Notes

2 Globalisation and ‘Super Diversity’

1. On 15 October 2011 the ‘indignados’ inspired an international day of protest,with demonstrations in around 90 countries to promote global change tocombat the way in which ‘the ruling powers work for the benefit of just afew, ignoring the will of the vast majority and the human and environmen-tal price we all have to pay . . . it is up to us, the people, to decide our future.We are not goods in the hands of politicians and bankers who do not representus’ (http://15october.net/).

2. ‘Labour’ refers to the British Labour Party.3. Tariq Ramadan published his ‘Manifesto for a new “we” ’ as ‘an appeal to the

Western Muslims and their fellow citizens’ on 7 July 2006.

3 Reforming the Notion of Identity

1. The song Melting Pot was released in the UK in 1969 and performed by BlueMink and later by Culture Club.

2. The Prevent programme has been revised over the years; this version sets outthe programme prior to the changes discussed in this chapter.

4 The ‘Failure’ of Multiculturalism

1. This approach is still evident as a ‘knee jerk’ reaction to communal politics, forexample the response to a further outbreak of Scottish sectarianism in April2011 resulted in an attempt to ban internet hate messages, rather than dealwith underlying causes of intolerance and conflict.

2. See http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/multiculturalism/citizenship.asp.3. Alastair Campbell, Prime Minister Blair’s director of strategy and commu-

nications, intervened in an interview with Vanity Fair magazine to pre-vent the prime minister from answering a question about his Christianity.‘We don’t do God,’ Mr Campbell said (May, 2003). In February 2012, how-ever, Sayeeda Warsi, a minister in the Cameron government has suggestedthat her government does ‘do God’ in a speech in the Vatican City.

4. For a full discussion of the development, policy and practice of communitycohesion see Cantle (2008).

5. Margaret Thatcher famously used the word ‘swamping’ in 1978 and so toodid David Blunkett, the then Labour home secretary, in 2002. More recentlyDavid Cameron’s reference to the ‘failure of multiculturalism’ was claimed assupport for the EDL who were mounting a protest on the day following hisannouncement at the Munich conference in February 2011.

213

214 Notes

5 The Contribution of ‘Community Cohesion’

1. This duty was introduced by the Education and Inspections Act 2006 andbecame operational in 2007.

2. For a full discussion of ‘the journey to community cohesion’, see Cantle(2008). Revised and updated edition 2008.

3. In the first official report into the UK riots in August 2011 (Riots, Communitiesand Victims Panel, 2011), a ‘link between deprivation and rioting’ was onlyestablished in the sense that ‘Our unique analysis shows that 70 per cent ofthose brought before the courts were living in the 30 per cent most deprivedpostcodes in the country.’ (However, those ‘brought before the courts’ mayhave not been the same as those taking part in the riots, as the police weremore likely to arrest people who were already known to them.)

4. The early Race Relations legislation did include duties to promote ‘good rela-tions’, particularly between immigrants and the host community, but thesewere largely ignored – see Cantle (2008), pp. 38–40.

6 Segregation and Integration – And Why They Matter

1. Facebook alone apparently has over 700 million members, with suggestionsthat it could reach 1 billion in a few years.

7 Interculturalism: Conceptualisation

1. View programme at www.bridgingcultures.org.uk.2. http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/multiculturalism/citizenship.asp.3. http://www.coe.int/interculturalcities.4. http://opencities.britishcouncil.org/web/index.php?home_en.5. http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,3746,en_36734052_36761863_369524

73_1_1_1_1,00.html.

8 Interculturalism: Policy and Practice

1. http://opencities.britishcouncil.org/web/index.php?home_en.2. http://www.luton.gov.uk/harmony.3. http://playingforchange.com/.

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Index

Abrams, D., 145–6academic deficit, 102Action for Children, 205active enmity, 87Adler, R.D., 33Adonis, A., 129adoption, 41Adorno, T.W., 165affinities, 24–6Afghanistan, 26African communities, 48, 49, 188age distribution in Britain, 13Agg, C., 9–10Ajegbo, Sir K., 209Allport, G. W., 104, 145‘all of us’ concept, 109Anie, A., 128An-Nisa Society, 44anti-discrimination laws, 50anti-diversity, 16anti-globalisation, 4, 9anti-migration, 12, 16, 63, 139anti-Muslim organizations, 43anti-racism, 39, 47–8anti-terrorism programmes, 32, 45Arab Spring, 35, 46, 171, 180, 205Asian communities

Christian communities in, 48collective identities of, 78country, importance of, 19in England, 59–60in mixed race communities, 22,

59–60multiculturalism in, 5Muslim identities in, 49, 78parallel lives (with White

communities) in, 113personal identities of, 19race riots and, 96school segregation of, 123stereotyping, 96

Asian identity, 37

assimilationism, 39, 88, 102, 112,153–4

asylum, 101Auckland, New Zealand, 200Australian communities, 34, 80Australians identities, 21Austrian Freedom Party, 85authoritarian personality, 165Awards for Bridging Cultures (ABCs),

144, 156, 168

Back, L., 37Bahrain, 8Balderston, S., 148Baldwin, C., 16Balkans, 16Bangkok, 34banking crisis, 6Barcelona, 34Baring Foundation, 144, 156barriers of entry, 164Bartlett, J., 45, 99BBC, 33, 101Beck, U., 183Belgium, 16, 25, 27, 81, 137Bell, D., 7belonging, 39, 108, 134

interculturalism, fostering of, 155to local communities, 23sense of, 139, 205

Berger, P., 188Berube, A., 126, 196Beunderman, J., 148, 196,

198–9Bevan, Aneurin, 196Bianchini, F., 156, 179Biggs, M., 127, 132, 146, 165bigotry, 167bilateral accommodations, 32Billig, M., 10, 27–8binary Black/White opposites, 78biological superiority, 48, 173

229

230 Index

bi-polarity, 81birth country, 19Blackaby, B., 106Black British identities, 11, 22Black communities

Black history month project for, 182Black-led housing associations

for, 56bounded identities of, 41country, importance of, 19culture of, 36international identities of, 20mixed race communities of, 22, 38multiculturalism of, 5personal identities of, 19political consciousness of, 56political culture of, 37racism in, 79school segregation of, 123solidarity of, 78, 79

Black identities, 78–80blackness, 78Black on Black violence, 79Black or Minority Ethnic (BME), 119Bloomfield, J., 156, 179Blunkett, D., 95Bouchard, G., 35, 76, 80–1, 141,

