Food, Nutrition & Diet Therapy 1

The 7 MacromineralsWHAT ARE MACROMINERALS?

The macrominerals are the seven main (hence the term

‘macro’) minerals your body needs to function properly. 

They are part of the micronutrient family (a group of

nutrients which includes vitamins and minerals). 

Micronutrients are distinguished

from macronutrients because they contain no calories

and are required in much smaller amounts.

Within the micronutrient family there is also a

distinction between minerals and vitamins.  Minerals are

inorganic compounds (they come from the soil and

water) whereas vitamins are organic compounds (they

come from plants and animals).

Within the mineral family there is then a further

distinction between macrominerals (or main minerals)

and microminerals (or trace minerals).  Macrominerals

are generally required in amounts larger than 100mg per

day and stored by the body in quantities greater than 5g

whereas microminerals are not.1) CALCIUM

Discovery:- Calcium was discovered by Sir Humphry

Davy in 1808.

Storage:- Calcium represents approximately 1.5% of an

average adult’s bodyweight.  Around 99% is stored in

the bones and teeth.  The rest is stored in the blood and

cellular fluids.

Functions:- The main function of calcium is to support

strong bones and teeth.  It is also responsible for

controlling blood pressure, muscle contractions and

nerve transmissions, helping the blood to clot and

supporting proper muscle and nerve functions.

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA):- Your body

absorbs less calcium as you get older.  This means that

your requirement increases as you age.  For very young

children aged between 0-6 months the RDA is 210mg. 

However, for people aged 51 years and over the RDA is

a much higher 1200mg.

Food Sources:- Dairy products are a well publicised

source of calcium but there are many more.  The list

below contains five of the top calcium food sources:

- Almonds = 266mg per 100g serving.

- Cheese = 721mg per 100g.

- Milk = 114mg per 100ml.

- Spinach = 136mg per 100g.

- Yoghurt = 200mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Eating excessive levels of

calcium (3000mg per day or more) can lead to a number

of negative symptoms including dehydration, diarrhea,

lethargy, nausea, stomach pain and vomiting.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Failing to get the RDA of

calcium can cause high blood pressure, muscle cramp

and osteoporosis (reduced bone density).

2) CHLORIDE

Discovery:- Chloride was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy

in 1807 after Carl Whilhelm Scheele initially discovered

it as the compound dephlogisticated marine acid (a

combination of chloride and oxygen).

Storage:- Chloride represents around 0.15% of an

average adult’s bodyweight and is stored in the fluids

outside the body’s cells.

Functions:- Chloride has various functions in the body. 

It assists in the production of glandular hormones, helps

you absorb potassium and helps maintain proper blood

pressure and volume.  On top of this chloride plays a key

role in digestion and metabolism, helps remove waste

carbon dioxide from the body and maintains a proper

fluid balance inside and outside the cells.

RDA:- Our need for chloride increases as we age.  Very

young children need 180mg per day whilst fully grown

adults require 750mg per day.

Food Sources:- Chloride can be found in a variety of

foods which include:

- Butter = 1300mg per 100g.

- Cheddar Cheese = 1060mg per 100g.

- Olives = 300mg per 100g.

- Table Salt = 59900mg per 100g.

- Whole Grain Bread = 860mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Presently there is no upper limit

on chloride consumption.  However, some people have

experienced breathing difficulties, fluid retention and

high blood pressure when eating extremely high levels

of this nutrient.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Chloride deficiency can be

caused by poor dietary choices, certain medications,

diarrhea, vomiting and surgical procedures.  If you do

become deficient it can lead to muscle spasms and

weakness.

3) MAGNESIUM

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Discovery:- Henry Wicker is credited with the initial

discovery of magnesium in the form of ‘Epsom Salts’ in

1618.  Following this discovery, Joseph Black

recognised that ‘Epsom Salts’ contained the element

magnesium in 1755.  Sir Humphry Davy made the final

breakthrough and isolated magnesium in 1808.

Storage:- Magnesium represents approximately 0.05%

of an average adult’s bodyweight.  Around 60% is stored

in the bones and teeth with the other 40% stored in the

muscles and soft tissues.

Functions:- Magnesium is responsible for over 300

biomechanical reactions in the body.  It assists in the

metabolism of all the macronutrients and some of the

micronutrients.  It also helps the muscles and nerves

relax, promotes good blood circulation and supports

healthy bone growth.  Magnesium has also been linked

with protection from certain diseases

including diabetes and heart disease.

RDA:- The RDA for magnesium increases as we get

older.  Children aged 0-6 months need 30mg per day. 

However, the daily requirement for adults aged 31 years

and over increases to 420mg for men, 320mg for women

and 360mg for pregnant women.

Food Sources:- Magnesium can be found in various

foods including:

- Almonds = 279mg per 100g.

- Black Beans = 70mg per 100g.

- Brazil Nuts = 229mg per 100g.

- Pumpkin Seeds = 539mg per 100g.

- Spinach = 87mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- It is almost impossible to

overdose on magnesium through diet alone.  However, if

supplementary doses of 1000mg per day or over are

taken it can lead to a number of negative symptoms such

as diarrhea, fatigue, stomach cramps and vomiting.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Magnesium deficiency is

generally caused by failing to eat enough of this nutrient

although it can be caused by other factors including

alcohol abuse, disease and illness.  The symptoms of

deficiency often vary between individuals but can

include muscle cramps, nausea, numbness, poor appetite,

rapid heartbeats and vomiting.

4) PHOSPHORUS

Discovery:- Phosphorus was discovered accidentally by

German alchemist Henning Brand in 1669 during an

experiment where he tried to convert metals into gold.

Storage:- Phosphorus represents around 1% of an

average adult’s bodyweight.  Approximately 85% of this

is stored in the bones and teeth (as calcium phosphate)

with the remaining 15% stored in the cells and bodily

fluids.

Functions:- The main function of phosphorus is to work

with calcium and support the growth of strong, healthy

bones and teeth.  On top of this it also helps activate the 

B complex vitamins, assists in the construction of

healthy cell membranes, helps create deoxyribonucleic

acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) and supports

proper kidney function.

