nuclear energy professor stephen lawrence leeds school of business university of colorado at boulder
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Nuclear Energy
Professor Stephen LawrenceLeeds School of Business
University of Colorado at Boulder
Agenda
• Overview of Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear Physics• Nuclear Fuel• Nuclear Power Plants• Radiation• Nuclear Waste• Nuclear Safety
• Nuclear Power and the Environment
• Nuclear Power Economics
• Nuclear Power – Pro & Con
• Future of Nuclear Power
Overview of Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy consumption by area
http://www.nei.org
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
World Nuclear Power Plants
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Electric Power Generation
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Electric Consumption Profile
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
US Nuclear Generation Trends
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_generation/gensum.html
Nuclear Physics
Nuclear Binding Energy
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
Nuclear Binding Energy 2
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
Maximum Stability
(Iron)
Nuclear Fission
http://users.aber.ac.uk/jrp3/nuclear_power.htm
Nuclear Chain Reaction
http://www.btinternet.com/~j.doyle/SR/Emc2/Fission.htm
Nuclear Fuel
Uranium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle
Creating Uranium Fuel
• 50,000 tonnes of ore from mine • 200 tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8)
– Milling process at mine• 25 tonnes of enriched uranium oxide
– uranium oxide is converted into a gas, uranium hexafluoride (UF6),
– Every tonne of uranium hexafluoride separated into about 130 kg of enriched UF6 (about 3.5% U-235) and 870 kg of 'depleted' UF6 (mostly U-238).
– The enriched UF6 is finally converted into uranium dioxide (UO2) powder
– Pressed into fuel pellets which are encased in zirconium alloy tubes to form fuel rods.
Uranium Mined and Refined
Uranium Enrichment
Nuclear Fuel Pellet
Pellets Encased in Ceramic
Pellets Inserted into Rods
Sources of Uranium
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
World Uranium Production
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Nuclear Power Plants
Nuclear Power Plants
• Work best at constant power– Excellent for baseload power
• Power output range of 40 to 2000 MW– Current designs are 600 to1200 MW
• 441 licensed plants operating in 31 countries
• Produce about 17% of global electrical energy
Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear PP Cooling Tower
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable
Core of Nuclear Reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactors
Nuclear PP Control Room
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable
Idea of a Nuclear Power Plant
Spinning turbine blades and generatorBoiling water
Steam
Nuclear Heat
Heat
Steam produced
Steam
Turbine
Generator
Electricity
Controlling Chain Reaction
Control rods
Fuel Assemblies
Withdraw control rods,reaction increases
Insert control rods,reaction decreases
Boiling Water Reactor
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
1. Reactor core creates heat2. Steam-water mixture is produced when very pure
water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core absorbing heat
3. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation where water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line
4. Steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.
Steam
Pressurized Water Reactor
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
1. Reactor core generates heat
2. Pressurized-water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator
3. Inside the steam generator heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop producing steam
4. The steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity
Reactor Safety DesignContainment Vessel1.5-inch thick steel
Shield Building Wall3 foot thick reinforced concrete
Dry Well Wall5 foot thick reinforced concrete
Bio Shield4 foot thick leaded concrete with1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out
Reactor Vessel4 to 8 inches thick steel
Reactor Fuel
Weir Wall1.5 foot thick concrete
Tour of a Nuclear Power Plant
Reactor Type Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
US, France, Japan, Russia
252 235 enriched UO2 water water
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
US, Japan, Sweden
92 83 enriched UO2 water water
Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & AGR)
UK 34 13natural U (metal),
enriched UO2 CO2 graphite
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor "CANDU" (PHWR)
Canada 33 18 natural UO2 heavy
water heavy water
Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)
Russia 14 14.6 enriched UO2 water graphite
Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)
Japan, France, Russia
4 1.3 PUO2and UO2 liquid
sodium
none
Other Russia, Japan 5 0.2
TOTAL 434 365
Source: Nuclear Engineering International handbook 1999, but including Pickering A in Canada.