153–5, 202–4Bouchard-Taylor Report, 154, 155bounded identities, 31, 40–1Brah, A., 22, 37–8Brammen, Norway, 200Brazil, 208Brecknock, R., 209bridge building, 147Britain

age distribution in, 13belonging campaigns in, 109–10Church of England in, 72dynamic societies in, 36ethnic diversity in, 31–2faiths in, 70–1integration in, 65intolerance in, 65Irish community in, 49migration in, 112minority communities in, 54mixed race communities in, 37multi-ethnic, 65

Muslim communities in, 75national culture in, building of, 108national identities in, 28as nation-state, 24as one Nation, view of, 58racism in, 65school segregation in, 123segregation in, 112, 119–20social apartheid in, 130social divides in, 33workplace segregation in, 124

British-Chinese identities, 22British Council (BC), 133, 150–1, 158,

162British Left, 108British Muslim communities, 105British Muslim identities, 11, 22British National Party (BNP), 84–7,

98, 101Britishness, 22–3, 84, 108–9, 204Brynin, M., 41Buddhists, 184Building Opportunity, Strengthening

Society reports, 97Burberry, 34Burgess, S., 123Burnett, J., 35, 95–6, 109business, globalisation of, 6business environment, 161

Cadbury, George, 196Cameron, D., 32, 53, 68–9, 76, 109,

116, 136–7, 185–6, 204Canada

English-speaking, 81ethno-cultural diversity in, 80French-speaking, 81integration in, 202–3interculturalism in, 141, 154middle class in, 33multiculturalism, adoption of, 63–4,

154nation of, 24, 25school segregation in, 70segregation in, 118, 202–3

Canadian Charter of Rights andFreedoms, 203

Cantle Report, 94, 95

Index 231

Cantle, T., 14–16, 23, 25, 36, 39, 41,48, 56, 59–60, 63, 66–8, 70, 73,76, 80, 91–2, 94–7, 100, 107, 109,112, 114, 117, 120, 122, 126, 128,130, 134–6, 138–9, 146, 165, 178,185–6, 190, 193–4, 201–2, 205

Cardiff University, 42–3Carling, A., 121Cashin, S., 118Castells, M., 8–9, 10, 17–19, 24Catalonia, 17Catalonian nation, 25Catholic communities, 25, 190Catholic Education Service, 71Cemlyn, S., 128Central Bank, 170Chatham House, 144Cheesman, D., 20Chek Wai, L. E., 78, 138children, race of, 39Chinese communities

communications technology in, 8embourgeioisement in, 34employment in, 208international communications in,

76middle class in, 33nationality-based diaspora identities

in, 21chosen identities, 30Christian Aid, 13Christian communities, 48, 72, 138,

163, 184Christian faiths, 70, 72, 184, 188Church of England, 70, 72church schools, 193citizenship, 11

active, 104common, 109concept of, 96easy access to, 161in England, 25functional segregation and

integration and, 133, 134global, 187good, 150government support for, 76intercultural, 161multicultural, 161

national, 22nationalities and, linking of, 25nation-state, 19–20rights-based concept of, 103tests of, 25, 32, 138

Citizenship Surveys, 160civilizations, 21, 42, 69, 137–8civilized identities, 137Civil society organisations, 177civil spaces, 198Clarke, T., 94Clark, G., 31, 162, 207clash of civilizations. 42, 69, 137–8class, 33, 99closed communities, 122, 167clustered communities, 122co-existence work, 104cohesion. See also community

cohesionlow, 62nation-state, 25social, 20, 65, 207

cold identities, 36Cole, I., 196collective affiliation, 48collective identities, 2, 5

concept of, 143globalisation, impact on, 52of middle class, 34in mixed race communities, 60multiculturalism, impact on,

14, 48post-war multiculturalism, threat to,

48public realm of, 50of race, 30solidarity and, impact of, 18, 82within state, 10, 51super diversity, impact on, 52in United Kingdom, 28in Western societies, change of, 18

collective life, 15collective memory, 155colonialism, 167Comedia Group, 155comma-ed identities, 40Commission for Integration and

Cohesion (CIC), 68, 93, 108

232 Index

Commission for Racial Equality, 60,92, 96, 119, 147

commonality, 102, 108, 135communication, 6, 8, 99. See also

specific types ofglobal, 10–11, 21, 28, 62, 131intercultural, 145international, 6, 13, 76, 174mass, 33non-governmental organisations,

important role of, 11virtual, 131

communitarianism, 96Communitarian Network, 67communities, 18, 48–9, 65, 96, 114,

182. See also specific types ofcommunity cohesion, 2, 14

academic appraisal of, 102academic publications on, 95–6birth of, 15city-wide development of, 91–2commitment to, 105–11concept of, 91conceptual development of, 92–102contribution of, 91–111cosmopolitan identities and, 35defensive multiculturalism and, 57,

101defining, 92–4, 105development of, 92–102, 145in England, 91, 107ethnic diversity and impact on,

15–16failure of, 148formalization of, 94–5guidance for, 106–7impact of, 96implementation of, 101interaction and, 102–5intercultural dialogue and, 145interculturalism and, 88–90, 142investments in, 16at local level, 107–9mainstreaming, 106national review of, 149positive vision for development of,

92practical development of, 92–102prejudices and impact on, 145

race and, 81–2, 98–9reinforcement of, 106school segregation and impact of,

70separatism and, 70solidarity and, 15–16spin-off benefits of, 110support for, 105–7in United Kingdom, 22–3, 44, 91,

102–3, 105–6, 113universal adoption of, 67vision of, 94

Community Cohesion Unit (CCU),94–5

community of communities, 65competences, 157conflicts, 16–19, 150, 172–3

identity, 30interethnic, 79intergenerational, 99national, 29sectarian, 80

contact theory, 14, 63, 104, 145contextualized identities, 36Coombes, A., 37–8Copsey, N., 86, 101cosmopolitan identities, 19, 20, 35,

182–3, 186cosmopolitanism, 20, 24, 183–4Council of Europe (CoE), 54, 68, 134,

139, 143, 153, 155, 169crimes, 8, 100. See also hate crimescriminality, 96cross-border movements, 31cross-cultural contacts, 127cross-party political agreements, 178Crystal, D., 21cultural barriers, 210cultural capital, 122cultural distinctiveness, 67–8cultural identities, 21, 85, 137culturally distinctive communities, 65cultural markers, 138cultural navigation, 2cultural networks, 116cultural pluralism, 20

