notes- eng course

8/6/2019 Notes- EnG COURSE

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English 109

Lecture Notes


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Lectures & Topics

Introduction: Professors Neil Randall and Andrew McMurryTopic 1: Introduction to the Course 1Topic 2: Analysis of a Student Essay 1

The Genre of Academic Writing: Professor Andrew McMurry

Topic 3: Introduction to the Academic Genre 2Topic 4: Defining and Summarizing 10Topic 5: Coherence and Organization 21Topic 6: Comparing 26Topic 7: Academic Styles 34Topic 8: Research Essays 43

The Rhetoric of Academic Writing: Professor Neil RandallTopic 9: Introduction to Rhetoric 48Topic 10: Audience 52Topic 11: Ethos and Credibility 57Topic 12: Logos and Argument 61

The Grammar Appendix: Professor Murray McArthurTopics 13 & 14: Parts of Speech 69Topic 15: Functions, Phrases, and Clauses 84Topic 16: Punctuation 94


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Introduction

Professors Neil Randall and

Andrew McMurry


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ENGL 109 TOPICS 1 & 2: INTRODUCTION AND STUDENT ESSAY 1

Introduction to English 109

Welcome and introductions

General overview

What can you expect to get out of this course?

What are the secrets to good writing

Plagiarism

Analysis of a student paper (refer to the sampleessay)


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The Genre ofAcademic Writing

Professor Andrew McMurry


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 3: INTRODUCTION TO THE ACADEMIC GENRE 2

Topic 3.1

(mis)Communication

Yo, wuzza-hey!!!

Wuh-wuh??

Sender(addresser)

Receiver(addressee)


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Topic 3.2

The Communication Triangle(from the writer's perspective)

subject

Writer reader

{What do Iknow about mysubject?}

{What do Iknow about

myreader?}

{What doesmy readerknow aboutthe subject?}


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Topic 3.3

Ok, So It's A Bit More Complicated(according to Roman Jakobson)

Addresser(writer)

Addressee(reader)

Contact

(medium)

Code(e.g. Englishlanguage)

Context

Message


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Topic 3.4

I See. That Must Mean (adapted from E. Lindemann)

When the

focus is on the

The aim orpurpose is to

Which hasexamples in

Writer/addresser

Express the self Diaries, manifestos

Reader/

Addressee

Persuade the

reader

Propaganda,

debates, editorialsReality/context

Explain the world Lab reports,textbooks,manuals

Message Create a text to beappreciated foritself

Movies, jokes,songs, literature

Contact Keep lines ofcommunicationopen

This overhead

Code Discuss languageitself

Dictionaries,grammars


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Topic 3.5

The Upshot

Academic writing focuses on presentingmessages of fact about the world

Academic writing is written the way it is to helppersuade its readers to accept these messages

The two above goals are not mutually exclusiveand should not cause you distress, becauselanguage is


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Topic 3.6

The way we interpret expressions

depends almost as much on theiras the

contextwords themselves

.

Which is another way of saying

Form + Situation

(words) (context)

= Genre

(category of expression)


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Topic 3.7

What Are These Rules?

Usually a linear organization

Specialized vocabulary

Presumption of shared knowledge

Attention to factual detail, precision, anddocumentation

Local rules of evidence apply

Style may run from insipid to elegant

Tone may run from bombastic to tentative


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Topic 3.8

You and the Tradition

Even student writing has to be undertaken withthese facts in mind--even if your writing does notactually add any new knowledge but simplyreports on the current state of knowledge.

In fact, the main purpose of student writing is

to demonstrate an understanding of the stateof knowledge and the associated tradition ofinquiry.

Your readers (professors) want to see certainfeatures (stylistic, structural, and substantive) inyour writing that shows your understanding and

respect for this tradition.

Only occasionally is student writing actuallyexpected to add to the state of knowledge(e.g., at the graduate level of study).


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 4: DEFINING AND SUMMARIZING 10

Topic 4.1

Rational choice decision-making has long been thehallmark of mainstream economic explanations ofhuman behaviour: economic decisions are seen asattempts by individuals to maximize their utilities,subject to their budget constraints.

If I wanted to summarize this passage, I would haveto decide where I would focus my eye

.

Look how the summary changes depending on thatdecision:


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Topic 4.2

Follow the I/Eye

Rational choice theory says people follow theirown best interests.

Mainstream economics uses rational choiceexplanations for understanding individual

decisions.

Individuals make economic decisions based onan assessment of their own best interests.

[The boldfaced words indicate the high level ofmeaningthe concept on which you have focusedyour gaze. That concept becomes the focal point ofthe summary.]


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Topic 4.3

Academic Summary: The Knowledge Hierarchy

Low level =

Specific examples

Actual results

Middle level =Broad examples

Possible results

High level =Abstract concepts

General principles

Overall theories

When readingand writingacademicsummaries, in

most cases wefirst abstractthe generalconcepts.Depending on

how much timewe have, wemay work ourway toconcrete factsat the lowerlevels.


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Topic 4.4

Liberating the High- and Middle-level Concepts

Yet great changes were about to takeplace. They began in China during theSong dynasty. Although the Song paidhuge sums of money for defense,commerce expanded. Variouschanges had occurred before 1000which enabled China to shift from acommand economy in whichgovernment officials set prices to amarket economy in which prices weredetermined by supply and demand. In611 the Grand Canal was completedlinking the northern and southerncities. Canals served the samefunction a railroads in a later age.China developed regional tradenetwork between the north and southvia rivers and canals. A new kind offast ripening rice was introduced inSouth China. Peasants could plant,harvest, and sell two crops a year.Grain was shipped north to trade forproducts like iron. The Chineseadopted Korean moveable type. Printtechnology made paper moneypossible. Since paper money could betransported more easily andexchanged for gold or silver in anothermarket town, more people traded overlonger distances. A credit systemdeveloped. The government switchedfrom collecting grain for taxes toaccepting cash for tax payments. Bythe Song period millions of ordinarypeasants were able to sell theirproducts, pay taxes in money, and usewhat was left over to buy things theyneededtools, clothes and householdutensils. Export of porcelain, silks,spices and other luxury goods alsoflourished. Chinese ships journeyed toSrivijaya, a Southeast Asian empire,for spices and the dominate economy.Print increased demands for bookswith practical information to improveeveryday farming, knowledge ofmedicines, and mathematics. Thelives of ordinary Chinese changed asan economy with moderncharacteristics expanded rapidly. Thiswas the beginning of a series ofchanges that led to the modern world.