RDA:- Our phosphorus requirements fluctuate

throughout our lifetime.  Children aged 0-6 months need

just 100mg per day but this increases to a much larger

1250mg per day for children aged 9-18 years.  Adults

aged 19 years and over need to consume 700mg of

magnesium per day.

Food Sources:- The best sources of phosphorus are high

protein foods with some of the best choices being:

- Beef Fillet Steak = 265mg per 100g.

- Brazil Nuts = 590mg per 100g.

- Cheddar Cheese = 520mg per 100g.

- Chicken = 190mg per 100g.

- Milk = 100mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Having too much phosphorus in

the body is extremely rare and normally only occurs as

the result of certain types of kidney disease.  When

phosphorus levels in the body do become too high it can

lead to calcium being deposited on the soft tissues

(which causes them to harden) and reduced absorption of

the other macrominerals.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Being deficient in phosphorus is

just as rare as overdosing.  When deficiencies do occur

they are generally caused by alcoholism and certain

diseases that inhibit your ability to absorb this nutrient. 

The symptoms of phosphorus deficiency include anemia

(a low red blood cell count), confusion, increased risk of

infection, osteomalacia (softening of the bones) and

weakness.

Discovery:- Potassium was successfully isolated by Sir

Humphry Davy in 1807.

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Storage:- Potassium represents approximately 0.35% of

the bodyweight in an average adult with the vast

majority being stored within the body’s cells.

Functions:- Potassium has many roles in the body

which include helping your body break

downcarbohydrates and protein, promoting muscle

growth, regulating blood pressure and supporting nerve

transmissions.

RDA:- The RDA for potassium increases as we age. 

Children aged 0-6 months need just 400mg per day

whilst adults aged 19 years and over need a much larger

4.7g per day.

Food Sources:- Fruits and vegetables are often the best

source of potassium.  The list below contains some of

the best food sources:

- Bananas = 350mg per 100g.

- Dried Apricots = 1880mg per 100g.

- Fillet Steak = 470mg per 100g.

- Scallops = 580mg per 100g.

- Spinach = 490mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Your body regulates blood levels

of potassium very tightly meaning it is extremely

difficult to overdose on this nutrient.  However, kidney

disease and other infections can interfere with this

process and contribute to a potassium overdose.  This

can lead to diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain and ulcers.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Dietary deficiencies of

potassium are also extremely rare.  However, excessive

fluid loss, consuming high levels of sodium and

digestive problems can all interfere with potassium

absorption and lead to low levels in the body.  The

symptoms of potassium deficiency include confusion,

dry skin, muscle cramps and thirst.

6) SODIUM

Discovery:- Sir Humphry Davy successfully isolated

sodium in 1807.

Storage:- Sodium represents around 0.15% of an

average person’s bodyweight most of which is stored in

the blood and fluids that surround the body’s cells.

Functions:- Sodium has multiple roles in the body

which include helping your body break down

carbohydrates and protein, keeping minerals soluble in

the blood, keeping your joints flexible, maintaining

blood volume, supporting the major organs, supporting

muscle contractions and supporting nerve transmissions.

RDA:- The UK RDA for sodium is 1600mg for healthy

men and women but this drops to 1500mg for people

suffering from high blood pressure.

Food Sources:- Table salt is by far the richest dietary

source of sodium but other foods also contain high

levels.  Five of the best food choices include:

- Cheddar Cheese = 610mg per 100g.

- Olives = 1800mg per 100g.

- Prawns = 1590mg per 100g.

- Salted Butter = 840mg per 100g.

- Table Salt = 38850mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- A large majority of people eat

much more than the recommended 1600mg of sodium

per day because their diets contain high levels of

processed foods.  Eating too much sodium can lead to

fluid retention, high blood pressure, heart disease,

kidney disease and swelling in the hands and legs.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Since most modern diets contain

more than enough sodium deficiencies are very rare. 

When people do become deficient it is often due to

sodium being removed from the body (through diarrhea,

sweating and vomiting) or sodium absorption becoming

inhibited (as the result of certain diseases and

medication).  Sodium deficiencies can lead to confusion,

headaches, lethargy and nausea.

7) SULPHUR

Discovery:- Sulphur was officially recognised as an

element in 1777 by the French chemist Antoine

Lavoisier.

Storage:- Sulphur represents approximately 0.25% of an

average adult’s bodyweight.  The hair, nails and skin

contain particularly high levels of sulphur but it can be

found in all the body’s cell and tissues.

Functions:- The main role of sulphur is to treat joint and

skin conditions.  It also helps your body ingest

carbohydrates, dietary fats and certain B complex

vitamins.  On top of this sulphur assists in the production

of collagen (your body’s main connective tissue), insulin

(a hormone that helps control blood glucose levels) and

keratin (a protein that promotes healthy hair, nails and

skin).

RDA:- There is no official RDA for sulphur although

most sources agree that an intake of between 800mg and

100mg is adequate.

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Food Sources:- High protein foods are often the best

food choice when it comes to sulphur but certain

vegetables also contain high levels.  Five of the riches

food sources are:

- Brazil Nuts = 290mg per 100g.

- Cheddar Cheese = 230mg per 100g.

- Chicken = 300mg per 100g.

- Egg = 180mg per 100g.

- Spinach = 90mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- At present there is no

recommended upper limit on sulphur consumption and

no reported side effects associated with consuming high

levels of this nutrient.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Sulphur deficiencies are

extremely rare and normally only affect people who

follow a low protein diet.  The symptoms of not getting

enough sulphur include arthritis, circulatory problems,

inflammation, nerve disorders and skin problems.

SUMMARY

The macrominerals are vital for good health and all help

your body function in different ways.  Whilst they are

required in much smaller amounts than the

macronutrients you still need to ensure that you get the

RDA of each one.  So if your diet is lacking in any of the

seven make the necessary adjustments and add some

new foods to your diet.

The 17 MicromineralsWHAT ARE MICROMINERALS?

The microminerals are 17 minerals that your body

requires in very small quantities (hence the term

‘micro’).  They are part of the micronutrient family (a

group of nutrients which

includes minerals and vitamins).  Micronutrients are

different to macronutrients because they contain zero

calories and are required in much smaller amounts.