Index 233

culture, 65barriers of, 34, 143of Black people, 36changes in, 155codes of, 18, 33concept of, 32–3, 37, 173–4, 204contextualized, 39cultural identities and, clash of, 137defining, 82describing, 36diversity within, 37dynamic, 39exchanges within, 7of faith, 33, 204idea of, 168intermixing of, 39of Jewish communities, 20language, differential marker of, 81literacy of, 209male occupational, 130–1Muslim, 36national, 108nature of, 167notion of, 67other, 39political, 37public, 208race and, 32–3, 36static, 39superiority within, 143White, 36

Cuperus, R., 5, 17, 120, 170, 182, 196Curtice, J., 179

Dawkins, R., 187decision-making process, 190defensive multiculturalism, 47, 54–63,

92blaming minorities for, 60community cohesion and, 57debates over, 53–4deprivation and, 61–3disagreement and, 58–9discrimination, protection from, 54equality and, 58ethnic segregation and, 60in France, 54in Germany, 54inequalities and, 63

migration and, 55for minority communities, 54multiculturalism policies and, 53–4,

56–8multicultural separateness and, 55in Muslim communities, 53–4notion of, 53objective reality of, 53poverty and, 61–3racism, protection from, 54right to be different and, 59secularism and, 59self-segregation and, 59–61separateness and, 57–8subjective reality and, 53

deferential worker, 33Demirbag-Sten, D., 42, 75, 177democracies

in multifaith communities, 191–2Muslim communities, support for,

46Western, 45–6, 76, 189–90

democratic deficit, 51, 135, 180democratic politics, 10–11democratization, 9, 18Denham, J., 43, 92, 94–5, 204Department of Communities and

Local Government (DCLG), 93,94, 95, 103, 148

deprivation, 61–3, 74–5, 97Diamond Jubilee, 138diaspora identities, 5, 11, 20–1, 180

faith-based, influences of, 50, 171influences of, 36, 180single, 138using social media to reaffirm, 6

differences, 62, 104community cohesion and, 99–100,

165cultural identities and, 85fear of, 100, 128globalisation and, 78, 169–71hate crimes and, 165–6interculturalism and, 163–71minorities and, 82otherness and, 62of people, 101race, concept of, 163–5race and, 82

234 Index

differences – continuedracial, 77reaffirming, 181in United Kingdom, 166–7

Dinham, A., 50, 188disabilities, 100, 128–9, 148disagreement, 58–9discrimination, 99, 101

condemnation of, 66differences and, 141economic, 62multicultural policies of, 48, 56–7post-war, 56preventing, 135separatism, 69in United Kingdom, policies on, 112workplace, 124

diversity. See also specific types ofchanging patterns of, 32city openness and, 164within culture, 37in daily lives, exposure to, 14ethnic, 15–16, 31–2, 98ethno-cultural, 80–1in France, 189hyper (See super diversity)identity politics and, 14interculturalism, opportunities of,

207–8within Muslim communities, 45negative effects of, 16in Northern Ireland, 166opportunities of, 207–8paradox of, 14, 27, 87–8, 160political, 172positive value of, 105social capital and, 15solidarity, impact on, 16in United Kingdom, 45, 98, 189within unity, 67values of, 158workplace, 196

Earth Summit (1992), 10Eastern Europe, 16economic changes, 18, 36Eisenhower Foundation, 126electronic global economy, 8embourgeioisement, 34

employment, 124, 208–9England

affinities of, 24Asian communities in, 59–60Catholic Education Service for, 71citizenship in, 25community cohesion in, 91, 102,

107ethnic diversity in, 98faith in, 70Far Right in, rise of, 43hate crimes in, 165migration in, 12mixed race communities in, 38nation of, 24non-White British in, 12race riots in, 81–2segregation in, 119spatial segregation in, 114–15

English Civil War, 23English Defence League, 43, 86–7, 138English, R., 186English for Speakers of Overseas

Languages (ESOL), 202English identity, 86English language, 21English-speaking Canada, 81equalities agenda, 196–7equality, 58, 64, 135Equality Act 2010, 50–1, 166–7Equality and Human Rights

Commission (EHRC), 13, 74, 100,101, 124, 166, 195

equal opportunities, 115–16, 135essentialism, 58Estonia, 81ethnicity, 62

classification of, 48–9coding of, 75conceptualization of, 37conflicts with, 16–19culture and, 32, 33differences in, 67faith and, 72–3functional segregation and

integration and, 135–6hyphenating of, 21mixed race communities and, 40monitoring of, 48–9, 75, 135–6, 187

Index 235

of Muslim communities, 45Northern Ireland, classifications in,

145perception of, 31–2personal identities, important

element of, 19prejudices towards, 117race and, 30, 51, 77–8, 98–9segregation and, 101, 132spatial segregation and integration

and, 126–7tensions and, 101

ethnicity box, 187ethnocentrism, 121Etzioni, A., 96Eugenicist movement, 30Euro, 17Eurobarometer, 159–60Europe

anti-migration in, 139biological racism in, 82–3democratic state of, 23Extreme Far Right parties in, rise of,

14, 16Far Right in, growth of, 82–5, 138foreign-born population statistics

in, 31globalisation in, negative impact of,

4integration policies in, 133interculturalism in, 141openness in, 159–60peace in, 176segregation in, 118, 130, 137

European Central Bank, 170European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC), 170European Commission (EC), 128, 143,

149European Convention of Human

Rights, 170European Economic Community

(EEC), 170European Inclusion Index, 133European Parliament, 84, 170European Union, 9, 83, 149, 170European Year of Intercultural

Dialogue (EYICD), 143, 149Eurozone countries, 9, 18, 170

Evans, G., 130extremism, 43, 44, 86, 131

Facebook generation, 35faith, 70–3, 174, 184–5, 188

coding of, 75conceptualization of, 37conflicts with, 16–18cultures of, 33, 204global communications and, 21hyphenating of, 21identities, 50, 52, 185–6mixedness in, 38mixed race communities of, 22monitoring of, 75in multifaith communities, 190–1political salience of, 190–1in public sphere, 189–91, 193segregation and integration,

responses to, 204super diversity of, 40in United Kingdom, 71–2, 77,

184–5, 190–1in Western societies, 20–1

Fagiolo, G., 114, 194Fanshawe, S., 16, 32, 39–40Far East, 188Farrell, D., 33Far Right, 4, 6

cross-cultural contacts and, 127differences and, 170–1distinguishing types of, 85diversity paradox of, 87–8in England, rise of, 43in Europe, growth of, 82–3, 138globalisation, impact on, 83growth of, 84–6Hope and Fear report by, 86–7migration, opposition to, 83, 85, 87,