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Advanced Research Designs
• Generation IV Reactors– Gas cooled fast reactor– Lead cooled fast reactor– Molten salt reactor– Sodium-cooled fast reactor– Supercritical water reactor– Very high temperature reactor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor
SSTAR Design
• SSTAR – Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor
• Fast breeder reactor• Tamper resistant, passively safe, self-
contained fuel source (U238)• 30 year life• Produce constant power of 10-100 MW
– 15m high × 3 m wide; 500 tonnes
• Prototype expected by 2015
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSTAR
SSTAR Schematic
http://www.llnl.gov/str/JulAug04/gifs/Smith1.jpg
Radiation
Types of Radiation
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
Types of Radiation
• Alpha radiation – Cannot penetrate the skin– Blocked out by a sheet of paper– Dangerous in the lung
• Beta radiation – Can penetrate into the body – Can be blocked out by a sheet of aluminum foil
• Gamma radiation – Can go right through the body – Requires several inches of lead or concrete, or a yard or
so of water, to block it.• Neutron radiation
– Normally found only inside a nuclear reactor
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
Measuring Radioactivity
• Half-Life– The time for a radioactive source to lose 50% of
its radioactivity– For each half-life time period, radioactivity drops
by 50%• 1/2; 1/4; 1/8; 1/16; 1/32; 1/64; 1/128; 1/256; …• A half-life of 1 year means that radioactivity drops to
<1% of its original intensity in seven years
• Intensity vs. half-life– Intense radiation has a short half life, so decays
more rapidly
Half-Life Graph
Nuclear Waste
Handling Nuclear Waste
• Waste Reprocessing– Recondition for further use as fuel
• Waste Disposal– Temporary storage– Permanent disposal (usually burial)
Waste Disposal Funding
• Funded by power customers
• 0.1 cent per kWh
• About $18 billion collected to date
• About $6 billion has been spent– Yucca Mountain, elsewhere
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
http://eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/intro.html
Decay of Nuclear PP Waste
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Nuclear Waste Reprocessing
• Separates usable elements (uranium, plutonium) from spent nuclear reactor fuels
• Usable elements are then reused in a nuclear reactor
• Other waste products (e.g., radioactive isotopes) must be disposed of
Nuclear Waste Disposal
• Cooled in a spent fuel pool– 10 to 20 years
• Onsite temporary dry storage– Until permanent site becomes available
• Central permanent buried disposal
Spent Fuel Cooling Pool
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Fuel Rod Storage
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
Dry Storage Cask
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
Dry Storage On Site
Dry Cask Construction
http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84
Dry Cask Durability
http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84
Waste Burial
• Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix– E.g. borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave them as uranium
oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic)
• Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container– Usualy stainless steel
• Locate deep underground in stable rock• Site the repository in a remote location. • Most radioactivity decays within 1,000 years
– Remaining radioactivity similar to that of the naturally-occurring uranium ore, though more concentrated
http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm
Yucca Mountain Burial Site
http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9803/27/nuclear.waste.ap/
Yucca Mountain, NV
http://www.sandia.gov/tp/SAFE_RAM/WHEN.HTM
Yucca Mountain Cross Section
http://www.nrc.gov/waste/hlw-disposal/design.html
Entrance to Yucca Mountain
http://www.wnfm.com/New%20files/Yucca%20Mountain%20Pictures.htm
Interior of Yucca Mountain
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html
Yucca Mountain – One Opinion
http://www.claybennett.com/pages/yucca.html
Nuclear Safety
Three Mile Island, PA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island
Three Mile Island Accident
• March 28, 1979• Partial core meltdown over 5 days
– Main feedwater pumps failed– Backup feedwater system was inoperative– Instrumentation failed; operators unaware– Should region around TMI be evacuated?
• No fatalities; little radiation exposure• Cleanup lasted 14 years; cost $975 million• Public confidence shaken
– 51 US nuclear reactor orders cancelled 1980-84
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island
Chernobyl Accident
• April 26, 1986
• Pripyat, Ukraine
• Catastrophic steam explosion– Destroyed reactor– Plume of radioactive fallout spread far
• USSR, eastern Europe, Scandinavia, UK, eastern US• Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia hit hardest
– 56 direct deaths; ~4,000 long-term deaths– 200,000 people evacuated and resettled
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident
Chernobyl Accident
http://www.ourtimelines.com/zchern.html
Causes of Chernobyl
• No containment building
• Poor reactor design (unsafe)– Inserting control rods initially increased reactor
energy generation
• Operators were careless & violated plant procedures– Switched off many safety systems– Withdrew too many control rods
• Causes still in dispute by various parties
Chernobyl Contamination
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident
Recent US Auto Scrams
http://www.nei.org
Recent US Significant Events
http://www.nei.org
Nuclear Power and the Environment
US Sources of Clean Energy
http://www.nei.org
The Environment
Over the past 50 years, US Nuclear Plants Have:
• Generated 13.7 Trillion Kilowatt-Hours of Electricity
• Zero Carbon Depletion & Zero Emissions
Avoiding:
• 3.1 Billion Metric Tons of Carbon
• 73.6 Million Tons Sulfur Dioxide
• 35.6 Million Tons of Nitrogen Oxides
Greenhouse Gas Production