Micronutrients can be split into two main groups –

minerals and vitamins.  Minerals are inorganic

compounds that come from the soil and water.  Vitamins

are organic compounds that come from plants and

animals.

Minerals can also be split down into a further two groups

– macrominerals (or main minerals) and microminerals

(or trace minerals).  Macrominerals are generally

required in amounts greater than 100 milligrams (mg)

per day and stored by the body in quantities greater than

5 grams (g).  Microminerals are generally required in

much smaller amounts and either stored by the body in

very small amounts or not stored at all.

1) ARSENIC

Discovery:- Awareness of arsenic dates back to ancient

times but it was first isolated in 1250 by Albert Magnus

when he heated the arsenic compound orpiment with

soap.

Storage:- The human body contains between 10mg and

20mg of arsenic.

Functions:- Arsenic has only recently been recognised

as an essential nutrient in humans so its exact role is

unclear.  The latest research suggests that it may be

responsible for helping the bodymetabolise the amino

acid methionine (which promotes healthy growth),

regulating gene expression, supporting the reproductive

system and treating digestive problems.

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA):- There is

currently no RDA for arsenic although the available

research suggests humans should consume between

0.0125mg and 0.025mg each day.

Food Sources:- Arsenic can be found in most foods. 

The list below outlines the approximate amounts of

arsenic in different food groups:

- Bread and Cereal = 0.00245 mg per 100g.

- Fats and Oils = 0.0019 mg per 100g.

- Fish = 0.1662 mg per 100g.

- Meat = 0.00243 mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- The majority of arsenic found in

food is organic and therefore not toxic.  However,

consuming 1mg per day or more of inorganic acid

(which can be found in certain chemicals and also

sometimes leak into water supplies) is toxic. 

Overdosing on inorganic arsenic can lead to a number of

adverse effects including anemia (a low red blood cell

count), cancer (particularly bladder cancer, lung

cancer and skin cancer), depression, liver damage and

peripheral neuropathy (loss of nerve function in the arms

and/or legs).

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Deficiency Symptoms:- Failing to consume at least

0.0125mg of arsenic per day may cause abnormal

growth, heart muscle disorders and skeletal disorders.

2) BORON

Discovery:- Boron was first mentioned by Persian

alchemist Rhazes between 865 B.C. and 925 B.C. in one

of his books.  It was successfully isolated in 1808 by

three different chemists – Sir Humphry Davy, Louis

Jacques Thênard and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.

Storage:- The human body does not store boron.

Functions:- Boron is most well known for promoting

bone health by helping the body activate

andmetabolise the bone building

nutrients calcium,magnesium, phosphorus and vitamin

D).  It also influences the hormones by assisting with the

production of oestrogen in women and boosting

testosterone levels in men.  On top of this boron boosts

brain health, keeps your cell membranes healthy,

prevents blood clots, protects your body from disease

and infection and supports the development of embryos

in pregnant women.

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for boron but most

sources suggest a daily intake of 1mg.

Food Sources:- Plant foods are the best source of boron

with five of the richest sources of this nutrient being:

- Almonds = 2.8mg per 100g.

- Brazil Nuts = 1.7mg per 100g.

- Oranges = 0.25mg per 100g.

- Raisins = 4.47mg per 100g.

- Red Grapes = 0.5mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- It is extremely difficult to

overdose on boron as you need to eat 50mg or more

before symptoms start to develop.  In the rare cases

where boron consumption does exceed this level it can

lead to dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), diarrhea,

lethargy, nausea, poor appetite, poor blood circulation,

vomiting and weakness.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Not getting enough boron has a

negative effect on the health of your bones and teeth and

can cause arthritis (inflammation of the joints),

osteoporosis (reduced bone mineral density), reduced

bone strength and tooth decay.  Boron deficiency can

also impact other areas of your body and can lead to

depression, hormone imbalances, kidney stones, mineral

deficiencies (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and

vitamin D), muscle pain and reduced mental alertness.

3) COBALT

Discovery:- Awareness of cobalt dates back to at least

1400 B.C. where it was used as a compound to colour

glass.  It was officially discovered by the Swedish

chemist George Brandt in 1735.

Storage:- Approximately 0.1% of the human body’s

weight is made up of cobalt.  It is stored in the blood

plasma, kidneys, liver, pancreas, plasma, spleen and red

blood cells.

Functions:- Cobalt is part of vitamin B12 and so

performs the same functions in the body.  These

functions include helping the body to absorb vitamin

B9 and assisting in the production of the genetic

information carriers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and

ribonucleic acid (RNA).  Cobalt also helps the body

produce melatonin (a hormone that can improve sleep

cycles), myelin (a protein that covers and protects the

nerves), red blood cells (which carry oxygen around the

body) and serotonin (a hormone that can boost your

mood).

RDA:- Since cobalt is part of vitamin B12 it does not

have a separate RDA but consuming 0.0015mg of

vitamin B12 (the RDA for this vitamin) each day will

provide your body with adequate amounts of this

nutrient.

Food Sources:- Foods that are high in vitamin B12 are

also high in cobalt.  Some of the best cobalt foods

include:

- Green Leafy Vegetables = Between 0.002mg and

0.006mg per 100g.

- Muscle Meat = Between 0.0007mg and 0.0012mg per

100g.

- Organ Meats = Between 0.0015mg and 0.0025mg per

100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Overdosing on cobalt is very rare

and symptoms only develop if more than 1.4mg of this

nutrient are consumed each day.  When an overdose

does occur it can cause decreased fertility in men, heart

damage, nausea, thyroid gland damage, vision problems

and vomiting.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Cobalt deficiency is also

uncommon because it is found in most animal products

and a wide selection of vegetable products.  However,

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vegetarians with a limited diet and people with stomach

problems are susceptible to deficiency.  The symptoms

of cobalt deficiency include dementia, depression,

diarrhea, fatigue, heart disease, menstrual problems in

women, nerve damage, pernicious anemia (a condition

where your body produces fewer, larger blood cells) and

weakness.