1000 ADmarked greatchanges in theSong dynasty

Developmentof marketeconomy from

commandeconomy

Transportationinfrastructureextended

New creditand taxsystemestablished

Peasants

have accessto more goods

Quality of lifeincreasing

Practicalknowledgewidespreadbecause ofprintingtechnology

Medicine,agricultureandmathematicseducationwidespread.

Birth ofmodern China

The origins ofmodern Chinacan be traced to

the firstmillennium.

A market-basedeconomy wasestablished bythe Songdynasty, withmany of the tax,infrastructure,andtechnological

features stillused today.


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Topic 4.5

So Tell Me the Secrets to thisExtraordinary Technique!

1. Use the full name and title of the article you aresummarizing in your first sentence. (Helps orientreader immediately.)

2. Give a broad, high-level description of the sourcematerials scope and research purpose in the first

or second sentence. (Also helps orient reader.)

3. Use narrowing signals as you work your waythrough lower level concepts. These help thereader focus on different components of thesummarized material without forgetting theoverall scope


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Topic 4.6

Extraordinary Technique(con't)

Examples of narrowing signals:

One aspect of this research is

Another example of

Among many problems is the question of

All such introductory clauses help readers anticipatewhere you are going, and remind them of whereyouve been.


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Topic 4.7

Extraordinary Technique(con't)

4. Use linking words and phrases to signalcontinuity and transition over the wholesummary. (Keeps reader from forgetting thethrust.)

Examples of linking phrases:

Smiths study also shows Smith goes on to surmise The article further suggests


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Topic 4.8

Extraordinary Technique(conclusion)

5. Enforce the boundaries between what thesummary says (i.e., its truth-claims) and yourown ultimate goals and needs.

Examples of boundary keeping:

Smith claims According to the article

These highlighted words signal to the reader that yourorientation toward the summarized material is not oneof blind faith, but of criticaldistance


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Topic 4.90

So Let's Try to Make Your Implicit Critical StanceMore Obvious to Your Reader!

(Some Tips)

1. Evaluate the summarized materials logic:

Are there weak connections in thereasoning?

Are there strong connections in thereasoning? Is it hard to reconstruct the reasoning? Is it easy to reconstruct the reasoning?

Use signaling expressions in your summary that tellthe reader of such findings.

It is difficult/easy to see how Smiths discussion of


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Topic 4.91

Your Critical Stance (con't)

2. Ask yourself, What does this article NOT tellus?

What is the other side of its argument? What views does the article support but

perhaps does not state?

If somebody wanted to oppose thisargument, what might they say?

Use signaling expressions to announce thesefindings:

Although Smith notes.

The authors do not tell us if

We might surmise that


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Topic 4.92

Your Critical Stance (con't)

3. Dont forget the high level concepts:

How well does the material contribute to thegeneral research topic you have selected?

Are there any larger issues to which thismaterial does/does not contribute?

Use signaling expressions to show links to broaderissues and ideas:

Smith among the first to have studied this

His research project restricts its focus to the studyof


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 5: COHERENCE AND ORGANIZATION 21

Topic 5.1

Let's Review Where We've Been (Part 2)

We found that summaries were organized accordingto certain generic rules:

High and middle level (abstract) concepts areprivileged.

Low-level concepts are used selectively.

Sequence of summary does not necessarilyfollow the sequence of the summarized material.

Author tags, repetition, and signalingexpressions are used to orient reader.


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Topic 5.2

Incoherence

Sometimes I worry that I left the stove on.

A friend I trust once told me I tend to babble.

At this point in the day Im starting to think aboutdinner.

The absence of a dialogue between us invites mydigressions.

I cant always see whats on the overhead.


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Topic 5.3

Coherence

It would be easy for me to become incoherent duringthese lectures because

Sometimes I worry that I left the stove on.

A friend I trust once told me I tend to babble.

At this point in the day Im starting to think aboutdinner.

The absence of a dialogue between us invites mydigressions.

I cant always see whats on the overhead.


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Topic 5.4

Topic Sentence Tips for Academic Genres

The highest level topic sentence in your essayis the thesis. It needs to be reasserted vigorouslyevery now and then, especially if there is a greatdeal of lower-level material intervening.

The next level of topic sentences occur in each

subsection and/or in paragraphs, usually at thebeginning of the paragraph. They need to bereasserted less frequently, and then often in thecontext of the next high-level topic.

These reassertions allow you to carry along highlevel meaning throughout the essay.


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Topic 5.5

Topic Sentence Tips for Academic Genres (con't)

Based on the generic expectations of academicreaders, paragraph breaks tend to coincide withnew topics (i.e., as new high or mid levelconcepts are introduced).

As long as low level concepts can be madecoherent by the current paragraphs topicsentence, you need not create a new paragraph.


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 6: COMPARING 26

Topic 6.1

Coordination

Lets just polish that paragraph a bit to improvetransitions between the coordinating sentences:

1) It would be easy for me to become incoherentduring these lectures.

2) The biggest mental challenge is that the

absence of a dialogue between us invites mydigressions.

2) But from a practical standpoint, I cantalways see whats on the overhead.

2) Also, sometimes I worry I left the stove on,

2) and, to tell you the truth, at this point in theday Im starting to think about dinner.

[Note that we can, of course, make coordinate sentencesinto coordinate clauses.]


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Topic 6.2

The Coordinate Relationship

Coordinating sentences express a list-like relation.

And, but, or- type connections. Andstresses similarities between equal

elements.

Butcontrasts equal elements. Orestablishes alternatives between equalelements.

Note: there are lots of other words that can substitute(also, however, nor, etc.).

[Moreover,] no words are necessarily required to havethese coordinating relations apply.


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Topic 6.3

Example of Subordination

1) The process of learning is essential to our lives.

2) All higher animalsseek it deliberately.

3) Theyare inquisitive and they experiment

.

4) An experiment

is a sort of trial run to test

an action in the real world.

5) The scientist experiments

and thefox cub plays; both are learning tocorrect their errors in a setting that isnot fatal.

6) Perhaps this lack of threatis whatgives them both their air ofhappiness and freedom in theseactivities.


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Topic 6.4

The Subordinate Relationship

Subordinate sentences express unequal relations.

Becauseor forexpress cause-effectrelationships.

Sosubordinates examples or other evidence to aconclusion.

The colonsignals a list of objects that belong to ageneral class.

Note: there are lots of other words that can substitute(thus, forexample, etc.). Moreover, no words are

necessarily required to have these coordinatingrelations apply.