133, 173minority communities, opposition

to, 63, 68, 83–4, 173multiculturalism and, 82–8Muslim communities, role in, 46,

49–50no platform position of, 101prejudicial views of, 165race riots and, 96racial debates of, 61, 87

236 Index

Far Right – continuedsegregation and, 132support for, increasing, 46terrorism by, 131violence caused by, 46xenophobic populism, opposition

to, 87Far Right British National Party, 165fear, 17, 86, 100, 128, 194, 207–8Fear and HOPE report, 178Fenton, A., 126fifth column. See Muslim

communitiesfinancial capital, 6financial crisis, 6, 8, 17, 51Financial Times, 29Finney, N., 59, 66, 121fixed identities, 30flagged identities, 135, 181flagging, 29, 76Forster Education Act, 71France

assimilation in, 112coercive powers in, 24cultural markers in, 138defensive multiculturalism in, 54diversity in, 189institutional separation in, 72segregation in, 137sovereignty in, 83

freedom, 164, 169of choice, 195of the city, 161diversity and, 54of rights, 184of speech, 205

Frenchness, 22–3, 85French-speaking Canada, 81Front National, 83, 85Fukuyama, F., 24, 26–7functional segregation and

integration, 132–6Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, 58

Gale, R., 20Gallagher, T., 71, 185gateway leaders, 186Germany, 33, 54, 112, 141, 157ghetto, 117, 140, 174

Giddens, A., 8, 76Gilroy, P., 78, 80, 82, 99Glasman, M., 11global brands, 6, 17, 33global communities, 29global economy, 26global environment, 29globalisation

benefits of, 4, 14challenges of, 174–5, 207collective identities, impact on, 52dark side of, 8dimensions of, 6–12dynamics of, 135Far Right, impact on, 83future of, 11–12identity politics and, 183intercultural competences and,

development of, 208interculturalism and, 90, 111minority communities, as cause of,

6nationalism and, division between,

83, 170–1navigational skills and,

development of, 208negative impact of, 4–6origins of, 4personal identities, impact on, 52social impacts of, 11sovereignty and, 9

globalized identities, 17, 31, 171global movements, 180–1global village, 7, 27Goodchild, B., 196Goodhart, D., 109good race relations, 56Goodwin, M., 61, 77, 82–5, 87, 98,

127, 133, 163, 204Google, 8, 76governance, 2

faith, role in, 191global, 18, 29international, 26multiculturalism, impact on, 14in multifaith communities, system

of, 188–94national identities, views of, 22nation-state, functions of, 26–7

Index 237

segregation and integration,intervention in, 194

separatism, policies supporting,69–70

Greece, 141Griffin, Nick, 101Griffin, R., 85Griffith, P., 133guest workers, 112, 157, 178–9Guidance on Community Cohesion,

92Gundara, J., 208–9gypsies, 127–8

Habermas, J., 188Hall, S., 36Hammer, L., 67harassment, 99, 100, 124–5Harris, J., 12Harris, M., 147Harrison, H., 104Harris, R., 123Harvard University, 19Hasan, R., 58–9hate crimes, 65, 99–100, 103, 165–6Heath, A., 62, 98Held, D., 9, 183Helsinki report, 199–201heritage, 187

global communications and, 21idea of, 168Italian, 21in minority communities,

protection of, 47, 54multiculturalism policies on, 48multiple (See mixed race

communities)nation and, protection of, 24using social media to reaffirm, 6

Hewstone, M., 63, 99, 104, 145, 165–6Hickman, M., 124, 146Hiebert, D., 115, 118, 194Hillyard, P., 75homogeneity, 20, 37, 80–1, 121homogenous communities, 42homophobic violence, 99Hooson D., 17Hope and Fear report, 86–7horizontal identities, 34–5

hot identities, 36House of Commons Communities, 45House of Lords, 72, 190Howard, A., 71, 193, 196Huntingdon, S.P., 42, 137Huntingdon’s thesis, 42Hussain, A., 65, 73hybrid identities, 11, 32, 48, 49, 51, 52hyphenated identities, 21, 22, 28, 40

Iceland, J., 118, 121identities. See also specific types of

changing patterns of, 22choice-based, 47–52choice of, 31components of, 36conceptualization of, 36–7dynamic, 47–52hot patterns of, 35interconnectedness of, 45of mixed races, 37–41multiculturalism policies and,

relationship between, 47multiple, 47–52of Muslim communities, 42–6national, 22–3, 31–7, 171notion of, 21, 35, 52policies based on, 32political importance of, 85race and, linkage between, 36, 47–8,

51reforming notion of, 30–52static concepts of, 36, 39universal conception of, 60vertical forms of, 5

identity politics, 2, 13, 87, 181–7barriers to, 184cosmopolitan identities and, 182–3cosmopolitanism and, 183–4development of, 28–9faith identities and, 185–6global communications and

acceleration of, 28globalisation and, 183heritage and, 187mixed race and, omission from, 32multiculturalism policies and, 182national identity and, 181–2single-identity groups and, 186

238 Index

identity politics – continuedsocial identities and, 187state-sponsored community

leadership and, 186sub-national identities and, 185–6supra-national identities and, 185–6in United Kingdom, 182

identity purity, 185identity tribes, 87imagined community, 27immigration, 15, 86–7, 101Independent Panel on Community

Cohesion, 106–7Index of Dissimilarity (ID), 119India, 147, 208indigenous Australians, 34indignados, 9, 12, 205inequalities, 63, 96–7, 99Inglehart, R., 33, 50Institute for Public Policy Research, 40Institute of Community Cohesion

(iCoCo), 84, 107, 144, 150–1insular communities, 140integration. See also interculturalism

all or nothing, 47in Britain, 65conceptualizing, 114, 116defining, 113–14in Europe, policies on, 133identity and, importance of, 95interculturalism and, 154of Muslim communities, 69national identities and, 135segregation and, 112–40social, 64strategies for, 69–70

interaction, 5. See also interculturalismbanal, 148–9competences of, 210interethnic, 147–8opportunity for, 149

interconnectedness, 9, 34. See alsointerculturalism

intercultural cities, 155–6, 179,198–200

intercultural competences,development of, 151, 206–12

intercultural dialogue (ICD), 143, 145breaking down barriers, 147British Council’s investment in,

