe Phaeaciansin so "professional" a way thathewinsthe praise of Alcinous (cf. 11.363 ff.), who compares him explicitly to a poet (11. 368). Eventhesound ofhisbowearnsasimileandabrief comparison that analogize ittoa lyre andtothe song ofa swallow.14 Odysseus, then, is capable of performing theduties of a bard and of successfully assuming his role, whilethebard who was to stand in for Agamemnon fails in his assignment.'1 2. The Relationship that the Two Heroes Maintain withPriests of Apollo. Shortly before Odysseus andhis companions confront the Cyclops, the poet recounts Odysseus' brief encounterwith Maron, a priest of Apollo(Odyssey 9.196-215).'6 SofarasI know, up to now no one hasrelatedthis passage totheone intheIliadin which Agamemnon confronts Chryses, the priest of Apollo. Nevertheless, the two situations are quite similar, even though Maro's episode is, of course, less consequential forthe plot ofthe Odyssey than Chryses' isfor thatof theIliad. Agamemnon and Odysseus come into contact with Chryses and Maron, respectively, asaresult of Achaeanassaults against theircities: Chryse and Ismarus.Both are priests of Apollo and in both cases thetext specifies a concrete culttitleofthe god: Apollo Smintheusof Chryse, Cilla, and Tenedos inthecaseof Chryses, andIsmarian Apollo inthatof Maron.'7 The names of both priests, moreover, are etymologically 13 Cf. NietoHernandez 1988; also Bergren 1983, Wyatt 1989. 14 SeeOd. 21. 405-411.Cf.Andersen1992: 20-21:"the lyre andthebow belong together." We shouldrememberthat Apollo frames the first bookoftheIliad withhis bowand his lyre (see Dumezil1982: 60). 1'Phemiustoo, in Ithaca, hadsubmittedto the suitorswithouteven puttingup a fight; but Odysseusforgives him.Cf.NietoHernandez1988:141:"ifhehas succeededin accomplishing the task of bard without difficulty, hedoesnot demand, however, that the latter shouldfulfillthe role of hero." 16Heisthe onlypriest whois mentionedinthe Odyssey; cf. Stanford ad 9.198. 17See Iliad 1.36-39 and Odyssey 9.197-98.In the caseof Maron, weare given the nameof his father,Evanthus, andthere is an allusionto his wife, hissonor daughter, andtohismaleandfemaleslaves.That is, the description is contextualizedinthe 323 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ related totheir cities.18In the Iliad, Chryses comes as a suppliant to Agamemnon, bearing anenormous ransom (XTrepEiol' arTolva, 1.13) so that, out of respect for Apollo son of Zeus, Agamemnonmay return his daughter (rra[TSa 8' eloiXvoarlTE(pirv, Ta 6' aTrotva 5eXEoalt,aCx6oEVotAlbi uitv 'ATr6XXcova, 1.20).Agamemnon refuses to give her up and dismisses the priestpoint blank, after insulting him in a way that is inappropriate to the status of the old man and his office.As for Maron, we are told that Odysseus saved the priest's life and, out of respect for him (Co06IEvoI, Od. 9.200),19 hiswifeandson (or daughter: ouvEKa6liv ouvTratiI TrEpITaO6PEO TiE yUValKi,9.199). Maron, in gratitude, bestows splendidgifts (ayXaabcopa, 9.201) upon the hero: seven talentsof gold, a silver platter, and ten amphoras of wine (9.203-05). Thus, Odysseus, in an attack against a city (Ismarus) in which hehasslainthemen and enslavedthewomen (9.40-41), respects the priest andhis family and preserves theirlives.In Aga- memnon's case, on the contrary, when Chryses, alsoa priest of Apollo, makes the first move and approaches him with an immense ransom torescue his daughter,Agamemnon rejects himinan offensive and even threateningway. The contrast between thetwo characterscould not be clearerand is underscored by severaldetails inthe text. The above mentioned passage in the Odyssey isframed atthe beginning (196-97) and end (204-11) by mentions ofthewinethat Maron gave to Odysseus. Moreover, weare given a lengthy description ofthewinethat singles itoutas being of great importance.2 In fact, itwill prove crucial tothesurvivalofthe heroandhisbandintheadventure about tobenarrated:the encounter with the Cyclops. Thanksto Maron'swine Odysseus will daily anddomesticlifeof the character.As for Chryses, hisnatureismore mysterious (he comesfrom Chryse to seekhis daughter, butweare told nothing furtherabouthis family and daily circumstances). 