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Topic 6.5

1) Hackers are regarded by otherswith considerableambivalence. 2)On the one hand, the lives of hackersepitomize the values on which America was founded:3) they are independent of rules and regulations, theyembody the qualities of individualism and ingenuity2)On the other hand, they are marginal to NorthAmerican society. 3) Many participate in theunderground economy, a fact that is not lost on lawenforcement. 4) Most instructive is a letter cited by

Smith that expresses their resentment5) Lets jailem, he says.

Coherence check: read any sentence x: is the onethat follows (y) subordinated to it? If not, is yproperly coordinated with sentence xssuperordinate sentence. To ensure proper

coordination and subordination, you must guidethe reader up and down the levels throughtransition and linking words.


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Topic 6.6

How to Compare Concepts

involves finding relevant points of comparisonbetween two or more data sets.

the points of comparison are usually found bylooking at lower-level material and notingdifferences and resemblances.

yet you often cant see those points ofcomparison unless youve already defined thehigh-level concept(s).

such concepts become your hypothesis abouthow the data might relate.


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Topic 6.7

Two Basic Organizational Strategies forComparing a Debate, Disagreement, or Difference

in Perspective

Divided Pattern

Position For

High level concept xHigh level concept yHigh level concept z

Position Against

High level concept xHigh level concept yHigh level concept z

Conclusionsyours


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Topic 6.8

Alternating Pattern

High level concept xForAgainst

High level concept yForAgainst

High level concept zForAgainst

Conclusionsyours!


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 7: ACADEMIC STYLES 34

Topic 7.1

Same Event, Different Genre

The night before the referendum, Mr. Chretien metwith key advisors to discuss strategy.

--a news report

Well past the point of no return, the P.M. continued tobutt heads with his own inner circle on issues that

should have been settled long before.--an opinion piece

Exhausted but unwilling to leave any stone unturned,Chretien and his advisors worked deep into the nightto ensure the outcome he knew in his heart mostQuebecois craved.

--an authorized biography


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Topic 7.2

Example

Original:

The origins of genderdifferences in styles ofinteraction can be tracedto the traditional roles thatrelegate women to the

domestic realm and mento the economicmarketplace, andalthough these roles havechanged to some extentin our society, the socialnorms of interaction they

have created remain tocomplicate and thwartsocial change.

Plain LanguageTranslation:

Men and women still dothe same things theyvealways done becausesociety makes it hard to

do anything else.

Q: What gets lost intranslation?


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Topic 7.3

Noun Phrases

One of the key features of academic style thatcontributes to complexity is its heavy use of nounphrases and a corresponding minimal use of verbs.This is also known as nominal style.

E.g., contemporary large-scale human migrations

(instead of migrations by humans that are big

and are occurring today)

transnational migration circuit

(instead of acircuit of migration between nations)

game-theoretic bargaining models

(instead ofmodels based on bargaining behavior as

described in game theory)

In all three cases, we see a noun absorbingadjectives, other nouns, and whole predicates.


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Topic 7.4

An Example

The desire for discrete categorical communitymemberships is a product of academic needs...rather than the ambiguous, changing, andpragmaticperceptions of migrants themselves.

Notice how italicized modifiers in the noun phraseshelp narrow and classify the major core concepts.


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Topic 7.5

Example (continued)

You can paraphrase, restate, or summarize complexnominals to help your audience:

The desire for discrete categorical communitymemberships is a product of academic needs...rather than the ambiguous, changing, andpragmatic perceptions of migrants themselves. In

other words, researchers impose their ownnotions of community on their subjects, who mayhave no rigid sense of community at all.

This kind of restatement is very helpful for yourreadersespecially when it comes early in yourpaper.


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Topic 7.6

Sentence Constructions

The nominal style may at first seem to work againstsentence coherence. But it may also work foroverallcoherence, and thus make it easier to read individualsentences in the long run.

Lets start with an example:

Both the acclaimed analytical power and the oft-noted weaknesses of orthodox economicanalysis owe much to the pervasive use of an ASIF transformation in economic reasoning.

Q: Huh? What kind of weaknesses? What sort oftransformation?...


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Topic 7.7

Passive and Active Sentences

Another feature of many academic sub-genres is theuse of passive constructions.

1. Byron wrote the poem. (active)2. The poem was written by Byron. (passive)

1. We made a mistake. (active)2. A mistake was made. (passive)

Whats the difference?

Passivemeans that the actual agent of the action is

deemphasized. Along with the agent may goresponsibility for the action.


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Topic 7.8

Our Pal, The Writer

In some academic disciplines, the genericconventions permit a more conversational style:

In these passages, Thoreau betrays the dualconsciousnessI think is characteristic of hiswork. We might describe this duality as taking theform of an alternating near- and far-sightedness:

close up, with eyes focused on the minutiae ofthe world, nature and the built-world arecontinuous; but from a critical distance, culture(Thoreaus and ours

) seems radically distinctfrom nature.

Note that here the author alternates between I and

we: whats the effect?


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Topic 7.9

Modalizing Reported Speech

Words like typically, often, generally, for the mostpart, suggests, all work to modalize statements. Theyensure that the statements do not tend to theuniversal, pushing the limits of knowledge too far, toofast.

In general, this suggests thatwomen have acomparatively greater advantage than men Inthe context of this study, therefore, the choice-theortic approach would draw attention todifferentials in human capital endowmentsWhile culture is sometimes factored into neo-classical explanations as a potential constraint

it is seldom explored in any systematic way


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 8: RESEARCH ESSAYS 43

Topic 8.1

So What Would a Good Introduction Look Like?

Im glad you asked! An introduction in the academicgenre

begins with an openingstatement at anappropriate level of generality

presents a series of statements that reviews thestate of knowledge of the topic under discussion

narrows to the level of the currentresearch itself

finishes with a preview of the research goals,methodology and/or description of the essays

structure.

An introduction may be short or long; and it may varyslightly from this model (e.g., an expanded state ofknowledge/background section that comesafterthepreview).


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Topic 8.2

The Funnel

The introduction begins broadly but,through an increasing

subordinationof ideas, leads

the readerinexorablydown tolower-level

concepts.


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Topic 8.3

An Example

Contemporary large-scale human migrations acrossnational borders have affected very continent on theplanet. (broad) Not surprisingly, anthropologists havesought to understand the significance of thesemovements for notions of community, nationalism,and identity. (narrow) Andersons (1983) notion of theimagined community has received particular attention

in recent literature. (narrower) The purposes of thisarticle are to examine contemporary notions ofcommunity in relation to international migration(goals)


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Topic 8.4

Conclusions Concluded

Summation: We have tried to show that there arebasic principles which are being shared and usedin an anti-racist as well as a more racistdiscourse.