4) COPPER

Discovery:- The discovery of copper dates back to

around 9000 B.C. Methods to refine copper from its ores

were developed around 5000 B.C.

Storage:- The human body contains around 70mg of

copper most of which is stored in the liver.

Functions:- Copper is a powerful antioxidant (a type of

nutrient that prevents oxygen related damage) which

protects the body and also supports the production of

various substances including collagen (the main protein

in animal bones and connective tissues), elastin (a

connective tissue which helps keep artery walls and skin

cells flexible but tight), haemoglobin (an iron

containing, oxygen transporting metalloprotein that is

found in red blood cells), melanin (a pigment which

colours the hair and skin) and myelin (a substance that

covers nerve fibres).  Copper also reduces your risk of

developing arthritis and lung cancer.

RDA:- The RDA for copper increases with age. 

Children aged 0-6 months need to consume just 0.2mg

of copper per day but this increases to a much larger

0.9mg per day for adults aged 19 years and older. 

Pregnant and lactating women need to increase their

copper requirements further and consume up to 1.3mg

per day.

Food Sources:- Copper can be found in many foods

with five of the richest sources being:

- Brazil Nuts = 5.5mg per 100g.

- Crab = 3.2mg per 100g.

- Liver = 7.6mg per 100g.

- Lobster = 1.4mg per 100g.

- Oysters = 6.3mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Eating too much copper is the

most common cause of overdose.  Children aged 1-8

years can consume up to 1mg of copper per day before

starting to experience negative symptoms.  Adults aged

19 years and older are more tolerant of copper and can

consume up to 10mg per day before overdose symptoms

start to develop.  Wilson’s disease (a genetic disorder

which causes copper to accumulate in various organs)

can also lead to excessive levels of copper in the body. 

Having too much copper in the body can lead to

abdominal pain, depression, diarrhea, dizziness, fatigue,

headaches, heart problems, high blood pressure,

increased premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms,

insomnia, jaundice (a condition where the skin becomes

yellow), liver damage, muscle and joint pain, vomiting

and weakness.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Not getting enough copper can

have a number of adverse effects including anemia,

brain disturbances, breathing difficulties, increased low

density lipoprotein (LDL) and reduced high density

lipoprotein (HDL) (which can increase your heart

disease risk), iron deficiency, joint problems,

osteoporosis, poor immune function, ruptured blood

vessels, skin sores and weakness.

5) CHROMIUM

Discovery:- Chromium was initially recognised as part

of the mineral Siberian red lead which was discovered in

1776 by the German mineralogist Johann Gottlob

Lehman.  It was isolated in 1798 by  the French scientist

Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin when he heated charcoal with

the chromium compound chromium trioxide.

Storage:- The human body contains approximately 2mg

of chromium which is evenly distributed in the bones,

liver, soft tissues and spleen.

Functions:- Chromium helps to regulate blood glucose,

cholesterol and insulin making it a very useful nutrient

for people with diabetes.  It also helps your

body metabolise the macronutrients and nucleic acids. 

On top of this chromium boosts the immune system and

keeps the arteries soft and supple.

RDA:- Our requirements for chromium increase as we

get older.  Very young children aged 0-6 months need to

consume just 0.0002mg of this nutrient per day but

adults need to consume much more.  Men aged 14-50

years require 0.035mg of chromium per day whilst

women of the same age require 0.024mg per day.  For

pregnant women this requirement increases to 0.03mg

per day and for lactating women it increases further to

0.045mg per day.

Food Sources:- Chromium can be found in a wide

selection of foods with some of the best being:

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- Beef = 0.057mg per 100g.

- Cheese = 0.056mg per 100g.

- Egg Yolk = 0.183mg per 100g.

- Liver = 0.055mg per 100g.

- Whole Grain Bread = 0.045mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- There is currently no upper limit

for chromium consumption and the are no reported

overdose symptoms.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Not getting enough chromium

has an adverse effect on your blood glucose, cholesterol

and insulin levels.  The symptoms include high blood

glucose levels, high blood pressure, high triglyceride

levels (which can indicate poor heart health),

hyperinsulinemia (high blood levels of insulin),

increased LDL cholesterol levels, insulin resistance (a

condition where your body’s cells become less receptive

to insulin) and reduced HDL cholesterol levels.

6) GERMANIUM

Discovery:- The existence of germanium was actually

predicted before it was discovered by the Russian

chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (creator of the periodic table)

in 1871.  Following this prediction germanium was

discovered by the German chemist Clemens Alexander

Winkler.

Storage:- The human body does not store germanium.

Functions:- Germanium is a powerful antioxidant which

has been shown to prevent a wide range of ailments and

diseases including AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome), asthma (a respiratory disorder which makes

breathing difficult), arthritis, cancer (by stimulating the

production of interferon – a substance that stimulates the

production of cancer fighting natural killer cells),

cataracts (clouding that appears on the lenses of the eye),

cirrhosis (a chronic liver disease), diabetes, depression,

heart disease,high blood pressure, neuralgia (a condition

which causes pain in the nerves), osteoporosis and sinus

infections.

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for germanium but

most sources suggest a daily intake of 1mg.

Food Sources:- The richest sources of germanium are

plant based foods with comfrey, garlic, ginseng and

mushrooms all containing high levels.

Overdose Symptoms:- Natural germanium has no

reported overdose symptoms.  However, eating high

levels of synthetic germanium (50mg per day or more)

can cause bruising, kidney failure, liver damage and skin

rashes.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Germanium deficiencies are

extremely rare but when they do occur they can lead to

cancer, heart disease, immune system disorders,

increased LDL cholesterol levels, infection and

osteoporosis.

7) IODINE

Discovery:- Iodine was discovered by the French

chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811 whilst helping his

father make potassium and sodium compounds from

seaweed.

Storage:- The human body stores around 17mg of

iodine.  The majority of this is stored in the thyroid

gland with the rest being stored in the bones and

muscles.