8 Inthecaseof Chryse/Chryses, theconnectionisobvious.For Ismarus/ Maron, cf.Ameis-Hentzeadloc.: "M. etymologischzusammenhangend mit Ismaros, isteine mythische Personifikationder Stadt, dieauchMaroneiahiess."Stanfordad 9.197 indicatesthat the Thracian city of Maronea wasfamousfor its strong wine. 19 Theverbis quite rare inthe Odyssey; we only encounteritinour passage, shortly afterwardsinthissamebook at9.478 (oxETXi',ETrTEiE(vovSoux a5EU ocw. EVi olKcp), andat17.401 (uTrTE TI pnTEp'EiV a irEU T6 yEPtlTE TIV' &XXov). It suggests the especially reverenttreatmentthatis dueto gods,priests, fathers, and strangers or xenoi. 20Itis black (pEfXavos,196), sweet (niEos,197), sweet though unmixed (/i5uv fKrlpaolov, 205), divine (0Etov,205),gentle(pEAiorEa, 208),andred (Epvup6v,208); wearetoldofits magnificentbouquet (210) andhownoneofMaron'sslavesor servantsknewofits existence, only he, his wife, andthe stewardess (207). 324 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONANDAPOLLO succeedin makingPolyphemus drunkandthen blinding him, therebyescaping death.2Inthe Iliad,however, after Aga- memnon's lapse in the respect duetothe priest, thelatter prays to Apollo, whosendsthe plagueupon theAchaean camp. The description ofthe plague (1. 49-52) inthetextoftheIliadhasthe samefunctionasthe description ofthe wineinthe Odyssey: ineach caseitisa pivot tothe followingepisode-in the Iliad, the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, inthe Odyssey,Odysseus' adventurewiththe Cyclops. Thus, just as Odysseus' behaviorin respect to a priest of Apollo willleadtothesalvationofthehero and his companions, the comportment of Agamemnon in respect toa priest of Apollo willresultinhisown despair anddisasterforthe Achaeans. Thereisone more importantpoint ofcontactbetweenthetwo passages. In verse39ofBook9 Odysseusbegins therecitalofhis returnfrom Troy, that is, hisnostos:thefirst place heandhis companions reach is Ismaros, the city of the Cicones.The scenewith Marontakes place, then, right atthe beginning of Odysseus' adventures, andisclosetotheeventsat Troy. Theresemblances thattheCicones passage asa whole, aswellas Odysseus' encounter withthe Cyclops, beartotheIliadintermsof values,diction, and soforthhavebeennoted by variouscriticswhohavedescribed themas"Iliadic"intone.22 Thus, the episodeinvolving Maron comesfirst inthe chronological order of events, just astheencounter between Agamemnon and Chryses setsinmotiontheentire story of theIliad. Butthereis something moreinthis passage. Assoonashe begins tonarrate this, hisfirstadventureafter abandoningTroy, Odysseus stressesthathedivided equallyamong his companions the bootycaptured inIsmarus (Od. 9. 40-43): ... Eva8' Eyco TrrOXv EnrpaOov, cAXEoa 6'aUTOUS- EK Tr6XtLOS aAX6XouS Kal KT1'paTa TroX6d Xao36vTES aooa pE01',c3Sp[l TiSPolaTE1pO6EVOSK(OI IarlS. 21 For a different reading ofthe Maron-episode andthe significance ofhis wine, seeAhlandRoisman1996: 106-108. 22 See, for example, the recent studyby Brown1996: 24-29, onthetraits ofthe "Iliadic" warriorthat Odysseus exhibitsinhisencounterwiththe Cyclops. Thereis the same tone, downtothe Iliadic formulasusedfor the description ofthe battles, the armor ofthe warriors, etc.Brown refers to earlier bibliography. Onthe"Iliadictone" ofthe episode ofthe Ciconesin particular, seethe commentary of Jones 1988 ad 9.40. 