nuclear power is the fourth

8/8/2019 Nuclear Power is the Fourth

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Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal , hydro andrenewable sources of electricity. [1] As of 2010, India has 19 nuclear power plants in operationgenerating 4,560 MW while 4 other are under construction and are expected to generate anadditional 2,720 MW. [2] India's nuclear power industry is undergoing rapid expansion with plansto increase nuclear power output to 63,000 MW by 2032. [3] The country is involved in the

development of nuclear fusion reactors through its participation in the ITER project and is aglobal leader in the development of thorium -based fast breeder reactors. [4]

India's domestic uranium reserves are relatively small and the country is dependent on uraniumimports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India. [5] Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves, [6] electricity generationfrom nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008. [7] Following a waiver fromthe Nuclear Suppliers Group in September 2008 which allowed it to commence internationalnuclear trade, [8] India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technologycooperation with several other countries, including France ,[9] the United States ,[10] the UnitedKingdom ,[11] and Canada .[12] India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia, [13][14]

Mongolia ,[15]

Kazakhstan ,[16]

and Namibia .[17]

India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricitygeneration capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. [18] In 2010, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity will increase to 6,000 MW. [19] As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world interms of number of operational nuclear power reactors and is constructing 9 more, including twoEPRs being constructed by France's Areva .[20] Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540 MW reactors. [21] India's US$717 million fast breeder reactor project isexpected to be operational by 2010. [22]

Contents

[hide]

y 1 Nuclear Power Growth in India o 1.1 Growth o 1.2 Nuclear power plants

y 2 Accidents y 3 See also y 4 References

[edit ] Nuclear Power Growth in India

[edit ] Growth

India, being a non-signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty , has been subjected to adefacto nuclear embargo from members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group ( NSG) cartel. This has

prevented India from obtaining commercial nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant components and



services from the international market, thereby forcing India to develop its own fuel, componentsand services for nuclear power generation. The NSG embargo has had both negative and positiveconsequences for India's Nuclear Industry. On one hand, the NSG regime has constrained Indiafrom freely importing nuclear fuel at the volume and cost levels it would like to support thecountry's goals of expanding its nuclear power generation capacity to at least 20,000 MW by

2020. Also, by precluding India from taking advantage of the economies of scale and safetyinnovations of the global nuclear industry, the NSG regime has driven up the capital andoperating costs and damaged the achievable safety potential of Indian nuclear power plants. Onthe other hand, the NSG embargo has forced the Indian government and bureaucracy to supportand actively fund the development of Indian nuclear technologies and industrial capacities in allkey areas required to create and maintain a domestic nuclear industry. This has resulted in thecreation of a large pool of nuclear scientists, engineers and technicians that have developed newand unique innovations in the areas of Fast Breeder Reactors, Thermal Breeder Reactors, theThorium fuel cycle, nuclear fuel reprocessing and Tritium extraction & production. Ironically,had the NSG sanctions not been in place, it would have been far more cost effective for India toimport foreign nuclear power plants and nuclear fuels than to fund the development of Indian

nuclear power generation technology, building of India's own nuclear reactors, and thedevelopment of domestic uranium mining, milling and refining capacity.

The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the comingyears thanks in part to the passing of The Indo-US nuclear deal . This agreement will allow Indiato carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhanceits power generation capacity. [23] when the agreement goes through, India is expected to generatean additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45,000 MW. [24]

India has already been using imported enriched uranium and are currently under InternationalAtomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, but it has developed various aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected

by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has alsodone a great amount of work in the development of a Thorium centered fuel cycle . WhileUranium deposits in the nation are limited (see next paragraph) there are much greater reservesof Thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. Thefact that Thorium can theoretically be utilized in heavy water reactors has tied the developmentof the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating aThorium blanket is under construction at the Madras/Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station .

Uranium used for the weapons program has been separate from the power program, usingUranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium(approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial andmilitary reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently,India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 metric tonnes of uranium per year. [25] Evenif India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20GW by 2020, nuclear

power generation would only consume 2000 metric tonnes of uranium per annum. Based onIndia's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this



represents a 40 to 50 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note withreprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many timesover). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth(1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domesticfissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal.

Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirementsfor the foreseeable future. [25]

[edit ] Nuclear power plants

Currently, nineteen nuclear power reactors produce 4,560.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 3 660Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 220 x 2 440

Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu

PHWR

220 x 2 440 Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh PHWR 220 x 2 440

Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR

100 x 1200 x 1220 x 4

1180

Tarapur NPCIL Maharashtra BWR (PHWR ) 160 x 2540 x 2 1400

Total 19 4560

The projects under construction are:

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 1 220Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu PFBR 500 x 1 500

Total 4 2720

The planned projects are:

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 640 x 2 1280Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 640 x 2 1280Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1200 1200 x 2 2400Jaitapur NPCIL Maharashtra EPR 1600 x 4 6400Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PWR 1000 x 1, 1500 x 1 2500

Bhavini PFBR 470 x 4 1880



NPCIL AHWR 300 300 NTPC PWR 1000 x 2 2000 NPCIL PHWR 640 x 4 2560

Total 10 20600

The following projects are firmly proposed.

Powerstation Operator State Type Units Total capacity

(MW)

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu

VVER-1200

1200 x2 2400

Jaitapur NPCIL Maharastra EPR 1600 x2 3200

Pati Sonapur Orissa PWR 6000

Kumaharia Haryana

PWR

2800Saurashtra Gujarat PWR

Pulivendula NPCIL 51%, AP Genco49%

AndhraPradesh

PWR

2000 x1 2000

Kovvada AndhraPradesh

PWR

Haripur West Bengal PWR

Total 15

The following projects are proposed and to be confirmed soon.

Power station Operator State Type Units Total capacity (MW)Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1200 1200 x 2 2400

Total 2 2400

[edit ] Accidents

Main article: Nuclear accidents by country See also: Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

Several nuclear accidents have occurred in India: [26]

Nuclear power plant accidents in India [27][28]

Date Location Description

Cost(in

millions2006



US$)

4 May 1987 Kalpakkam, IndiaFast Breeder Test Reactor at Kalpakkam refuellingaccident that ruptures the reactor core, resulting in atwo-year shutdown

300

10September 1989

Tarapur,Maharashtra,India

Operators at the Tarapur Atomic Power Station findthat the reactor had been leaking radioactive iodine atmore than 700 times normal levels. Repairs to thereactor take more than a year

78

13 May1992

Tarapur,Maharashtra,India

A malfunctioning tube causes the Tarapur AtomicPower Station to release 12 curies of radioactivity 2

31 March1993

Bulandshahr,Uttar Pradesh,India

The Narora Atomic Power Station suffers a fire at twoof its steam turbine blades, damaging the heavy water reactor and almost leading to a meltdown

220

2 February1995

Kota, Rajasthan,India

The Rajasthan Atomic Power Station leaks radioactive

helium and heavy water into the Rana Pratap Sagar River , necessitating a two-year shutdown for repairs 280

22 October 2002 Kalpakkam, India

Almost 100 kg radioactive sodium at a fast breeder reactor leaks into a purification cabin, ruining anumber of valves and operating systems

30

It is estimated that before the accident at Tarapur, lack of proper maintenance exposed more than3000 Indian personnel to "very high" and "hazardous" radiation levels. Researchers at theAmerican University calculated at least 124 "hazardous incidents" at nuclear plants in India

between 1993 and 1995. [26]

Kaiga



Kakrapar

Kalpakkam

BARC

Narora New Delhi

Rajasthan

Tarapur

Jaitapur

Koodankulam Atomic Power Stations in India ( view )

Active plants Plants under construction

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal , hydro

Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy , such as mining for nuclear fuel , extraction and processing of nuclear fuel fromthe ore, generating electricity by nuclear power , enriching and storing spent nuclear fuel andnuclear fuel reprocessing .

Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to thenuclear fuel cycle . Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emissionstandards , fiscal policies , and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and

contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy andarrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology , electricity , nuclear waste , and uranium .

Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirationscan act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences someinternational nuclear energy policies.