Confirmation: My reading of the accounts given bythe women workersleads me to conclude

that

Speculation: Had Bangladeshi immigrants foundthemselves in a more hospitable society, thenegotiation process would probably have beenvery different.

Contextualization: This, too, is a form of power thatwill increasingly inform anthropological theories...as anthropologists continue to work among themany displaced and mobile populations of theworld.

Continuation: We need more research analyzingand contesting the assumptions abut languageunderlying teaching methods which offer to cureall signs of conflict and struggle.


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Topic 8.5

Read and Write with a Critical "I"

Yes, academic writing creates new knowledge.

But for who? For what reason? Whose interestsare served by the new knowledge?

Always read not just for content but for the big

picture, the larger contexts within which theknowledge exists.

Recognize that its a tough thing to doto takepower for yourself by looking at academic writing,the university, and the world beyond criticallywhen so often you seem to be rewarded for

simply banking established facts.

But remember: the university is not designedsimply to be a training ground, a place toreproduce the established order.

It is a place where you can critique that order,and pursue answers to questions that outside theuniversity people are often too lazy or afraid toask.


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The Rhetoric ofAcademic Writing

Professor Neil Randall


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 9: INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC 48

Meanings of Rhetoric

Popular meanings

All available means of persuasion

Symbols to induce social action

The rhetorical situation

Rhetoric is epistemic


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Focal Points of Rhetoric

Invention

Audience analysis

Ethos and credibility

Logos and argument

Creating meaning


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Rhetoric in Everyday Language

Interpersonal communication

Advertisements

Newspapers and magazines

Television

Film

Reports and summaries

Institutional communication


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Rhetoric in Academic Writing

The thesis: having something to say

The argument: supporting your thesis

Ethos: demonstrate your understanding of thethesis and your ability to articulate it

Applying existing knowledge

Confirming or changing audience perceptions ofthe topic


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 10: AUDIENCE 52

Identifying Audience 1

For almost all academic papers, your audience isthe people who grade your papers. Of course.

But in English 109, since our concern is with theactual essay, rather than whether or not youveanswered a question correctly, its a bit different.

Your markers remain your primary audience. Butyou must tailor your argument to an externalaudience fully interested in the topic itself.


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Identifying Audience 2

Determine the audience by reading other articleson the topic, or by recalling articles youve read inthe past.

Recall conversations youve had with othersabout the topic.

Write about something that interests you, andwrite so that you would want to read your paper ifit were written by someone else.


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Understanding Your Audience

Your external audience wants to know somethingnew, or have confirmed what they already know.

Your markers want you to demonstrate aprogression in academic writing skills.

Never underestimate either audience. Keep therequirements of each in mind at all times.


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Writing for Your Audience 1

Think, at all times, of who will be reading yourpaper. This does not mean that you have to tellthem what they want to hear your argumentcan defy them. Make them listen, one way or theother.

Plan, invent, write, and revise according to youraudiences expectations and requirements.

Remember that you are almost never your bestaudience do not write for yourself.


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Writing for Your Audience 2

Rhetoric demands that you cause change. Rarelyis such change dramatic. Change can meangetting your audience to see a topic from veryslightly different point of view. Or making themsee two sides of an issue. Or giving them thetools necessary to argue a topic for themselves.

Rhetoric can create knowledge. If you havesomething new to offer your audience, do so.


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 11: ETHOS AND CREDIBILITY 57

The Importance of Ethos

We seek advice from those whose advice wetrust, those whose informedopinion might helpus. Uninformed opinions are rarely useful, andare often harmful.

We trust opinions from people we do not knowonly when we perceive those opinions as wellconsidered or if the person has strong

credentials.

Ethos is about degrees of respect.


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Positive Ethos

Credibility

Credentials

Logic

Sensitivity

Eloquence

Improvement

Character


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Negative Ethos

Opinions without basis

Lack of articulateness

Lack of credentials

Lack of argumentative proofs

Weak reputation

Unwillingness to learn

Poor preparation and non-logical conclusions


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Ethos and Argument

Displaying sound background

Arguing logically

Anticipating counter-arguments

Respecting other informedopinions

Recognition of illogicalities

Sensible conclusions

Refusal to preach


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 12: LOGOS AND ARGUMENT 61

What is Argument?

Argument is the process of arriving at a conclusion

about a specific thesis through the establishmentof premises and conclusions that support thatthesis.

A thesis is an opinion, a point of view, a purposefulstatement of existing knowledge, or a statement ofmaking aware.

There is no argument without thesis. There is noargument without division.

Argument and discussion are two different things:related, but different.


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What is Important to Argument?

A workable, sustainable, supportable thesis. Sinequa non.

Clear statement of premises, clear statement ofrelevance of premises.

Logical conclusions from premises.

Building of reader/listener anticipation ofconclusion.

Admission of possible illogicalities.


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Checking the Argument

Reread your thesis to make sure it still holds

Plot out, on a separate paper, the path throughthe premises and individual conclusions toensure that the argument makes sense.

Reread the conclusion to ensure that it actuallyreflects the end of that path.

Put yourself in the role of another person and tryto poke holes in your argument.

Realize that noargument is foolproof. There arealwaysquestionable parts. Even in Socrates

famous syllogism.


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Article referred to on the audio tapes

PROLOGUE: Is This a Frankenstein I See Before Me?*

I'm writing this on a Saturday morning in early 1996. My "office" is a portion of

my unfinished basement, my desk an old kitchen table that happens to be largeenough to hold the Pentium-based computer that represents the most expensivesingle piece of equipment in my entire house. Arguably, it's also the mostvaluable, especially when combined with a much cheaper piece of equipment, asmall grey box known as a modem.

What spurred me into this particular version of my prologue was a couple ofarticles in my morningnewspaper. The paper happens to be Toronto's The Globeand Mail, but that's neither here nor there, especially since one of the articleswas reprinted from The New York Times. The spur came mainly from the contentof the articles, both of which were concerned with the Internet.

"So what?" you might ask. You can't pick up a paper or a magazine thesedays,or even turn on the TV, without seeing somethingabout the Internet. Sowhat could possibly be so interesting about these two articles? The Net's oldnews,isn't it?