325 PURANIETOHERNANDEZ "Isacked their city and killed their people, and out of their city taking theirwives and many possessions we sharedthem out, so none might go cheatedof his properportion."23 Theformulausedhereinallusiontothe right divisionofthe spoilsappearsonly once again inthe Odyssey, attheendofthe same book, when Odysseus and his companions distributetheherds obtainedfrom Polyphemus (9. 548-49): [pfiJa SE Ku'KAOTTroS yXapupfiS EK vn6S E6OVTES :aoo61acEO', c.;Plr TiS POt cTE[Ji36PEVOoKIOL TO}qS. "andfrom the hollow ships bringing out the flocksof the Cyclops we sharedthem out so none might go cheatedof his properportion." Thetwoallusionstothe divisionof booty thusframetheevents of Book9 ofthe Odyssey andinviteusonce again toexamineBook1 oftheIliadandthe quarrel between Agamemnon andAchilles. Agamemnon,obliged toreturn Chryseis toher father, takesin compensation Achilles' prize, Briseis, which gives risetothe confrontationbetweenthetwoleaders.Inthisbitter exchange, Achilles repeatedly accuses Agamemnon ofunfairdivisionofthe booty, of wishing to acquireeverything for himself, andofnot respecting therestoftheAchaeans.24 In the Odyssey,immediately afterthe beginning ofBook10 (30ff.), Odysseus narrates how, whilehewas sleeping, his companions haddoubtsaboutthe divisionof booty:they were returning home empty-handed whereas Odysseus had manygifts from Troy (10.40-42). Odysseus' companions accusehimof the samekindof thing thatAchillesdoes Agammemnon. Asa result, theyopen the bag thatAeolus gave to theherointhebeliefthatitcontains gold and silver, wheninfact itholdsthewinds.This action, of course, hasdisastrous consequences forthemand proves themtobeinthe wrong. With this story,Odysseus is constructing infrontofAlcinoosandthe Phaeacians-andalso us, readers-hisheroic identity: heis just andfairinthedivisionof bootyamong his men, andwhoever 23 Notethe change in person: Eyco Tr6OX E7TpaOov, caXECa... SaoooapE0'. On the distributionof booty in Homer, see Donlan1981/2. 24 Achilles' language is strong: "greediest for gain ofall men" (pq)ioKTEavcbTaTE TrrdrVTo II. 1.122), "with your mindforeveron profit"(KEpbaXE'6ppov II. 1.149); although hedoesthe fighting,Agamemnonalwaysgets the greater reward (1I. 1.163- 67), etc.Cf.the speech ofThersites (I1. 2.225-242) andAchilles' reply to Odysseus in the Embassy(9.315-17 and 9.328-333). See also Collins1988: 91-95. 326 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONAND APOLLO doubts it does it at his own peril. The fact thattheIliadic quarrel between Agamemnon andAchillesresonatesinthe background makes iteven clearer that Odysseus is presenting himselfas anti- Agamemnon. The matter of an equal vs.an unjust divisionof spoilsmay be regarded asa sub-topic withina larger thematic complex: the generalcomportment ofthetwoheroesinrelationtomaterial goods-notonly the booty they acquire in their militaryoperations but alsothe gifts that they receiveor give. While Odysseus accepts gifts from the priest inreturn for having savedhis life, Agamemnon refuses those that the priest offers him in exchange for his daughter.Odysseus and hismen (not quite allof them) will emerge from theirencounterwiththe Cyclops not only withtheir livesbut alsowithsome fine booty, thanks, in part, tothewine whichthe priest had given them. Agamemnon, because hedid not respect the priest and was arbitrary in regard to Achilles'share of the spoils, willend up offering Achillesin Book 9 of theI liad25 a far greater quantity of gifts, which, however, will be rejected. 