150–1concept of, 143–4, 151–52interculturalism and, 143–52interethnic interaction and, 147–8prejudice and, 145–7

intercultural exchanges, 210interculturalism, 1–3, 32, 82, 168

choice of, 153community cohesion and, 88–90,

142concept of, 68, 141–5, 155–6defining, 142, 143, 153, 156development of, 88differences and, 163–71elements of, 142entrenchment and, 142–43evolution of, 157–8foundational elements of, 142in Germany, 157global, 157globalisation and, 90, 111identity politics and, 142, 181–7integration and, 194–206in intercultural cities, 155–6intercultural competences and,

206–12intercultural dialogue and, 143–52leadership and, 176–81in minority communities, 88models of, 49multiculturalism and, transitioning

from, 88–90multicultural model of, 87–8multifaith communities and,

188–94navigational skills and, 206–12notion of otherness and, 143openness and, 142, 158–63perspectives of, 152–8, 171–5policies for, 176–212practicing of, 176–212race and, 51, 142, 153secularism, component of, 188segregation and, 142, 194–206super diversity and, 90, 111vision of, 176–81

Index 239

intercultural union, 37, 38. See alsointermarriage

interdependence, 17, 22. See alsointerculturalism

interdependence of nation, 29interdependent economies, 6interethnic communities, 137interethnic contacts, 117, 122interfaith communities, 137Inter Faith Network, 92interfaith unions, 40intermarriage, 22, 28, 36, 37, 69International Criminal Court, 8internationalism, 17, 168. See also

interculturalismInternational Monetary Fund,

8, 12Ipsos MORI, 209Irish communities, 21, 36, 49, 75

James, M., 141, 145, 149, 156Jenkins, Roy, 65, 92Jewish communities, 20, 184, 190Johnstone, M., 10, 23Johnston, R., 71, 115, 118–20, 123Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 155,

196, 198Jurado, E., 46, 71, 75, 181

Kaur-Stubbs, S., 147Kenichi, O., 7Khan, K., 44Khanum, N., 20Kharas, H., 33Knauss, S., 127, 132, 146Korten, D., 7Kriemer, M., 130Kundnani, A., 43, 93, 104Kymlicka, W., 15, 70, 86, 109, 157,

185

laicité, 72Landry, C., 160languages, 5, 21, 81, 201–2Latchford, P., 79Laurence, J., 62, 98Law, B., 147layered identities, 36, 207

leadership, 176–81change and, vitality of, 179–80city openness and, 179community cohesion of, 106global movements and, 180–1grass roots form of, 179at international level, 180political class and, 181state-sponsored community, 186vision statement and, 179

Lederach, J.P., 104Legrain, P., 15Lentin, A., 66–7, 95Leonard, M., 133Le Pen, Marine., 83, 85, 170Lesbian, Gay, Bi-Sexual, Transgender

and Intersex (LGBTI) groups,131–2, 167

Living Together, 54, 68Local Government Association (LGA),

92Local Government Select Committee,

45local identities, 18–20, 109–10Lockwood, D., 33Logan, Australia, 200London, 12London Borough, 199London Thames Gateway, 195–6Lord Mandelson, 11Lowndes, V., 50Lownsbrough, H., 148, 196, 198–9Lozells riots, 79Luton in Harmony campaign, 180–1

Macklin, G., 86, 101Malik, K., 188Mansouri, F., 34, 183Martell, L., 183Mason, A., 135, 201Mateos, P., 118McGann, J., 10, 23McGhee, D., 35–6, 96, 103–4, 108,

168, 182, 185McLuhan, M., 7Meer, N., 67, 141–2Merkel, A., 54, 116, 137, 204Messina, A., 85Miah, R., 73

240 Index

middle class, 33–4Migrant Integration Policy Index

(MIPEX), 133, 158–60migration, 164

in Britain, 112citizenship tests and, 25defensive multiculturalism and, 55Far Right, opposition to, 83, 85, 87,

133, 173functional segregation and

integration and, 133–4multiculturalism and, 12, 141, 173solidarity and, 15–16in United Kingdom, 35virtual connectedness and

increased, 6–7in Wales, 12

Migration Policy Group, 133, 158miniaturization of people, 21minority communities

beleaguered, 20in Britain, 54country, importance of, 19cultural changes within, 47cultural distinctiveness of, 67–8defensive multiculturalism for, 54Far Right, opposition to, 63, 68,

83–4, 173globalisation, as cause of, 6heritage in, protection of, 47, 54identity conflicts within, 30interculturalism in, 88multiculturalism in, management

of, 57–8racial harassment of, 124–5racism in, 88segregated, 122segregation and integration in, 195social changes within, 47spatial segregation and integration

in, 124–6Mirza, M., 49mixed communities, 174, 196mixed race communities, 21

Asian communities in, 22, 59–60children dealing with notion of

being, 39collective identities in, 60ethnicity and, 40

Far Right, opposition to, 56identity politics and, omission

from, 32interfaith unions and, 40of natural families, 41personal identities in, 60

mixed race hybridity, 41mixed race identities, 37–41mixed race unions, 41mixité, 81Modood, T., 36, 59, 67, 78, 141–2, 188monocultural identities, 32monoculturalism, 14, 32, 39, 48, 49, 51Moore, K., 42–3Muir, R., 28, 34, 75–6, 108–10multiculturalism, 1–2. See also

multiculturalism policies; specifictypes of

in Asians communities, 5assimilationist model of, 72of Black communities, 5blaming minorities for, 59, 60, 101British, 112British liberal, 56Canada’s adoption of, 63–4, 154collective identity, impact on, 14concept of, 141critique of, 156debate over, 14defensive, 47, 54–63, 92description of, 53failure of, 14, 42, 53–90, 195faith and, component of, 72Far Right and, populist appeal of,

82–8foundational elements of, 142global communications and, 62ideology of, 54language of, 67legacy of, 172in majority communities,

management of, 57–8migration and, 12, 141, 173race and, 30, 51, 77–82, 141rebalancing of, 67rejection of, 153state, 68–76, 186super diversity and, 5, 12, 14, 62in White communities, 5