Yes it is, and that's part of the point. The Internet is indeed old news, but it'sconstantly being written as newnews as well. It's ubiquitous, and it's vastlyoverhyped, but it shows no signs of slowing down. It is, unquestionably, the high-tech star of the '90s, having attracted business, media, governments, and socialgroups alike. Barring a collapse of enormous proportions, the hype mightsubside, but the interest will not. The Internet will remain in the news.

But that's not really my point, either. Not in this prologue, at least. Instead, I'dlike to take a close look at the content of the two feature articles. On the surface,there's nothing similar about them, but as we look closer we can see the Net'sastonishing pervasivenessand the dangers and the excitement as well, as itspreads across the globe and into very nearly all walks of life.

The first is labeled "Internet Racism," and it bears the headline, "Nazi hunterswant to pull the plug on hate." Written by Peter H. Lewis for The New YorkTimes, it reports on the efforts of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to ban racist andanti-Semitic messages and materials on the Net. This is hardly the first article toappear in newspapers about unrestricted hate materials on the Internet, but theinvolvement of the well-known Wiesenthal Center is certainly noteworthy. So,too, is the simple fact that Lewis' article, while perhaps alarming, is far fromunusual. Throughout the second half of 1995, articles about Internet evilsappeared with considerable regularity, to the extent that now, in 1996, they'repractically expected in all the major news vehicles.

*Neil Randall, The Soul of the Internet: Net Gods, Netizens, and the Wiring of the World, pp. xxv-

xxvIii. Copyright @ Neil Randall.


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The other article is much longer, and it's featured more prominently. On the frontpage of The Globe and Mail'ssports section, we find a lengthy report called "Age ofsports on the Web just dawning." The article explores the growing number of sportssites on the World Wide Web and discusses the increasing involvement of the"official" sports organizations in offering Web-based information. Lawyers for theprofessional sports leagues are set to prevent fan sites from using team logos and

perhaps other types of information as well. In other words, the fans on the Webhave become a threat to the potential for professional sports to make the maximumamount of money available.

Let's take a close look at what these articles tell us about the state of the Internetin 1997. First, clearly, the Net has come to the attention of the world or, at leastand this is importantto the attention of those nations of the world capable ofsustaining high-technology development. Communications on the Net, once theconcern almost exclusively of military and academic personnel, has now comeunder the scrutiny of the interest groups and governmental organizations who, untilvery recently, barely knew the Net even existed. For the Simon Wiesenthal Center

and the United States Congress to raise the alarm about hate messages (andmuch else) means that the Internet has now become important enough to be seenas a threat to society. Or, at least, to someelements of society, and clearly somevery large ones.

John Lennon put himself in hot water 30 years ago by claiming that the Beatleshad become more popular than Jesus Christ. Whether or not he was correct isn'tthe point; the comment offended a great many people, and the Beatles instantlybecame a threat to their society. Three decades later, the World Wide Web mightvery well have replaced the Beatles from the standpoint of sheer media drawingpower, and the Net, like the Beatles back then, has gained globalpopularity.Lennon's point was that more people knew about the Beatles than about Jesus

Christ, and given the number of non-Christian nations to which Beatlemaniaspread, that seems an incontestable point. Today's Internet has also expanded wellbeyond the geographical bounds of Christianity, and in that sense has also become"more popular than Jesus Christ." And, as a result, it too has become a threat, andnot just to Christians. It has become a threat to Jews, to Muslims, to children, tomoralists, to law-enforcers, and to a growing number of public interest groups.

Of course, the Internet isn't the only technology in the latter half of the twentiethcentury to have become so popular that many perceive it as threatening. Televisionforged that path long before the Net was well-known enough to be mentioned in thesame breath. Much like the Net, television was supposed to be a medium for

education (the Net's focus was the sharing of research), and like the Net it quicklybecame a vehicle for trivial issues. But there's a profound difference between thethreats imposed by television and those imposed by the Internet. While television isaccused of eroding traditional values and implanting, especially in children, newobsessions with violence and mindlessness, the Net is far more directly interactive,far more capable of ongoing battles among real people expressing their real (orfeigned) beliefs, and thus much more influential. In other words, TV is harmful, butat least it's passivelyharmful, and at least it's predictable, and at least it's regulated.The Net, by comparison, offers an active, constantly changing, unrestricted, 24-hour playground, battleground, and merry-go-round. It threatens, because it's unlikeanything the world has ever known.


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The sheer popularity of the Net is the true focus of the Web sports article aswell. The professional sports leagues simply wouldn't care about the World WideWeb if thousands upon thousands of sports fans didn't use it every day to gettheir sports information. In the summer of 1994, I spoke with an executive atTSN, Canada's nationwide all-sports television station, about contracting me tobuild a Web site for the station. His response was to ask, very sensibly it

seemed to me, why he would want a Web site when he already had a nationalTV network. During 1994, I suspect many similar ideas were proposed to othercompanies but barely considered. In most cases, and certain with TSN, the Website has since become a reality (although I wasn't the builder, alas', as it has withESPN in the United States and all major professional sports leagues in NorthAmerica and increasingly in Europe as well.

What does this mean? Simply put, it means that the Web has become toopopular for professional sports or any other business to ignore. Whatever thereality of Internet-based commerce, business has flocked to the World Wide Webwith an almost obsessive degree of fascination. At this point, businesses see the

Web primarily as a marketing tool, but a marketing tool with a differencethis isreal-timemarketing, and it's as much about information as it is about selling.Which is to say, in essence, that the Web is about both giving things away andgetting people to pay for something related. That is the enormous challenge ofthe Web, and it remains almost totally unfulfilled. The success of the publicofferings of the stocks of companies who specialize in Internet software orservicesNetscape Communications is the primary exampledemonstrates asclearly as anything else that investors see the Internet as a major technologicalleader for the foreseeable future, even though they have no idea what that futureholds, and even though none of the newly public companies had, at the time ofthe initial offering, made anything even approaching a profit. The mysterious lureof the Internet has changed not only business's way of seeingthings, but in manyways its ways of doingthings as well.

For what does it mean to conduct business over the Net? What does it meanto conduct hate campaigns over the Net? What does it mean to distributepornography, stalk children, and defraud readers over the Net? Or, for thatmatter, what does it mean to entertain over the Net? To educate over the Net?To build community over the Net? To engage in activism over the Net? To fall inlove over the Net?