Functions:- Iodine is essential for good thyroid health

and assists in the production of thyroxine (a thyroid

hormone also known as T4 that regulates the generation

of body heat and the use of oxygen in cells) and

triiodothyronine (a thyroid hormone also known as T3

that affects almost every process in the body including

the generation of body heat, growth and heart rate).  It

also helps your body maintain a normal metabolic rate,

prevents the development of simple goiter (a condition

which causes enlargement of the thyroid gland), supports

the development of healthy hair, nails, skin and teeth and

supports the development of a strong immune system in

foetuses.

RDA:- The RDA for iodine increases slightly with age. 

Very young children aged 0-6 months need just 0.11mg

per day whilst adults aged 14 years and older require a

slightly increased 0.15mg per day.  Pregnant and

lactating women need to consume more iodine than

other adults with pregnant women advised to consume

0.22mg per day and lactating women advised to

consume 0.25mg per day.

Food Sources:- Dairy products, fish and certain fruits

are all fantastic sources of iodine.  The list below

contains some of the richest food sources:

- Kelp = 2.08mg per 100g.

- Iodised Salt = 3mg per 100g.

- Oysters = 0.157mg per 100g.

- Strawberries = 0.09mg per 100g.

- Yogurt = 0.034mg per 100g.

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Overdose Symptoms:- Iodine overdose is normally

caused by taking supplemental doses.  In adults

consuming 1.1mg per day or more can lead to multiple

negative symptoms including burning in the mouth or

throat, diarrhea, nausea, reduced thyroid hormone

synthesis (which can cause goiter and hypothyroidism –

a condition where your body does not produce enough

thyroid hormones), stomach pain, vomiting and a weak

pulse.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Iodine deficiency is very rare in

the UK as most foods contain this nutrient.  The

symptoms of deficiency include appetite fluctuations,

depression, fatigue, goiter, hyperthyroidism (a condition

where your body over produces thyroid hormones),

hypothyroidism, rapid heartbeat, severe mental

retardation in infants, stunted physical growth in infants,

weakness and weight gain.

8) IRON

Discovery:- Humans have been aware of iron since

around 3400 B.C. although the exact discovery date is

unknown.  The ancient Egyptians used iron found in

meteorites around this time to create tools and jewellery.

Storage:- The human body contains between 3g and 4g

of iron most of which is stored in the haemoglobin

(a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen

around the body).

Functions:- Iron plays a key role in the formation of

haemoglobin and myoglobin (a protein which takes

oxygen from haemoglobin and stores it in the tissues

until it is needed).  It also assists in the production of

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (which is essential for

cellular energy and proper cell functioning), catalase

(which converts hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and

water) and cytochromes (which transport electrons

throughout the body).  Finally, iron supports brain

development and keeps the immune system strong.

RDA:- Women need to consume more iron than men as

they lose a lot of this important nutrient during

menstruation.  Men aged 19 years and older should

consume 8mg of iron per day whilst women aged 19 to

50 years should consume more than double this amount

at 18mg per day.  Vegetarians are advised to consume

extra iron (26mg per day for men and 33mg per day for

women) whilst women taking oral contraceptives are

advised to consume a much lower 10.9mg per day

(because oral contraceptives reduce the amount of blood

and iron lost during menstruation).

Food Sources:- Iron can be found in dairy products,

meats and plant based foods.  The list below contains

five of the best iron food choices:

- Beef Fillet Steak = 3.1mg per 100g.

- Brazil Nuts = 2.43mg per 100g.

- Chicken Liver = 6.9mg per 100g.

- Pistachio Nuts = 14mg per 100g.

- Spinach = 6.7mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Eating too much iron is rare but

you can overdose if you have regular blood transfusions,

take iron supplements or suffer from hemochromatosis

(a metabolic disorder which causes iron to be deposited

in the body’s tissues).  The symptoms of iron overdose

include bronze or grey coloured skin, damage to the

intestinal tract, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, liver

failure, loss of appetite, nausea, shortness of breath,

vomiting and weight loss.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Iron deficiency is one of the

most common nutrient deficiencies in the world.  It can

be caused by bleeding (internally and externally), certain

dietary deficiencies (copper, vitamin A and vitamin C),

consuming high levels of certain foods (such as caffeine

and tannins), donating blood regularly and a poor dietary

intake of iron.  The symptoms of not having enough iron

in the body include depression, dizziness, fatigue, hair

loss, headaches, hypochromic anemia (a condition where

the red blood cells become paler than normal due to a

reduction in haemoglobin which causes the skin to look

pale), increased infection risk, loss of stamina,

microcytic anemia (a condition where the red blood cells

become smaller than normal), reduced concentration and

weakness.

9) LITHIUM

Discovery:- Lithium was initially discovered by the

Brazilian scientist Jozée Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in

1800 as part of the mineral petalite (which contains

lithium).  In 1817 the Swedish chemist Johan August

Arfwedson concluded that 10% of petalite contained a

new element which he named lithium.  In 1818 both

Swedish chemist William Thomas Brand and English

chemist Sir Humphry Davy managed to isolate lithium.

Storage:- The human body stores around 7mg of

lithium.

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Food, Nutrition & Diet Therapy 9

Functions:- Lithium’s main function is to control and

treat mental disorders including Alzheimer’s disease,

dementia (by reducing brain damage and promoting new

neural growth) and mania (an elevated mood at all

times).  It also assists in the absorption of vitamin

B9 and vitamin B12.  On top of this lithium assists in the

distribution of iodine, breaks down excess uric acid,

controls glucose metabolism, enhances the replication of

DNA, increases grey matter nerve cells in the brain,

protects against the negative effects of mood altering

drugs (including alcohol and marijuana), reduces violent

behaviour and regulates the production of serotonin (a

hormone that regulates mood levels).

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for lithium.  The

American College of Nutrition suggest you consume at

least 1mg per day of this nutrient but other sources

suggest up to 3mg per day may be required by the

human body.

Food Sources:- Dairy products such as cheese, eggs and

milk are all fantastic sources of lithium.  Drinkingwater,

mineral water, herbs and certain vegetables (including

peppers and tomatoes) are also a great source of this

nutrient.