Index 241

multiculturalism policies, 1, 32identity and, relationship

between, 47identity politics and, 182intercultural model of, 52political processes in, 52

multicultural societies, 32multicultural theory, 66multi-ethnic Britain, 65multiethnic communities, 72multifaith communities, 72

governance in, system of, 188–94secularism in, 188–94

Muslim communitiesChristians, relationship with, 138community cohesion in, 99cultural distinctiveness in, 204defensive multiculturalism in, 53–4demonization of, 136diaspora identities of, 20faith in, 72, 188faith in, privileging of, 71Far Right’s role in, 46, 49–50as non-White minorities, 50separateness in, 137

Muslim identities, 46, 49, 75, 78, 204Muslimness, 45

nation, 24–5, 27, 29, 30, 177National Assembly, 203national characteristics, 65national communities, 83national identities, 5, 19, 171, 208

affinities and, 25constituting, 32distinctiveness of, 20downgrading, 179giving way to cultural identities, 27global communications, sustaining

of, 21governmental views of, 22homogeneity of, 20identity politics and, 181–2integration and, 135local identities and, 109national conflict with, 29politics and, 76pre-eminence of, 27protecting, 138–9

sensitizing, 30value-laden concepts of, 23weakening of, 20

nationalism, 20, 27–8, 208English, 186globalisation and, division between,

83, 170–1linguistic, 104national conflict with, 29value-laden concepts of, 23

nationalitiescitizenship and, linking of, 25conceptualization of, 37country, components of, 19declining sense of, 18hyphenating of, 21mixedness in, 38mixed race communities of, 22of Muslim communities, 45race and, 51

nation building, 26nation-state, 24

end to, 7, 27interconnectednessn of, 9multiculturalism policies in, 53

NATO, 46naturalization, 134Nature of Prejudice, The, 145navigational skills, development of,

206–12Netherlands, 67Neville-Jones, (P) Baroness, 43newcomers, 180New Labour, 35, 95–69/11 terrorist attacks, 42, 77no-go areas, 140, 174non-governmental organizations

(NGOs), 9–10, 205–6, 207non-White British identities, 12non-White minorities, 50Norris, P., 19–20, 28Northern Ireland

bridge building in, 147diversity in, 166ethnic classifications in, 145faith in, 70hate crimes in, 165Irish communities in, 75sectarian conflict in, 80

242 Index

Northern Ireland – continuedspatial segregation in, 115spatial separation in, 127

Norway, 83–4

Obama, President, 38Office of the Deputy Prime

Minister, 92OPENCites project, 162–3openness

city, 164interculturalism and, 142,

158–63international, 133–4OPENCites project on, 162–3super diversity and, 162understanding degrees of, 161–2

Open Society Foundations, 137Organization for Co-operation and

Economic Development (OECD),169

Organization for European EconomicCo-operation (OEEC), 169

Orwell, George, 27Osler, A., 70Oslo, Norway, 199–200otherness, 21, 62, 143others, 1

community cohesion and, 110defining, 26demonization of, 14–15discrimination of, 49Far Right, threat of, 82fear of, 86, 194hate crime of, 103hostility of, 66, 86ignorance of, 88mistrust of, 88misunderstanding, 57Muslim communities as, 50, 84perception of, 15prejudices of, 117respect for, 139suspicion of, 66

O’Toole, T., 20Our Shared Future, 68‘our shared future’ concept, 109Ouseley, H., 60, 86, 94Ouseley Report, 94

out-groups, 117Oxfam, 205

Pacific Islanders, 34paradox of diversity, 14, 27, 87–8, 160parallel lives, 15, 57

in clustered communities, 122ethnicity and, 126segregation and, 132segregation and integration and,

194spatial segregation and integration

and, 127spatial separation and, 127

parallel societies, 15Parekh, B., 58–9, 65, 188Paris, 34Park, A., 179Party for Freedom (PVV), 85peaceful co-existence, 156–7Penninx, R., 118personal identities, 207

concept of, 143in mixed race communities, 60multiculturalism, impact on, 14nation and, protection of, 24state, establishment by, 10

Phillips, D., 122Phillips, T., 119, 195Place Survey, 79Platt, L., 13, 38, 41, 184Playing for Change, 206Polish identities, 36political correctness, 41, 57, 113, 120political identities, 32, 36, 85Pollard, S., 129populism, xenophobic, 87populist extremist parties (PEPs), 82–4positive action, 75, 135post-race society, 78Poulsen, M., 117, 120poverty, 61–3, 97–8Powell, D., 21, 47, 55prejudices, 14–15, 62, 99, 100–1, 103,

104, 151, 167in closed communities, 167effects of, 146ethnicity and, 117of Far Right, 165

Index 243

intercultural dialogue and, 145–7intergroup, 145manifestations of, 146of others, 117of out-groups, 117psychological bases for, 145–6reducing, 145–7social solidarity, impact on, 145

Prevent Strategy, 42–6, 182primordial distinctions, 30primordial identities, 36progressive multiculturalism, 47,

63–8, 157British approach to, 65conception of, 67, 73cultural distinctiveness of, 67–8development of, 63–4exclusion and, 66inclusion and, 66layers of separation in, 66paradigm of, 68scapegoating and, 66segregation and, 66

Protestant communities, 25, 190Public Interest Research Centre, 205public spaces, 197–9pure breeds, 22pure identities, 48, 186pure origins, 37, 38Putnam, R.D., 15–16, 104, 197

Quebec, 16

racebinary Black/White opposites, 78biological superiority of, 48, 173Black identities, 79–80children, importance to, 39class and, tendencies of relationship

between, 99community cohesion and, 81–2,

98–9concept of, 37, 77culture and, 32–3, 36differences and, 82, 163–5dual (See mixed race communities)ethnic identities and, 49ethnicity and, 30, 51, 77–8, 98–9ethno-cultural diversity and, 80–1

faith and, 30, 51, 77Far Right and, 101Far Right’s views on, 47hybrid identities and, 49, 51idea of, 30, 168identities and, linkage between, 36,

47–8, 51intercultural conception of, 81interculturalism and, 51, 142, 153in minority communities, 88mixed communities of, 196multiculturalism and, 30, 51, 77–82,

141nationality and, 51political superiority of, 173pure, 52salience of, 49–50in segregated communities, 129segregation and, 122, 132, 194social context of, 168static concepts of, 39in United Kingdom, 79in Western countries, 77

race (tick) box, 187race relations acts, 77, 121–2race riots, 81–2, 96racial identities, 40, 48racial purity, 22, 37, 39racism, 47–8, 97, 99

biological, 82–3in Black communities, 79Black/White, 78in Britain, 65community cohesion and, 97–8defensive multiculturalism,

protection from, 54defining, 82ethnicity and, 62in minority communities, 88multiculturalism policies on, 48, 49,