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Article referred to on the audio tapes

AFTERWORD*

Working within somebody else's secondary world (to use Tolkien's term) isalmost as difficult as inventing your own. It shouldn't be. At least, that's what Ikept telling myself as I worked through this book. David Drake's Arthurian

England, it seemed to me, should be relatively easy to incorporate into a sequelbecause it is not a wholly invented world. Books of history, books of speculation,poems, novels, songsall are available to the researcher. What, I asked myself,could possibly be left to the imagination?

Everything, as it turns out. Two problems became apparent right from thebeginning. First was the staggering amount of research David Drake had donefor The Dragon Lorditself. I don't think it's possible to read that novel withoutfeeling somewhat in awe of the sheer realism of the setting. And I mean allaspects of that setting, from the vivid descriptions of landscapes to the detailedaccounts of arms, armor, and buildings. Add to this Drake's obvious knowledge

of the period's warfare and you have a very difficult act to follow.

The second problem, like the first, is reflected in Drake's introduction to thisbook. There are many literary sources for the Arthurian age and, in the end,many becomes too many: Chretien de Troyes, the Gawainpoet, Thomas Malory,Alfred Lord Tennyson, T. H. White, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Parke Godwin, andmany anonymous authors. Where do you stop reading? All have different angleson the Arthur legend, and all are convincing in their own ways. The critic HaroldBloom has written of the anxiety of influence, where each writer tries to outwritehis or her predecessor. Surely, an author who attempts to retell the Arthuriansagas has as much anxiety as any author anywhere. There is just so much, anda lot of it is good.

I solved these two problems in the only way I knew. I couldn't match Drake'sbrilliant research, and the great quests had already been told, by authors farmore able than I. After considerable anxiety and even more influence, I decidedto write my own Arthurian story, sticking as close to Drake as I could but bringingin ideas that interest me. Where Drake is obviously fascinated by the history ofthe period, I am more interested in the legends, the myths. The question ofArthur's historical existence has never really concerned me, because he existstoday. For me, that is all that matters. David Drake's detailed world is absorbingand brilliantly drawn, but my concern is with the Round Table and the Holy Grail.Once I realized that, things got a little easier.

I knew that I wanted to write about a quest for the Grail, but I wanted to avoidArthur's legendary involvement in it, because Drake's Arthur is not the great,good prince of the early stories. My Arthur would want the Grail for selfishreasons, mostly to gain power. What power, though? First, the power to destroythe Saxons, thereby keeping the story inside Drake's realm. Second, the powerto unitein a sensethe old tribes and the new against the Saxons. Arthur'srole as a link between the ancient and the modern particularly interested me,

*Neil Randall, Storm of Dust: A Crossroads Adventure in the World of David Drakes Dragon Lord,

pp. 242-245. Copyright @ Neil Randall.


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especially since I had just finished reading Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mistsof Avalon. So Ineeded a Grail story that would link the old world with the new.

From there, it grew easier still. As I found out by looking at several books ofmythology, the Grail is, in Christian legend, the cup used by Christ at the LastSupper, but variations of it exist throughout Celtic mythology. Arthur is supposed

to have stolen a cauldron owned by Diwrnach the Irishman and, in a Welsh poem,he takes a cauldron from the lord of Annwn, the underworld. I decided toincorporate all of these themes into my story, but the real clincher was thecauldron of the god Bran. This cauldron restored the dead to life. Bran, also calledthe Blessed, was a patron of the arts and is the true and good King of Britain. Hissister was Branwen (the daughter of Llyr), who tragically married the king ofIreland. Add the fact that the number three was important to both the Celts and theChristians; the idea that Bran was the original Fisher King (a name also applied toChrist); and the notion that Uther Pendragon, father of Arthur, is supposed to havebeen buried at Stonehenge, and you have the origins of my story.

Of course, the reader need know none of this. The background was

necessary for me to provide a feel for the mythology. What I hope, above allelse, is that the mythological basis of my story complements the extremelystrong historical basis of David Drake's. If it does, and if it draws the reader backto the original book, then I have succeeded.

There were other considerations in the writing of his book. The first was howto build in Mael and Starkad, The Dragon Lord'shighly memorable majorcharacters. I definitely wanted them in the story; readers of the original wouldfeel cheated without them. So I gave them several major sections, trying tomake their presence essential to the book's atmosphere. It's possible to avoidthem, at least to some extent, but doing so robs the reader of an interesting part

of the story.

The second problem was one I have noticed in many books of this type. Iwanted to provide an enjoyable reading no matter which paths the reader chose.Multiple path books are by nature restrictive, demanding a certain course ofaction to achieve the desired ending. To a degree, this is unavoidable, but Iwanted to allow several interesting ways of arriving at valid endings. The readercan miss large sections of text as a result of choosing a particular action, but italso means that the book can be re-read, I hope several times. That, I think, isthe true wish of every author.


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The Grammar Appendix

Professor Murray McArthur


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ENGL 109 TOPICS 13 & 14: PARTS OF SPEECH 69

Parts of Speech

Nouns: name persons, places, things,ideas or qualities

Pronouns: usually substitute for nouns andfunction as nouns

Verbs: express actions, occurrences, orstates of being finite, non-finite(verbals)

Adjectives: describe or modify nouns orpronouns

Adverbs: describe or modify verbs,adjectives, other verbs, or wholegroups of words

Conjunctions: link words, phrases and clausescoordinating, subordinating

Prepositions: relate nouns or pronouns to otherwords in a sentence

Interjections: express feeling or command

attention, either alone or in asentence


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Nouns

Words that designate person, place, thing, quality,action or idea

Problems:

1. Plurals: in most cases add -s: cats

If the plural makes an extra syllable, add-es: bushes

If the plural is irregular, look it up.

2. Possessives

If singular, add -s: boysIf plural, add -: boys

A prepositional phrase is usually better forinanimate objects.


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Pronouns (1)

Words substituted for nouns

The noun to which the pronoun refers is called anantecedent.

Problems:

Ambiguous reference

(a) the antecedent is not clear

Unclear: Bob first met Ray when he was astudent.

Clearer: Bob first met Ray when Bob was astudent.

Bob first met Ray when Ray was astudent.

(b) demonstrative pronoun alone as the subject ofthe sentence

Unclear: The home team won the game in thelast minute. This was not expected.

Clearer: The home team won the game in thelast minute. This late result was notexpected


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Pronouns (2)

1. Relative pronouns: who, that, which

(a) who refers to people; that and which refer tothe rest

Students who need assistance shouldcontact the registrar.

2. (b) Cases of who

(i) who is the subject form

Who can say?