Overdose Symptoms:- There is no upper limit on lithium

consumption but research suggests eating 100mg per day

or more can lead to overdose symptoms whilst eating of

5g per day or more can be fatal.  It is very difficult to get

too much lithium from diet alone but taking too many

lithium supplements can  lead to high levels of this

nutrient in the body.  The symptoms of lithium overdose

include confusion, diarrhea, dizziness, drowsiness,

headaches, high blood pressure, kidney failure, lethargy,

muscular weakness and restlessness.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Lithium deficiencies are very

rare because only small amounts of this nutrient are

required in humans.  In the rare where deficiencies do

develop it can lead to depression, joint pain, nervous

disorders, manic depressive disorders and mania.

10) MANGANESE

Discovery:- Awareness of manganese dates back to

ancient times when early artists used pyrolusite (a

compound of  manganese and oxygen – manganese

dioxide) to give glass a purple colour and also to remove

colour from glass.  In 1770 the German chemist Ignatius

Gottfried Kaim isolated manganese from pyrolusite but

his report was not read by many chemists.  In 1774 the

Swedish mineralogist managed also managed to isolate

this nutrient from pyrolusite and is often credited with

discovering and isolating pyrolusite.

Storage:- The human body contains between 15mg and

20mg of manganese.  Most of this is stored in the bones

whilst the remainder is stored in the adrenal glands,

kidneys, liver, pancreas and pituitary glands. .

Functions:- The main role of manganese is to activate

and work with the enzymes including 

glycolsyltranserferases and xylosyltransferases (which

both assist in the formation of bones) and a number of

enzymes that utilise several key nutrients

including choline, vitamin B1, vitamin B7 and vitamin

C.  It is also part of the metalloenzymes arginase (an

enzyme in the liver responsible for creating urea),

glutamine synthetase (an enzyme involved in the

production of glutamine), manganese-dependent

superoxide dismutase (an enzyme that has antioxidant

properties and protects the body from oxygen related

damage) and phosphoenolpyruvate decarboxylase (an

enzyme that helps break down blood glucose).  On top

of this manganese supports the metabolism

of carbohydrates, dietary fats and proteins, helps your

body produce thyroxine (a hormone that regulates the

generation of body heat and the use of oxygen in cells),

maintains normal blood glucose levels and promotes a

healthy nervous system.

RDA:- The RDA for manganese increases with age. 

Young children aged 0-6 months need to consume just

0.003mg per day whilst adults aged 19 years and older

need to consume a much larger 1.8mg per day.  Pregnant

and lactating women need even more manganese and are

advised to consume 2mg per day.

Food Sources:- Fruits, vegetables and the hot drink tea

all contain high levels of manganese.  The list below

contains five of the richest food sources:

- Black Tea = 0.77mg per cup.

- Garlic = 1.67mg per 100g.

- Green Tea = 1.58mg per cup.

- Pineapple = 1.18mg per 100g.

- Spinach = 0.94mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Manganese overdose normally

occurs as the result of exposure to manganese dust or

chronic liver disease.  For children aged 0-6 months

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consuming 2mg per day can cause an overdose whilst

for adults aged 19 years and older overdose symptoms

do not occur until 11mg per day or more are consumed. 

The symptoms of manganese overdose include

interferences with copper, iron and zinc, impotence,

manganese madness (a syndrome characterised by

hallucinations, irritability and violence) and nervous

system problems (similar to those experienced by

sufferers of Parkinson’s disease).

Deficiency Symptoms:- Manganese deficiency normally

only occurs when manganese is deliberately eliminated

from the diet but even then the body can normally

use magnesium instead.  If a deficiency does develop it

can cause blindness, bone loss, dizziness, extremely low

blood cholesterol levels, hearing loss, high blood

glucose levels, loss of hair colour, nausea, paralysis, skin

rashes and vomiting.

11) MOLYBDENUM

Discovery:- Molybdenum was discovered in 1778 by

Carl Wilhelm Scheele.  It was isolated by the Swedish

chemist peter Jacob Hjelm in 1781.

Storage:- The human body contains around 9mg of

molybdenum of which the majority is stored in the

adrenal glands, kidney and liver.

Functions:- Molybdenum has many roles in the body.  It

activates the enzymes aldehyde oxidase (which

generates carboxylic acids from aldehydes), sulphate

oxidase and xanthine oxidase (which both enhance fat

burning and allow the body to use its iron reserves

effectively) as part of the coenzyme pterin.  It also helps

the body breakdown sulphur containing amino acids,

form uric acid (a waste product found in urine) and

digest the macronutrients and certain macrominerals

(calcium and magnesium).  On top of this molybdenum

helps the body utilise iron, detoxifies the liver, increases

alertness, supports balanced blood glucose levels,

promotes proper sexual function in men, promotes good

dental health, prevents anemia (a low red blood cell

count in the body) and supports proper growth.

RDA:- The RDA for molybdenum increases with age. 

Children aged 0-6 months require just 0.002mg per day

whilst adults aged 19 years and over need 0.045mg per

day.

Food Sources:- Legumes and nuts are often the richest

source of molybdenum.  The list below contains five of

the top molybdenum foods:

- Chilli Beans = 0.11mg per 100g.

- Green Peas = 0.13mg per 100g.

- Lima Beans = 0.87mg per 100g.

- Oats = 0.18mg per 100g.

- Small White Beans = 0.45mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Molybdenum overdose is usually

caused by eating too many molybdenum supplements. 

For children aged 1-3 years consuming 0.3mg or more

each day can lead to overdose whilst for adults aged 19

years and older consuming 2mg or more each day can

cause an overdose.  The symptoms of molybdenum

overdose include anemia, diarrhea, gout like symptoms,

high blood levels of uric acid, reduced copper

absorption, slow growth, swelling in the joints and

weight loss.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Molybdenum deficiency has

never been observed in people who eat a healthy

balanced diet.  The only reported cases are on people

who are fed intravenously or on people who have the

genetic disorder molybdenum co-factor deficiency

which stops them from properly absorbing this nutrient. 

The symptoms of molybdenum deficiency include

anemia, dental cavities, dizziness, headaches, impaired

sexual function, night blindness, mental disturbances,

nausea, rapid heartbeats and vomiting.