3. In their Relations with Seers, too, the Two Heroes Behave veryDifferently. Agamemnon finds himself obliged by force ofcircumstance to deal withCalchas in Iliad 1.When the plague begins to devastate the Argives, Achilles decides to consult a seer in order to determine the cause of the evil (62 ff.). Calchasthen intervenes and explains that Agamemnon's offense against the priest of Apollo wasthe origin of it all, and thatthe god willbe appeased if Chryseis is returnedand a hecatomb issacrificed on Chryse (93 ff.). Just as he had done with the priest of Apollo,Agamemnon now mistreats the prophet (II. 1.106-08): "UIVTI KaKC)V,OU1TCAOTTOT9OlTO Kp'rYVOV EITTaS- aiEi TOtTaKaK ECOT\ (plAa (pEo'iLaVTEUEOOal, EOX6OV 8'OUTE Ti TCO El1TrraS TTO5 OUT' ETAXEOCaS' " 25 Cf. 11.9.120 ff.: "a&E0EXc a&piEal 86spEvai T'T rrpEiol'atolva", "I am willing tomakeall good, and give back gifts in abundance,"etc.Cf.II.1.13: aTEpEioi' arrotva, the compensatorygifts offered by Chryses to Agamemnon in exchange for Chryseis. 327 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ "Seerof evil: never yet have you told me a good thing. Always the evil things are dear to your heartto prophesy, but nothing excellenthave you said nor ever accomplished" Werecallthatitwas Apollo who granted toCalchasthe divinatory art (the Iliadmentions this explicitly: 1.71-72) and that seers tooare underhis protection. Thus, in insulting Calchas, Agamemnon is exacerbating his offense against Apollo. In the end, Agamemnon does whatCalchas advises, but withbad grace (cf. 1.111 ff.). Odysseus, on the contrary, has good relationswith seers, and respects their predictions without their proving an obstacle to him. This istrue even in the Iliad, where itis preciselyOdysseus who reminds the Achaeans, when they are contemplating abandoning the war because of Agamemnon'sdeceptive dream, of the prophecy thatCalchashad pronounced, several yearspreviously, tothe effect that they would conquer Troy in the tenth year (cf. 2.323-29). In the Odyssey, Odysseus isassociatedwith prophecies from the beginning. 26Heeven appears intherole ofaseer in Penelope's dream about the death of her twenty geese (19.535 ff.),interpreting itfor her: theend of her suffering is close, Odysseus is back, the suitors willsoon be dead (19.546-550). In hisconversation with Penelope, the real Odysseus, albeit disguised as a beggar, confirms that interpretation (19.555-558). Odysseusgoesvoluntarily-not, like Agamemnon, under compulsion from others-toHadestoconsult theoracleofthe Theban seer Teiresias (Od. 11.90 ff.), whichin turn allowshimto foreknow his own future. The hero is from the beginning obedient to Teiresias' advice, and follows his instructions.27 In the slaughter ofthe suitors, Odysseus killsLeodes (22.310 ff.), whoservedthemas augur. Thiscontrasts with Odysseus' actions concerning the poet Phemius whose life he saved, as we saw before. The two cases seem similar in some respects: althoughthey are among the suitors, bothLeodesandPhemiusseemtobe 'profesionals'(augur, poet); both supplicateOdysseus fortheir lives (in these two cases only do we get a formal supplication); and 26 Cf.Od.2. 146-193, whereHalithersesMastoridesrecountshowhehad foretold to Odysseus, beforeheleft Ithaca, thathewouldreturn twentyyears later, after much suffering and having lostall his companions. 27 His companions, however, once again violatetheseer'sinstructionsand sufferthe consequences. On Odysseus'companions, whoarenot truly thehero's friends, see below, n. 36.We may notethat in the Odyssey, the suitorsof Penelope are subtly assimilatedto Odysseus'companions; see Brown 1996: 11 n. 28. 