(ii) whose is the possessive, not whos

John, whose essay finally won theprize, worked very hard on his drafts.

(iii) whom is the object form

To whom did you give the money?


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Pronouns (3)

3. One used as a pronoun

Awkward: Thus, one can see that when onereflects on ones writing one notesthat writing is difficult.

Better: All writers know that writing isdifficult.

4. Gender of general reference nouns

When a student comes to Waterloo, he finds

(a) pluralize when possible

When students come to Waterloo,

they

(b) use a formula like he or she

When a student comes to Waterloo, he orshe


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Verbs

Terms used to describe verbs:

Form: the spelling of the verb that conveys time,mood, and other information

Tense: the time of the verbs action present,past, future

Mood: the attitude of the verbs speaker or writer

indicative, imperative, subjunctive

Voice: the distinction between the active, inwhich the subject performs the verbsaction, and the passive, in which thesubject is acted upon

Person: the verb form that reflects whether thesubject is speaking, spoken to, or spokenabout

Number: the verb form that reflects whether thesubject is singular, or plural


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Verbs (2)

Problems:

1. Use the correct form of regular and irregularverbs. (Consult the appropriate chapter in yourtext book for these five points.)

2. Use the appropriate tense of verbs.

3. Use the subjunctive verb forms appropriately.

4. Use the appropriate person and number.

5. Use the appropriate VOICE.


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Verbs Voice (3)

(a) Verbs that indicate action have an activeorpassivevoice.

Active voice: Mary chose Waterloo for itsengineering program.

Passive voice: Waterloo was chosen byMary for its engineeringprogram.

An over reliance on the passive voiceweakens your writing and leads togrammatical errors.

(b) Verbs that indicate states are linking verbs: is,was, were are the major forms; others are

seems, feels, sounds.

Linking: Waterloo is a superbUniversity.

An over reliance on the linking verb alsoweakens your writing.


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Verbs (4)

(ii) Trying to convert actions into states weakensyour writing.

Weak/Passive: Waterloo was chosen by Mary

Weak/Linking: Waterloo was the one chosen byMary.

Waterloo was the one that was chosen by

Mary.

Strong/Active: Mary chose Waterloo.


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Verbals

Words derived from verbs to function as nouns ormodifiers

Infinitives, Participles, Gerunds

Infinitives: to jump, to write, to be

To learn to write well is the purpose of

this course.

Participles: present: jumping, writing:past: jumped, written

While writing the grammar test, I felt agreat peace descend on me.

Gerunds: jumping, writing

My writing improved dramatically duringthe course.


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Verbals (2)

Problems:

(1) Verbals cannot function as the verb or predicateof a sentence.

Incorrect: The problem beinga lack of studentinterest.

Correct: The problem wasa lack of student

interest.

Incorrect: To bethe best possible writer and thegreatest student.

Correct: I would like to bethe best possible writerand the greatest student.


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Adjectives/Adverbs

Adjectives: words that modify nouns

The wisestudent chooses the bestUniversity.

Adverbs: words that modify verbs, adjectives oradverbs

That student drives quickly.That car is extremelyfast.

Students learn grammar very quickly.

Conjunctive Adverbs: words that link ideas within asentence or between sentences

John hated grammar; neverthelesshe

studied parts of speech intensely.

Mary grew tired of grammar exercises. Shefound, however, that the repetition improvedboth her knowledge and writing.


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Conjunctions

function words that connect words, phrases, clauses

Coordinating, Subordinating Correlatives

Coordinating: join equal things

John and Mary may not be able toidentify a conjunctive adverb, butthey use them all the time.

and, but, yet, or, for, nor

Subordinating: show relationships

I enjoy grammar becausethedefinitions are so clear.

Correlatives: either orneither nor

just as so


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Prepositions

function words that show the relation of a noun to therest of the sentence

Forthe first time, Mary could name all the partsof speech.


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Interjections

words that show an exclamatory intention: usuallyinappropriate in formal writing

Wow!Grammar is really fun.


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 15: FUNCTIONS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES 84

Functions

Parts of Speech: what words are in themselves

Functions: how words function in anyparticular sentence

Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, Modifier

Subject: the noun or noun equivalent that

governs the verb

(a) noun: The committeegave Mary the prize.

(b) pronoun: Weapproved of the choice.

(c) gerund: Writingis my favourite activity.

(d) infinitive: To writeis to suffer.

(e) noun clause: Whoever was interested, wasinvited.


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Functions (2)

Verb: the word or group of words that describethe action or the state of the subject

The Jays will win.

The Red Sox should be playingin the circus.

The pennant race will have been decidedbythat time.

Rules:

Grammar: ALL SENTENCES MUST HAVE A VERB

Style: THE STRENGTH OF THE SUBJECT-

VERB AXIS DETERMINES THESTRENGTH OF THE SENTENCE.


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Functions (3)

Objects: with active or transitive verbs, theobject completes the sentence

(a) Direct Object: answers the question what? orwhom?

The Jays won the pennant.

(b) Indirect Object: answers the question to what? or

to whom?

Robbie threw Johna perfect pitch.

Complements: with a linking verb, a complementcompletes the statement

(a) predicate noun

Mary is a student.

(b) predicate adjective

Mary will be happy.


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Modifiers

elements of the sentence that modify a main sentencecomponent (subject--verb--object or complement)

1. Adjectives

2. Adverbs

Modifiers Can Be

Single Words

Huck happilywore an oldhat.

Phrases

Life on a raftwas an opportunity for adventure.

Huck Finn rode the raft by choice.

Clauses

The raft was on a river that was deep and wide.

Huck and Jim rafted when the sun had gonedown.


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Phrases and Clauses

Phrase: a group of related words connected to asentence by a preposition or a verbal

1. Prepositional phrase: consists of a preposition(in, for, from, at, etc.) and a noun or nounequivalent and whatever modifiers it may have.Prepositional phrases function as modifiers.

For twenty years, the committee from

Engineering has made that choice.

2. Participle phrase: consists of a participle plusrelated words. Participle phrases function asmodifiers.

Seeing this problem, I decided to find a solution.

The winner, chosen for her great skill, was happy.

The book containing the marked passageis onthe desk.


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Phrases and Clauses (2)

3. Gerund phrase: consists of gerunds and relatedwords. Gerund phrases can fulfill the samefunctions as nouns.

Writing my first essaywill be my primary goal thisweek.

4. Infinitive phrase: consists of infinitives and relatedwords. Infinitive phrases can fulfill the same

functions as nouns.