56–7poverty and, 61–2science of, 146towards ethnic minorities, 127in White communities, 79

Ratcliffe, P., 66, 188regional identities, 5, 18–20religious beliefs, 192–4religious diaspora identities, 20

244 Index

religious identities, 5, 21, 73, 101religious schools, 185Report of the Independent Review

Team, 91Rethinking Multiculturalism, 58right(s), 93, 134

equal, 168–9freedom of, 184functional segregation and

integration and, 132–3inalienable, 169individual, 96, 170to openness, 158–9responsibilities and, 192, 201separate but equal, 158

Ritchie, D., 94Ritzen, J., 178Roebuck, E., 148Roma communities, 74, 128Romanian, 36roots, idea of, 168Runnymede Trust, 71, 193Russia, 141

Sachs, J., 190sameness, 36, 104Sampson, R., 115, 121–2Sandercock, L., 134, 139, 156, 167,

210Sarkozy, N., 54, 116, 138, 204Saxony, 23Scotland, 17, 24Searchlight Educational Trust, 18–19secessionist movements, 16, 17Second World War, 33, 176sectarianism, 166secularism, 188–94

decision-making process and, 190defensive multiculturalism and, 59defining, 188faith in public realm, 188–90interculturalism, component of, 188

segregated communities, 129segregation, 100

in Belgium, 137in Britain, 112, 119–20in Canada, 118challenging, 132community cohesion and, 100–1

conceptualizing, 114concerns about, 140debates over, 122de facto, 196defining, 113–14in England, 119entrenchment and, 194ethnicity and, 101in Europe, 118, 130, 137Far Right and, 132fears of others, 194in France, 137globalisation and, 140interculturalism and, 142intervening in, 128labour market, 130–1layers of, 114levels of, 117in minority communities, 88, 121,

195myth of, 121natural phenomenon of, 194–5nature of, 114–15, 122parallel lives and, 132, 194principal components of, 134problematic forms of, 129progressive multiculturalism and, 66residential, 70–1, 117, 118, 120, 194in Roma communities, 128school, 70–1, 120, 123–4spatial, 114–15spatial segregation and integration

and, 129super diversity and, 140in United Kingdom, 118, 120–1, 194in United States, 115, 117, 118,

125–6, 194virtuous circle of, 125in White communities, 117–18workplace, 124

segregation and integration, 112–40.See also specific types of

in Canada, 202–3clustered communities, 122common languages in, 201–2common values in, 205of communities, 113conceptual definition of, 113–14core values of, 203–4

Index 245

development of, 195–6domains of, 113–16entitlement to, 201entrenchment and, 194evaluation of, 197–8faith and, 204fears of others, 194freedom of choice and, 195functional, 132–6government intervention in, 194intercultural city report, 199–201interculturalism and, 194–206in minority communities, 195in mixed communities, 194–7national values and, 204nature of, 114–15non-governmental organizations

role in, 205–6parallel lives and, 194physical, 114promoting, 206public spaces, 197–9rights and responsibilities, 201separate identities, 204–5social and cultural, 129–32spatial, 114, 116–29understanding, 206in United Kingdom, 112–13values and, 136–40

Seko, K., 48Seldon, A., 130self-identity, 38self-segregation, 59–61, 125Semyonov, M., 97, 117–18, 121–2Sen, A., 4, 14, 21, 32, 44–5, 48–9, 74separate but equal development

notion, 121separate identities, 17, 27, 181–2,

204–5separateness, 55, 57–8, 137separation

of communities, 141doctrine of, 188institutional, 72interculturalism and, 153–4layers of, 39, 66, 114, 194spatial segregation and integration

and, 128separatism, 66, 69–70, 72

separatist ideologies, 14, 87separatist movements, 16, 18, 27sexual orientation, 50, 51, 62, 174Shah, H., 183shared political community,

importance of, 134–5shared society, 14, 88, 174shared spaces, 148Sharkey, P., 115, 121–2Sikhs, 184, 189Simpson, L., 59, 66, 120–1Singh, Darra, 107single diaspora identities, 138single identities, 37, 40, 69–70, 73single identity funding, 73, 136, 185,

186, 193, 210–11singular identities, 39–40, 48Slattery, B., 22Smith, M., 99, 100social and cultural segregation and

integration, 129–32social apartheid, 129–30social balance, 196social capital, 15, 116, 122, 150, 197

bonding, 130bridging, 130

social changes, 18, 33, 36, 47, 50–1social class, 32–4, 196social exclusivity, 130social hierarchies, class-based, 33social identities, 36, 187social intermixing, 39socialization, 31, 61social media, 2, 6, 23, 35, 171social mobility, 122–3social networks, 116social psychology, 145, 146social solidarity, 15, 16, 23, 145sociological theory, 146solidarity, 2

of Black communities, 78, 79collective identities and, 18, 82cosmopolitan identities and, 35of minority communities, 79multiculturalism and, 75national, 159, 171personal identities and, 82

Solomos, J., 37Sondhi, R., 57–8, 61, 152, 156

246 Index

sovereignty, 2erosion of, 22in France, 83globalisation and, 9international, erosion of, 9of nation-state, 7, 17, 27pretense of, 9state, 26–7states loss of, 19

Soviet Union, 24, 81Soysal, Y.N., 190Spain, 12, 25, 141spatially distinctive communities, 65spatial segregation, 114–15, 127spatial segregation and integration,

114, 116–29clarifying, 116clustered communities, 122in closed communities, debates

over, 122concepts of, 116–17defensive multiculturalism and,

121–2disabilities and, 128–9employment and, 124ethnicity and, 126–7growth of, 121gypsies and, 127–8harassment and, 124–5interventions in, 128locational factors for, 122–3in migrant communities, 118in minority communities, 124–6nature of, 118–19objectives of, 117–18parallel lives and, 127patterns of, 115school segregation and, 123–4segregation and, 129separation and, 128social contracts and, 123travelers and, 127–8in United Kingdom, 118–20, 122,