328 ODYSSEUS,AGAMEMNONAND APOLLO both supplications are introducedwiththesame words.28 But the differencesbetween Leodes' case and thatof Phemius are clear.In Phemius' case, the&otiS6hasthe lyre inhis hands, and specifically mentions hissacred status. Also, as we have said, he was forced to sing among the suitors.Leodes is not presented in the text specifically asaseer (pavvrS) andhe onlyincidentally mentions to Odysseus this activity. Heisratheranothersuitor who happens toexercize thisfunction intheir midst, just as any others among them might have done (cf. Louden 1999: 47).Thus, he doesnothavesacred accoutrements, nordoesheactunder compulsion. The heromakes thesetwo last points clearly in his negative reply to Leodes' supplication (22.321-325). Notealsothat no one intercedes on Leodes' behalf, whereasTelemachus begs his fatherto spare Phemius' life. Finally,Odysseus may havecon- cluded thatLeodes isno true seer, given thathewasunable to predict his comeback. The different attitudes that thetwo heroes adopt in respect to seers isreflected in stillanother way intheir personal histories: while Odysseus, as a result of the extraordinary information that he obtains from Teiresias, is prepared for the dangerous conditions that attend his homecoming (that is, he is warned ofthethreatsto hislifeandthetroubledcircumstances ofhis family),29 Agamemnon returnsto hishouse unprepared, withno ideaof what is going onthere.Hislackof knowledgeconcerning thefuture prevents himfrom takingprecautions andleads directly tohis death. Along with Agamemnon, andalsoatthehandsof Cly- temnestra, diesthe Trojan princess Cassandra, a daughter of Priam'swhom Agamemnon had brought with him to Mycenae after the Trojan war.Homer does not tellus much about her; neitherin theIliadnor inthe Odyssey istherementionofCassandra's propheticgifts,although hermost outstanding trait throughout thetraditionis precisely her divinatoryability. In the Odyssey, she is mentioned only once, by Agamemnon himselfin Hadeswhen he narratesto Odysseus hisown deathand thatof theunfortunate young prophetess (11.422). This secondary figure, whoserolein Agamemnon'sstory is scarcely noted by Homer,seems, nevertheless, to occupy a position exactly opposite to that of Circe in the story of 28 Cf. 22.310=22.344: "youvo0juai o', 'OuooaE0ovE p' al6Eo Kai p' iAriOov" 29 See the words that his guardiandeity, Athena, addresses to him in Od. 13.330- 6. Although the goddess does not mention Agamemnon and his family, the contrast is obvious. Cf. Olson 1990:69 n. 37. 329 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ Odysseus. Circe, like the enchantressshe is, knows the future, and it is she who recommends to the hero that hedescend to Hadesand speak there with Teiresias (see 10.492). At first, Circe attempts to enslave Odysseus, but the hero, thanks to the divine intervention of Hermes succeeds in resisting hercharms andovercomes her; she takes his sideand gives himreliablecounselso thathe may bring hisreturn journey toasuccessful conclusion. Cassandra, onthe contrary, is herselfenslaved by Agamemnon, and, in spite of her capacity to foresee the future, isuseless in helping thehero (as we know, nobody believedher prophecies) andends updying with him. Finally, Telemachus, the only character in theentire Odyssey whocan be considered to be genuinely close tothe protagonist (cf. NietoHemrandez1988: 139),30 alsomaintains good relationswith seers and seems to havesome knowledge ofthefuture.AsOlson (1995:76-77) notices, in the beginning of Book 1 Telemachus does not know what has happened to Odysseus. But the mysterious visitor "Mentes" (= Athena) tellshim hisfatherisalive (cf.1.196-205). Later on, when Telemachus realizesthat"Mentes"wasa god, he assumes thatthe prophecy must be true: "Telemachusisthus well aware that his father is returning, and all his subsequent denialsof the fact... are merely clever pretence" (Olson 1995:77). Telemachusalsowelcomesaboardhis ship the prophet Theoclymenus (15.256), whocomesbefore himas a suppliant, since he fled his ownland after having killed another man.This curious figure, byinterpreting theomen ofan eagle'sflight,predicts to Telemachus