12) NICKEL

Discovery:- Nickel was first recognised as an element in

1751 by the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik

Cronstedt.

Storage:- The human body stores approximately 10mg

of nickel of which the majority is concentrated in the

hormone producing tissues, the kidneys and the lungs.

Functions:- Nickel has only recently been recognised as

an essential nutrient in humans so its exact role in the

body is unclear.  The latest research suggests it may be

responsible for activating certain enzymes, assisting in

the absorption of iron, assisting in the metabolism of

carbohydrates and certain dietary fats and helping the

body produce certain hormones.  It is also thought to

support the production of red blood cells, keep the skin

healthy, promote good bone structure and stimulate

optimal growth.

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RDA:- There is currently no RDA for nickel although

the available research suggests 0.1mg per day is enough

to meet the body’s needs.

Food Sources:- Legumes and nuts are the best food

sources of nickel with almonds, brown beans, chickpeas,

hazelnuts and walnuts all being good choices.

Overdose Symptoms:- Nickel overdose generally occurs

when 100mg or more is consumed each day.  It is almost

impossible to consume this much nickel from food alone

but you can inhale this much if you are exposed to nickel

fumes.  The symptoms of nickel overdose include high

blood pressure, increased lung cancer risk, increased

susceptibility to infection, reduced bone development,

reduced growth rate and skin rashes.

Deficiency Symptoms:- At present there are no reported

symptoms associated with nickel deficiency.

13) SELENIUM

Discovery:- Selenium was discovered in 1818 by the two

Swedish chemists Jons Jakob Berzelius and J. G. Gahn.

Storage:- The human body stores approximately 15mg

of selenium.

Functions:- Selenium is a powerful antioxidant that

protects your body in a variety of ways.  It helps your

body produce antibodies (organisms that fight disease in

the body), assists with and regulates the production of

triiodothyronine (a thyroid hormone also known as T3

that affects almost every process in the body including

the generation of body heat, growth and heart rate) and

possibly slows the progression of the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (more research is needed

in this area).  It also prevents certain types of cancer

(including colon cancer, lung cancer and prostate cancer,

heart disease and joint inflammation.

RDA:- The RDA for selenium increases with age. 

Children aged 0-6 months are advised to consume

0.015mg per day whilst children and adults aged 14

years and older are advised to consume 0.055mg per

day.  Pregnant and lactating women need to eat even

more selenium with pregnant women requiring 0.06mg

per day and lactating women requiring 0.07mg per day.

Food Sources:- Fish and nuts are often the richest

source of selenium.  The list below contains five of the

best selenium foods:

- Brazil Nuts = 1.92mg per 100g.

- Mixed Nuts = 0.42mg per 100g.

- Salmon = 0.038mg per 100g.

- Shrimp = 0.048mg per 100g.

- Tuna Canned in Oil = 0.076mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Eating 0.4mg per day or more of

selenium can lead to selenosis (extremely high levels of

selenium in the body).  It is very difficult to overdose on

selenium from food alone and selenosis normally only

occurs as a result of excessive supplement consumption. 

The symptoms of selenosis include bad breath, fatigue,

gastrointestinal problems, hair, nail and tooth loss,

irritability, mild nerve damage and white blotchy nails.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Selenium deficiency is rare and

is normally only observed in people from countries

where the soil concentration of selenium is very low,

people who suffer from serious gastrointestinal problems

and people who are fed intravenously for long periods of

time.  The symptoms of selenium deficiency include an

increased cancer risk, Kashin-Beck disease (a bone and

joint disorder), Keshan disease (a heart disorder),

myxedematous endemic cretinism (a disease that causes

mental retardation), osteoarthritis (the chronic

breakdown of cartilage in the joints), skin inflammation

and a weak immune system.

14) SILICON

Discovery:- Silicon was first recognised as an element

in 1787 by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier.  It was

isolated in 1823 by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob

Berzelius.

Storage:- The human body stores around 18g of silicon.

Functions:- Silicon plays a key role in proper growth.  It

assists in the development of strong, healthy bones,

collagenous (connective) tissues, hair, nails and teeth. 

Silicon also supports healthy embryonic development,

proper nerve cell and tissue function and helps the

tissues heal properly.  On top of this it increases the

effectiveness of calcium, glucosamine and vitamin D,

prevents atherosclerosis (a condition where hard plaques

form in the artery walls and restrict the flow of blood

which ultimately increases your heart disease risk) and

supports functional strength.

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for silicon but most

sources suggest consuming between 1g and 2g is enough

to meet the body’s needs.

Food Sources:- Natural, unprocessed, plant based foods

such as fruits, herbs, nuts and vegetables often contain

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high levels of silicon.  Almonds, apples, cabbages,

cucumbers, horsetail, oats, onions, oranges and whole

grain bread are all very good sources.

Overdose Symptoms:- There are currently no overdose

symptoms associated with eating too much silicon. 

However, inhaling too much silicon dust over long

periods can lead to silicosis (a dangerous lung disease).

Deficiency Symptoms:- Silicon deficiency is very rare

and is normally caused by consuming an extremely

limited diet.  Not getting enough silicon in your diet can

cause ageing of the skin, brittle nails, increased

sensitivity to cold temperatures, poor bone development,

thinning hair and wrinkles.

15) TIN

Discovery:- People have been aware of tin alloys since

biblical times and it is referenced a number of times in

the Old Testament.  It also has an alchemical (an ancient

practice concerned with the transformation of other

metals into gold) symbol.  Tin is believed to have first

been extracted and used at the beginning of the Bronze

Age around 3000 B.C.

Storage:- The human body stores around 16mg of tin.

Functions:- Tin has only recently been recognised as an

essential nutrient so its exact role in the body is unclear. 

The latest research studies suggest that tin may be

responsible for increasing energy levels, enhancing

your mood, improving your reflexes and preventing

cancer.  It is also thought to be useful in the treatment of

skin and sleep problems.  On top of this it has been

suggested that tin supports healthy growth and proper

hearing.

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for tin but most

sources suggest the amount found in an average persons

diet (between 1mg and 3mg) is enough to meet the

body’s requirements.