Contents

[hide]

y 1 The global picture y 2 Policy options

o 2.1 Nuclear concerns o 2.2 Energy security o 2.3 Nuclear energy renaissance

y 3 Policies by territory



y 4 See also y 5 References y 6 Further reading y 7 External links

[edit ] The global picture

The status of nuclear power globally in early 2009. Operating reactors, building new reactors Operating reactors, planning new build No reactors, building new reactors No reactors,

planning new build Operating reactors, stable Operating reactors, considering phase-out Civilnuclear power is illegal No reactors See also: Nuclear power by country

After 1986's Chernobyl disaster , public fear of nuclear power led to a virtual halt in reactor construction, and several countries decided to phase out nuclear power altogether. [1] However,increasing energy demand is beginning to require new sources of electric power, and rising fossilfuel prices coupled with new concerns about reducing greenhouse gas emissions (see Climatechange mitigation ) have sparked heightened interest in nuclear power and predictions of anuclear renaissance (made possible in part by major improvements in nuclear reactor safety ).[2]

As of 2007, 31 countries operated nuclear power plants. [3] Nuclear power tends to be found innations connected to the largest electrical grids, and so the largest nations (or groups of them)such as China, India, the US, Russia and the European nations all utilize it (see graphic toright). [citation needed ] The largest producer of nuclear capacity was the USA with 28% of worldwidecapacity, followed by France (18%) and Japan (12%). [4] In 2007, there were 439 operatingnuclear generating units throughout the world, with a total capacity of about 351 gigawatts.

According to the IAEA , as of September, 2008, nuclear power is projected to remain at a 12.4%to 14.4% share of the world's electricity production through 2030. [5]

[edit ] Policy options

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with N uclear power#Debateon nuclear power . (Discuss )

See also: Energy policy



[edit ] Nuclear concerns

Main article: Nuclear power debate

Nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal are major concerns. [6] Other concerns include

nuclear proliferation , the high cost of nuclear power plants , and nuclear terrorism .[6]

[edit ] Energy security

For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French,"We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice." [7] Therefore, thediscussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security andthe use of energy mix, including renewable energy development .[citation needed ]

Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes , and uranium is mined in "reliable"countries, including Australia and Canada. [7][8]

[edit ] Nuclear energy renaissance

Main article: Nuclear renaissance

A nuclear power controversy [9][10][11] has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fissionreactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes. The controversy peakedduring the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies", in some countries. [12][13] In the 1980s, a popular movement againstnuclear power gained strength in the Western world, based on fears of latent radiation and of a

possible nuclear accident .

However, a growing number of policymakers have returned to the 'nuclear option' because it is perceived as potentially able to address dwindling global oil reserves and global warming withless greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel .

The parliamentary decision in 2002 in Finland to grant a license for the construction of a fifth nuclear power station was seen as very significant in that it was the first such decision to build anew nuclear power plant in Western Europe for more than a decade. [14] After the Finnishdecision several other countries announced their intention to consider construction of newnuclear reactors. Since that time, both the United Kingdom and Italy have announced pro-nuclear

policies. [15][16]

Some countries, such as Australia and Ireland, remain opposed to the use of nuclear power. [17][18][19]

Though projections show growth in nuclear power, longstanding challenges lead to significantuncertainty in that projected growth. [20][21] Among those challenges are continuing opposition tonuclear power , uncertainty about the management of spent fuel , and high capital costs compared



with other energy sources. New reactors under construction in Finland and France, which weremeant to lead a nuclear renaissance, have been delayed and are running over-budget. [22][23]

[edit ] Policies by territory

Main articles: Nuclear energy policy by country and Nuclear power by country See also: List of nuclear reactors

A nuclear power plant at Grafenrheinfeld, Germany . All German nuclear plants were scheduledto be shut down by 2020, but the decision was reversed in early 2010. [24]

Argentina , Armenia , Brazil , Bulgaria , Canada , China , Czech Republic , Egypt , Finland , France ,Hungary , Italy , India , Indonesia , Iran, Israel , Japan , Lithuania , Mexico , North Korea , Romania ,Russia , Pakistan , Poland , Slovakia , Slovenia , South Africa , South Korea , Sweden , Switzerland ,Taiwan , Ukraine , United States , United Kingdom , and Vietnam are currently building newnuclear reactors or considering building new ones. Germany , Netherlands , and Spain havenuclear reactors but no plans for either expansion or accelerated closure of existing ones. [25][26][27] Belgium is the only country in the world with an active nuclear phase-out law. Austria ,Denmark , Greece , Ireland , Portugal and Norway have no nuclear power plants and have legallyrestricted the possibility of building a nuclear power plant on their territory to varying extents.

Nuclear energy renaissance

nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, driven by risingfossil fuel prices and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas emission limits. Being able to rely onan uninterrupted domestic supply of electricity is allegedly also a factor. Improvements in nuclear

reactor safety, and the public's waning memory of past nuclear accidents

nuclear power is the fourth

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