thathisdescendants willhold power forever (see 15.531-4), announces to Penelope that Odysseus is already in Ithaca (17.157-9), and finally foretells the death of the suitors (20.350-7). Conclusion Up to this point, we have explored thedifferent relations that thetwo heroes maintain withthreedifferentkinds ofcharacter: poets, seers, and priests of Apollo, that is, withthree Apollinine areas or domains of activity, which suggest that each of theheroes hasa particular, and contrastive, connection with Apollo.3' 30 In spite ofacertainfather-son rivalry thatcanbe perceived inthe text, cf. Olson1995: 176. 31 Achillesalso has special ties to this god, but in hiscasethe enmity is clear; the heroconfrontsthe godopenly, cf.II.21.515-22.20. (Diomedes in5.433-59and 330 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONAND APOLLO Odysseus ison good terms withthis god; hehasindeedbeen described asan "Apollinine hero" (see Haft1989: 110 n.53, with bibliography): clearly Apollinine isthe bow, theinstrumentof his vengeance. Agamemnon, for his part, seems from the beginning of theIliadto be in conflict with Apollo and withthe spheres that fall under his protection.32 But in what concerns thedivine world, itis generallyaccepted that Odysseus hasa special connectionto his protectress Athena, and Agamemnon to Zeus.3 Sometimes, thishasbeen taken to be a t thebasisofthe very differentkind of leadership thateachof theseheroesexhibitson theirown people and land, both being representatives of two different kinds of kingship.34 We may ask i f theircontrastive relationship to Apollo alsohasaroleinthe opposition betweenthetwo styles of rulership thathasbeen observed in these two heroes.35In contrastto the troubled history of the family of the Atrides, with struggles for royal power that go on for generations, wehavethe peaceful situationin Ithaca, the Patroclusin16.702-805also confront him, cf. Haft 1989: 110.) Achilles is the heroic double of Apollo, and perhaps just for this reason, has an inimical relationship with him; see Nieto Hernandez 1996. 32 Agamemnon, of course, needs both the military might ofAchilles andthe cleverness of Odysseus to bring his mission to a successful conclusion. Achilles, the hero condemned to die young, will not be there to guide theGreeks intheir final battle withthe Trojans, and it will be Odysseus who, with his metis, hisacuteand devious wits, succeeds in penetrating the walls of Troy, defended by Apollo. 33 As for Zeus, it has often been remarkedthat Agamemnon bears a particular likeness to him: both are at the head of a "central government," whether over kings or other gods (Dietrich 1965:210 ff.). There existed, indeed, a cult of Zeus-Agamemnon in Sparta; cf. Untersteiner1972:63. Cf. Collins 1988:73 et passim. 34 See, for example, Puhvel (Minoica 328 ff.), whomaintains that Homer knew two forms of kingship: 1) hereditary rule like that of Agamemnon, whose power was granted him by Zeus; and 2) the rulerwho had a special relationship with the Minoan serpent or the palace goddess, which he compares to that of Odysseus withAthena. This latter type was grounded in a purely religiousconcept of royalpower (cited in Dietrich1974:184 n.297). See also, in this connection, for Odysseus-Athena, Stanford (1954:38) with further references. For a recent survey of the problems of Homeric kinship, cf. Olson 1995 chapter 9, "TheReturnof the King". Olson deals in detail with the many and complex problems ofsocial organization in Homer, incuding the inadequacy ofourterm 'king' to translate (3aoiXAEu(cf. p.187 n.9). To the bibliographyquoted in Olson, add Raaflaub 1993 (with literature), esp. p.90 n.32. Foran extremelyskeptical viewof this matter (the author goes so far as to deny the existence of a state in Ithaca) seeHalverson 1986. 