My goal is to improve my writing.

Rule: PHRASES DO NOT HAVE A SUBJECT OR AVERB; THEY CANNOT STAND ALONE AS

SENTENCES.


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Phrases and Clauses (3)

Clauses: contain both a subject and a predicate,and can be independent or subordinate.Only an independent clause can standalone as a sentence.

1. Independent or main clause: makes a completestatement, contains a subject and a predicate,and can stand alone as a sentence.

The sky darkened.

2. Subordinate or dependent clause: like a main orindependent clause, contains a subject and apredicate, exceptthat it begins with asubordinating word, and it cannot stand alone asa sentence.

When the sky darkened, we ran inside.


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Sentence Patterns

Predicate

1. Subject Verb (intransitive)The earth trembled.

2. Subject Verb (transitive) Direct object

The earthquake destroyed the city.

3. Subject Verb (linking) Subject complement: noun or adjective

The result was chaos.

4. Subject Verb (transitive) Indirect object Direct object

The government sent the city aids.

5. Subject Verb (transitive) Direct object Object complementnoun or adj.

The considered the earthquake a disaster.citizens


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Sentence Types

1. Simple sentence: one main or independentclause.

Mary chose Waterloo for its Engineeringprogram.

The committee and the department both agreedon the principle and voted for its adoption.

The first student, chosen for her ability,performed superbly on the examination and wonthe award.

2. Compound sentence: two or more main clauses.

I did not follow the professors guide to

punctuation, and I am now a sadder, but wiserwriter.

Good writing must be both correct and strong:grammar governs the rules of correct usage;style dictates the rules for strong sentences.


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Sentence Types (2)

3. Complex sentences: one main clause and one ormore subordinate clauses.

Mary won the award because her answers weremore insightful.

The person who makes that decision will be hereon Friday.

Although I never used the semi-colon before, Inow realize that I must master this pearl ofpunctuation.

4. Compound-complex sentence: two or more mainclauses and one or more subordinate clauses.

The student came to the place of examination; hesaw the multitude of assembled questions; heconquered all of the verbals and clauses thatwere put before him.

The decision must be made soon, but thecommittee that has the power to decide will notmeet until Thursday.


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ENGL 109 TOPIC 16: PUNCTUATION 94

Punctuation

Comma:

1. to punctuate a series or list of three or moreelements

Sentence functions include subjects, verbs,objects (direct and indirect), complements, andmodifiers.

Grammar tests are exhilarating, thrilling, yetpeaceful experiences.

2. to set off introductory sentence elements

(a) prepositional phrasesIn the fall of my freshman year at Waterloo, I

learned the true meaning of the semi-colon.

(b) participle phrasesDerided by many, grammar is still essentialto good writing.

(c) subordinate clausesAlthough I struggled with parts of speech, I

found great satisfaction in mastering verbals.


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Punctuation (2)

3. to coordinate independent clauses in compoundsentences

I followed the rules for punctuation, and mywriting improved.

4. to set off appositives (a noun or noun equivalentplaced beside another noun to supplement itsmeaning)

John, my teaching assistant, instructed us in thehigher mysteries of punctuation.

5. to set off non-restrictive modifying phrases orclauses (see your textbook)

The Conservatives, who supported the Bill,should be condemned.

The Conservatives who supported the Bill shouldbe condemned.


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Punctuation (3)

6. to set off conjunctive adverbs

You will find, however, that good grammar isprofitable in the end.

Therefore, I have undertaken a study ofparticiples.

Gerunds are difficult, however.

7. to set off disjunctive phrases (sentenceinterrupters)

Of course, I never dangle my participles.

Verbals, after all, are the most difficult part of

speech to identify.


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Punctuation (4)

Semi-Colon:

1. to coordinate main clauses without otherconnectives (i.e. coordinating conjunctions)

Hamlet leaps into the grave; he wrestles withdeath, the dark foeman.

Hamlet struggles with his courage; Claudius

grapples with his conscience; Guildenstern slipson the steep slope of his incomprehension.

2. to coordinate main clauses with a conjunctiveadverb

Ophelia cannot take her place in the action;

instead, she dwindles into watery madness.

Hamlet leaps headlong into the grave; he finds,however, only an empty skull.


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Punctuation (5)

3. to punctuate a list with internal punctuation

Three people remain on stage: Polonius, thatfatuous old man; Claudius, the cruel king;Gertrude, his confused and troubled queen.

Colon:

1. to introduce a list (as above)

RULE: do not separate verb and object orcomplement with a colon.

The cast includes: a policeman, a lawyer, and ateacher.

2. to coordinate main clauses when the firstanticipates the following

Hamlet sees only one solution: he has to kill theking.

Hamlet finds himself suspended between two

loyalties: he must obey the ghost, his king andfather; he must also obey his conscience, his lastand only hope for a rational solution.


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Sentence Errors

1. Sentence fragment: a construction punctuated asa sentence that is not a complete grammaticalunit. To be complete, a sentence must containone main or independent clause.

Although the idea was a good one.

The first of our problems being a lack of suppliesand the second a lack of ideas.

2. Subject-verb agreement: disagreement of subjectand verb in number.

Grammar and style is my favourite subjects.

My major concern are commas.

A verb agrees with its subject, not itscomplement or object.

Commas are my concern.

3. Misplaced modifier: placement of modifier makesmodification ambiguous or absurd.

The professor made it clear why plagiarism iswrong on Monday.


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4. Dangling participle: participle phrase modifiesnothing within the sentence.

Skating down left wing, the puck was shot high

on the glove side.

A participle phrase modifies something;therefore it should stand beside the thing itmodifies.

If it does not, the phrase is misplaced.

If the modified is absent, then the phrasedangles.

5. Comma splice: two main clauses joined with onlya comma.

The semi-colon changed my life, it has enabled

me to meet new people, improve my marks, andmake more money.

6. Fused sentence: two or more main clausesjoined without any connectives.

I thought I would be bored by grammar I found

however that it was the highlight of my week.


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7. Pronoun reference: antecedent of pronounsambiguous or unclear.

After the student yelled at the teacher, he felt

despondent.

8. Split infinitive: an adverb or adverb phraseintervenes between the two words of an infinitive:

Writers should learn to imaginatively punctuatetheir sentences.

9. Anticipating construction (stylistic fault): thegrammatical subject of the sentence merelyanticipates the real subject of the sentence.

It is Pips pride that is the problem in GreatExpectations.

It is the just fate of old grammarians to becomeyoung stylists.

notes- eng course

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