126in United States, 118, 120–2

Sriskandarajah, D., 16, 32, 39, 40state

collective identities, establishmentby, 10, 51

common culture in, 32emotional attachment to, 25faith and, separation of, 72institutional framework for,

development of, 25–6of interculturalism, 153national value system of, 26, 174personal identities, establishment

by, 10super diversity in, 181

state multiculturalism, 32, 53–4, 64,68–76, 186

concentrated reflexive monitoring,76

concept of, 69–70culture and, 71definition of, 68deprivation and, 74–5disadvantages of, 74discrimination and, 74–5flagging of identity, 75identity politics and, 75–6intercultural model of, 76in migrant communities, 73–4positive action and, 75promotion of, 69separatism and, 69–72single identity and, 73

static identities, 40statism, decline of, 19steel bands and samosas’ critique, 147stereotyping, 14–15, 96–8, 103, 128,

150, 151, 167Stone, L., 28, 34Sudan, 16Suki, A., 36, 39–41super diversity, 4–29

challenges of, 174–5, 207collective identities, impact on, 52differences and, 171era of, 31functional segregation and

integration and, 136interculturalism and, 90, 111meaning of, 32multiculturalism and, 5, 12, 14, 62multiculturalism policies on, 49of nation-state, 32, 36

Index 247

navigational skills and interculturalcompetences and, developmentof, 208

openness and, 162personal identities, impact on, 52segregation and, 140

supra-national agencies, 8–9, 11supra-national claims, 27supranational currency union, 18supra-national identities, 185–6swamping, 86Syria, 8

Taylor, C., 154–5, 202technological changes, 6, 8telephony, 6tensions, 14, 18, 101, 172–3terrorism, 8, 42, 44, 46, 131Think Global, 205Thomas, P., 91, 96, 101–2, 104, 108,

146tick boxes, 31, 40, 48Tilley, J., 130Times, The, 18Titley, G., 66–7, 95transitory identities, 30transnational identities, 51transnationalism, 12travelers, 127–8tribal communities, 30tribal groups, 25–6, 29, 45tribes. See identitiestrust, 93, 150Tunstall, R., 126Turkish migrants, 34two solitude’s, 152001 reports, 94, 96–7, 101,

106

UK Independence Party (UKIP), 87United Kingdom

Black history month project in, 182British National Party in, 84, 86–7,

98church schools in, 193collective identities in, 28community cohesion in, 22–3, 91,

102–3, 105–6, 113Community Cohesion Unit in, 94–5

cross-party political agreements in,178

cultural markers in, 138differences in, 166–7discrimination in, policies on, 112diversity in, 189employment in, 208Equality Act 2010 of, 166–7ethnic classifications in, 40, 145ethnic monitoring in, 135extremism in, 86faith in, 71–2, 77, 184–5, 190–1Far Right in, support for, 97–8, 105foreign-born populations in, 16gender, established basis of, 50hate crimes in, 165identity in, 86identity politics in, 182Institute of Community Cohesion

in, 84integration in, 112, 128interaction in, 102–3intercultural dialogue in, 144–5interculturalism in, 141Irish communities in, 75Jewish communities in, 184, 190Labour Party in, 11language requirements in, 202middle class in, 33migration in, 35, 105mixed race communities in, 38, 126multiculturalism policies in, 56–7Muslim communities in, 46, 69, 184national identities in, 28national league table in, 15navigational skills and intercultural

competences in, developmentof, 209–10

openness in, 160personal identities in, 18–19race in, 79, 81–2race relations acts in, 77, 121–2racial harassment in, 128Roma community in, 49school segregation in, 123–4, 209segregation and integration in,

112–13segregation in, 118, 120–1, 194

248 Index

United Kingdom – continuedsocial and cultural segregation and

integration in, 130social exclusivity in, 130social segregation in, 122spatial segregation and integration

in, 118–20super diversity in, 40terrorist prevention program

(Prevent Strategy) in, 42–6, 182tourism to/from, 7UK Independence Party (UKIP), 87White host communities in, 79–80,

84, 185–6workplace segregation in, 124

United Nations Charter, 168–9United States

bridge building in, 147Christians in, 72, 188ethnic racism in, 121faith in, 72, 188foreign-born population statistics

in, 31integration policies in, 133Italian community in, 49middle class in, 33minority communities in, 118miscegenation in, 37physical segregation in, 137racism in, 121school segregation in, 114, 123–4,

137segregation in, 115, 117, 118,

125–6, 194social justice in, 56sorting of neighborhoods in, 122spatial segregation and integration

in, 118, 120–2White communities in, 120–1

unity, diversity within, 67universal Black identities, 78Universal Declaration of Human

Rights, 169universalism, 47, 67

values, 47, 65added, 71common, 94, 108–9, 204, 205, 208concerns about, 140

core, 203–4country-specific, 205democratic, 64differences in, 136of diversity, 105, 158extrinsic, 205fundamental, 154ideology and, fundamental

differences between, 62of interculturalism, 88intrinsic, 205living apart, 137local identity and, 139national, 139–40, 174, 204national governments role in, 139over-arching, 67of segregation, 116segregation and integration and,

136–40self-expression, 33separate, 136separateness, 137–8shared, 114, 135, 136–7, 208state role in, 138–9universal, 47, 139–40, 205virtual networks, growth of, 138Western, 46

vanishing kingdoms, 23Varshney, A., 147, 149, 197, 207vertical identities, 34virtual connectedness, 2, 6–7vision, 94, 174, 176–81, 205vision statement, 179voluntary agencies, 210voting, 177

Walesaffinities of, 24Catholic Education Service for, 71hate crimes in, 165migration in, 12mixed race communities in, 38nation of, 24non-White British in, 12

‘we,’ 16, 26, 29Weber, M., 24Weiner, E., 104Western democracies, 45–6, 76Western identities, 42

Index 249

Western societies, 18, 20–1What Works in Community Cohesion,

104White British identities, 41White communities

Black identities vs. differentiating,80

country, importance of, 19exclusionary nature of, 132mixed race communities of, 22multiculturalism and, 5openness in, 163parallel lives in, 113personal identities of, 19racial minorities in, 126racism in, 79segregation in, 117–18in United States, 120–1

White Flight, 60, 120, 121, 195White host communities, 79–80, 84,

185–6White identities, 79

White Irish identities, 79White on White violence, 80Wildsmith, E., 184Winder, R., 55Windsor, P., 144Wolfe, A., 76Wolf, M., 29Women’s Movement, 50Wood, P., 155, 160–2, 183, 198working class, 33Workplace segregation, 124World Bank, 12World Trade Organization, 12World Wildlife Fund, 205

xenophobia, 56–7xenophobic populism, 87

Younge, G., 17, 45, 74, 85, 170–1Young, P., 147Yugoslavia, 147