35 While, in Agamemnon's case, the citizens of Mycenae count for nothing, and his problems are reduced to adomestic event, in Ithaca, wherecitizenassemblies meet, there seems to exist an entirely different sense of the relationship betweena king and his people.Odysseus is the ruler of a small, marginal island, and his fame depends more on his ownabilities (doloi,metis,etc.) and personal qualities thanon inheriting a power that the gods have conferred. 331 PURANIETOHERNANDEZ islandwheredomesticbattlesforthethroneareunknown(itisa lineage of only sons).3 Odysseus, whocombines inhimselfvarious Apollinine traitsandshareswithhis guardiandeity Athena flexibility,adaptability, andthe craftyintelligence called metis, seemstofurnisha modelof royalty that is quite differentfrom that of Agamemnon andhis family. Nevertheless, to explore that question in depth would require a deeperstudy thanwecan afford here.7 PURA NIETO HERNANDEZ Brown University WorksCited Ahl, F. - Roisman, H.M.1996. The Odyssey Re-Formed.Ithaca-London. Ameis,K.F.-Hentze, K.1964.Homers Odyssee. (11th ed.) Amsterdam. Andersen, 0.1992. "Agamemnon's singer(Od. 3.262-272)." SO 67: 5-26. Bergren, A.T.L.1983. "OdysseanTemporality: Many(Re)Turns." In Approaches to Homer (C.A. Rubino and C. Shelmerdine, eds.). Austin:38- 73. Beye, C.1966. The Iliad, the Odyssey and the Epic Tradition.New York. Broeniman, C. 1996. "Demodocus, Odysseus, and the Trojan Warin Odyssey 8."CW 90: 3-13. 36 Telemachushimself affirms it, see Od. 16.117-20. Odysseus is the solitary hero. He is the only son of Laertes, and comes from a line of only sons, although hehas a sister, Ktimene (cf. 15. 363-7), and promises Eumaeus tomake himbrother of Telemachus (21. 215-6). The family of the Atrides, on theother hand, abounds in pairs: Menelausand Agamemnon, Atreusand Thyestes,Pelops and Niobe; Agamemnon himself, although he has only one son, Orestes, hasseveral daughters. Also Telemachus' right tosuccessionisunclearinthe poem, as opposed to Agamemnon'sfamily hereditary rule.In this sense, Odysseus is the hero whohas a future ahead of him and who can feel pride in his son as son, and not necessarily as heir. Perhaps we should interpret from this perspective the fact that Odysseus is the only hero to use the "paedonymic": twice in the Iliadhe announceshimself as "father of Telemachus" (4.354 and 2.260). In the Iliad, Odysseus is a solitary hero who is not known to havea single true friend, intimate companion (hetairos), or attendant (therap6n), as do other heroes (the outstanding case is that of Achilles and Patroclus, cf.Konstan 1997: 32, with referenceto Clay 1983:107). In the Odyssey too, helacks this kind of relationship, cf. Stanford 1954:43-44: the companions who return with him from Troy are more an obstacle, a handicap, than true friends (see NietoHernandez 1988; Kahane 1997), and he ends up losing all of them and reaching home alone.This also contrasts with Agamemnon, who is always accompaniedby his brotherMenelaus and other heroes in the course of the Trojan war. 37 I thank David Konstan, the anonymous referees, and the editor of CJ, Peter Knox, for theircommentsand suggestions. 332 ODYSSEUS, AGAMEMNONANDAPOLLO Brown, C.1996."In the Cyclops' Cave: Revenge and Justice in Odyssey 9." Mnemosyne 49: 1-29. Clarke, H.1967. TheArt of the Odyssey. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Clay, J.S. 1983.TheWrath of Athena. Gods and Meninthe Odyssey. Princeton. Collins, L.1988. Studiesin Characterizationin the Iliad. Frankfurtam Main. Dietrich, B.C. 1965. Death, Fateand theGods. London. 1974. The Origins of Greek Religion. Berlin-New York. Donlan, W. 1981/2. "Reciprocities in Homer." CW75: 137-175. Dumezil, G.1982. 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