Food Sources:- Tinned food are one of the best sources

of this nutrient.  They can legally contain up to 20mg of

tin per 100g but often contain much less than this.  Tin

can also be found in fruits, meats and vegetables which

contain around 0.1mg of tin per 100g on average.

Overdose Symptoms:- There is no official upper limit on

tin consumption although consuming more than 13mg

per day is believed to cause an overdose.  The symptoms

of tin overdose include destruction of red blood cells,

diarrhea, headaches, nausea, skin rashes, stomach pain

and vomiting.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Since the exact role of tin in the

human body is currently unknown there are no official

deficiency symptoms.  However, failing to consume at

least 1mg per day may lead to asthma, depression, hair

loss, headaches, insomnia, left sided heart problems and

low adrenals (a condition where the adrenal gland fails

to produce adequate hormones).

16) VANADIUM

Discovery:- Vanadium was first discovered in 1801 by

Spanish-Mexican metallurgist Andrés Manuel del Río as

part of the compound venadium pentoxide.  However,

researches at the time believed Manuel del Rio’s

discovery was actually an existing element – chromium. 

In 1831 the Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström re-

discovered vanadium pentoxide and confirmed that

Manuel del Rio’s initial discovery was in fact a new

element.  In 1867 vanadium was isolated by the English

chemist Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe.

Storage:- The human body stores between 20mg and

25mg of vanadium.  The majority of this is stored in the

bones, fat, liver and spleen.

Functions:- Vanadium has only recently been classified

as an essential nutrient so there is limited information

available on its exact role in the body.  However, the

current research suggests that vanadium activates certain

enzymes, assists in the metabolism of calcium,

carbohydrates, catecholamine (hormones that are

released in response to stress) and dietary fats, helps the

body produce certain hormones and helps the body

produce red blood cells.  It can also improve insulin

sensitivity in both type 1 and type 2diabetics, improve

performance amongst bodybuilders, support the

development of bones and teeth, reduce the production

of LDL cholesterol and support healthy growth.  On top

of this vanadium can prevent atherosclerosis (a condition

where the artery walls become blocked and harden due

to the build up of cholesterol, fatty deposits and plaque),

certain types of cancer (including bone cancer, breast

cancer, liver cancer and prostate cancer) and heart

disease.

RDA:- There is currently no RDA for vanadium

although intakes of between 0.1mg and 1mg are thought

to suitable for meeting the body’s needs.

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Food Sources:- Vegetables and seafood are both very

good sources of vanadium.  Mushrooms, oysters, parsley

and spinach all contain more than 0.1mg of this nutrient

per 100g.  Dairy products, seafood and whole grains are

also good sources and all contain around 0.03mg of

vanadium per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Consuming more than 1.8mg of

vanadium per day can lead to an overdose.  It is very

difficult to eat this much vanadium from food alone but

some supplements contain much higher concentrations

than this.  The symptoms of vanadium overdose include

anemia (low red blood cell count), blood vessel damage,

dehydration, diarrhea, green tongue, kidney failure, liver

damage, lung irritation, nausea, nerve damage, poor

appetite, skin irritation, stomach problems, stunted

growth, vomiting and weight loss.

Deficiency Symptoms:- There are no studies confirming

the adverse effects vanadium deficiency has on humans

but it has been suggested that not getting enough can

aggravate diabetes, cause hypoglycaemia (extremely

high blood glucose levels) and increase your risk of

contracting cancer and heart disease.

17) ZINC

Discovery:- Awareness of zinc dates back to prehistoric

times.  In the thirteenth century a process was developed

in India to extract zinc from its ores.  In 1526 the Swiss

alchemist and physician Paracelsus named zinc

“zincum” and because of this is credited with its

discovery and naming.  In 1746 the German chemist

Andreas Marggraf became the first Westener to isolate

zinc.

Storage:- The human body stores between 2g and 3g of

zinc.  Around 60% of this is stored in the muscles, 30%

in the bones and 5% in the skin.

Functions:- Zinc is an antioxidant which assists in the

healing of wounds, assists in the production of sperm,

maximises your cell’s sensitivity to insulin and

maximises your metabolism.  It also promotes improved

brain function, normal skeletal growth and proper taste

and smell.  On top of this zinc can protect you from

various skin conditions, reduce stress levels, support the

production of thyroid hormones and support the

production of various types of white blood cells

(including B cells, macrophages and T lymphocytes).

RDA:- The RDA for zinc increases with age.  Children

aged 0-6 months are advised to consume 2mg per day

whilst adults are advised to consume much more (the

RDA for men is 11mg whilst the RDA for women is

9mg).  Pregnant and lactating women also need extra

zinc with pregnant women advised to consume 11mg to

12mg per day and lactating women advised to consume

12mg to 13mg per day.

Food Sources:- Protein rich foods are the best source of

zinc.  The list below contains five of the richest food

sources:

- Cheddar Cheese = 3.1mg per 100g.

- Peanuts = 6.6mg per 100g.

- Pumpkin Seeds = 10mg per 100g.

- Roast Beef = 10mg per 100g.

- Roast Lamb = 4.1mg per 100g.

Overdose Symptoms:- Zinc overdoses are normally

caused by excessive supplement consumption.  Eating

more than 40mg of this nutrient per day can lead to a

number of negative symptoms which include anemia (a

low red blood cell count), a bitter or metallic taste in the

mouth, cramps, diarrhea mixed with blood, reduced

absorption of copper, magnesium and iron, nausea,

stomach pain and vomiting.

Deficiency Symptoms:- Zinc deficiency can be caused

by a number of factors including dietary deficiencies,

bowel problems, chronic diarrhea, excessive sweating

and taking certain types of medication.  The symptoms

of zinc deficiency include depression, diarrhea, hair loss,

impaired growth and mental development in children,

increased susceptibility to infection, poor appetite and

slow healing wounds.

SUMMARY

The microminerals are probably the least well known

part of the nutrient family and only required in very

small amounts.  However, they are still highly important

for good health.  I hope this article has helped you learn

how the microminerals benefit your body and also

whether your diet contains enough of each one.

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