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
Voluntary CO2 Reductions
http://www.nei.org
Emissions Avoided
http://www.nei.org
Life Cycle Emissions Analysis
GenerationOption
Greenhouse gas emissions
gram equiv CO2/kWh
SO2 emissions
milligram/kWh
NOx emissions
milligram/kWh
NMVOC milligram
/kWh
Particulate matter
milligram/kWh
Hydropower 2-48 5-60 3-42 0 5
Coal - modern plant 790-1182 700-32321+ 700-5273+ 18-29 30-663+
Nuclear 2-59 3-30 2-100 0 2
Natural gas (combined
cycle)389-511 4-15000+ 13+-1500 72-164 1-10+
Biomass forestry waste
combustion15-101 12-140 701-1950 0 217-320
Wind 7-124 21-87 14-50 0 5-35
Solar photovoltaic 13-731 24-490 16-340 70 12-190
http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=260
Emissions Produced by 1 kWh of Electricity Based on Life-Cycle Analysis
Life-Cycle CO2 Emissions
Nuclear Power Economics
Nuclear Operating Performance
0%
50%
100%
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Cap
acit
y F
acto
r
0
500
1000
Gen
erat
ion
(B
illi
on
Kw
hr)71 71 74 77 76 74
80 85 87 89 90
RecordPerformance778 Billion kWhrs
GenerationCapacity FactorCDF
Nuclear Generating Costs
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Gen
erat
ion
Co
sts
($/M
wh
r) 30.3 29.927.3
25.5 25.227.2
23.521.2 20.5 19.4 18.8
FuelCapital ImproveO&M
2002 Dollars
US Nuclear Production Costs
http://www.nei.org
US Production Cost Comparison
http://www.nei.org
US Capacity Factors (2004)
http://www.nei.org
Nuclear PowerPro and Con
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
• Possibly disastrous accidents• Nuclear waste dangerous for thousands of years
– unless reprocessed• Risk of nuclear proliferation associated with some
designs • High capital costs • Long construction periods
– largely due to regulatory delays• High maintenance costs • High cost of decommissioning plants • Designs of current plants are all large-scale
Anti-Nuclear Ad
http://perth.indymedia.org/storyuploads/13114/en_4b.jpg
Advantages of Nuclear Power
• Substantial base load energy producing capability• No greenhouse gas emissions during operation• Does not produce air pollutants • The quantity of waste produced is small • Small number of major accidents
– only one (TMI) in types of plants in common use
• Low fuel costs; Large fuel reserves • Ease of transport and stockpiling of fuel • Future designs may be small and modular
– For example, SSTAR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant
Nuclear Energy Institute Ad
The Future ofNuclear Power
Nuclear Units in Construction
http://www.nei.org
New Nuclear Plants Inevitable
• It is no longer a matter of debate whether there will be new nuclear plants in the industry’s future. Now, the discussion has shifted to predictions of how many, where and when.
• New nuclear plants and base-load power plants using new coal technologies are least likely to appear in the populous and energy-hungry Northeast or in California, regions that already have significantly higher energy prices than the Southeast and Midwest
• These differences will tend to favor lower energy prices in the Southeast and Midwest to the disadvantage of the Northeast and California.– Fitch Ratings Ltd., “Wholesale Power Market Update,” March 13,
2006
http://www.nei.org
G-8 Energy Ministers
• G-8 Energy Ministers Call Nuclear Energy Crucial to Environmentally Sustainable Diversification of Energy Supply– Ministers proceed from the fact that diversification of the
energy portfolio in terms of energy sources, suppliers and consumers as well as delivery methods and routes will reduce energy security risks not only for individual countries but for the entire international community.
– For those countries that wish, wide-scale development of safe and secure nuclear energy is crucial for long-term environmentally sustainable diversification of energy supply
• G8 Energy Ministerial Meeting, March 15-16, 2006, Moscow• http://www.nei.org/documents/G-8_Statement_3-21-06.pdf
http://www.nei.org
Greenpeace Founder for NP
• Greenpeace Founder Patrick Moore Speaks in Favor of Nuclear Energy at U.N. Climate Change Conference– There is now a great deal of scientific evidence showing
nuclear power to be an environmentally sound and safe choice,” Moore has said, adding that calls to phase out both coal and nuclear power worldwide are unrealistic. “There are simply not enough available forms of alternative energy to replace both of them together. Given a choice between nuclear on the one hand and coal, oil and natural gas on the other, nuclear energy is by far the best option, as it emits neither CO2 nor any other air pollutants.”
• http://www.greenspiritstrategies.com/D151.cfm
http://www.nei.org
Fusion Energy
Nuclear Binding Energy
http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm
Fission vs. Fusion
http://encarta.msn.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion
Tokamak Fusion Design
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tokamak_fields_lg.png
JET Tokamak
Extra Slides
Nuclear PP Schematic
http://www.nucleartourist.com/frconten.htm
Nuclear PP Cutaway
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/teachers/nuc-power-plant.html
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/bwr.htmlc
Next Generation Reactors• Design Highlights
– 1,400 MWe Plant With Simplified Systems
– Passive Safety Features
• Overall Schedule
– Licensing Process Started 2002
– Regulatory Approval Expected 2006
• Key Benefits
– Faster Construction, Lower Costs
– Improved Safety and Security
– Improved O&M Costs
ESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New NeedsESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New Needs
Latest US Design
ESBWRESBWR
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html
Global Power Generation
335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years35% of Orders Come from China35% of Orders Come from China
2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast
Asia AIM Europe Ltn. Amer. N. Amer.
187
57 50
2815
China
125
Rest of Asia62
Rest of Asia62
Source: EPM S1 Forecast
(GW)(GW)