north american arch

8/8/2019 North American Arch

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NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGIST, Vol. 25(3) 215-237, 2004

RED ABALONE BEAD PRODUCTIONAND EXCHANGE

ONCALIFORNIAS NORTHERN CHANNEL ISLANDS*

TORBEN C. RICK

Southern Methodist University, Dallas

ABSTRACT

Californias Channel Islands were ancient centers of shell bead productionand exchange. Several researchers have investigated shell bead making inthe region, particularly of Olivella biplicata shells, but considerably less isknown about bead production sequences for other shell bead types. Recentresearch at two historic Chumash villages on Santa Rosa (CA-SRI-2) and SanMiguel (CA-SMI-163) islands produced large assemblages of red abalone(Haliotis rufescens) epidermis beads, beads-in-production, and bead blanks.Bead production densities at these sites were relatively high, but a dearth offinished beads compared to beads-in-production suggests that most of the

beads were being manufactured for trade or use outside of the household inwhich they were produced. Red abalone epidermis bead production increaseddramatically after European contact and these beads were another importanttrade item for Native peoples in western North America.

INTRODUCTION

Native peoples of the North American Pacific Coast produced and exchanged awide variety of shell beads and ornaments. Dentalium, Olivella, abalone, clam,

*This research was funded by a National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant(BCS-0201668), a National Park Service Grant (CA8120A007), funds from the U.S. Naval WeaponsStation, Point Mugu, California, and a Western National Parks Association Grant.

215

2004, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.


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and a number of additional taxa were made into artifacts and traded throughoutwestern North America (see Arnold and Graesch, 2001; Arnold et al., 2004;Bennyhoff and Hughes, 1987; Erlandson et al., 2001; Gibson, 1992; King, 1990;Largaespada, 2001; Raab and Howard, 2002; Smith, 2002; Vellanoweth, 2001;Vellanoweth et al., 2003). With evidence of bead production spanning much of theHolocene, shell beads were used for personal ornamentation, and as burial goods,indicators of status, and currency (Arnold and Graesch, 2001; King, 1971, 1990).In coastal California, exchange of shell beads and other goods was also a wayto combat environmental or social instability, promoting interaction betweenislanders and mainlanders and faciliting increased cultural complexity (Arnold,1992, 1993, 1996, 2001a; Johnson, 2000; Kennett andKennett, 2000; King, 1990).With few exceptions (Erlandson, 1988), most bead making in coastal southern

California occurred on the Channel Islands, and a number of studies have exam-ined the production sequence and evolution of bead making on Santa Cruz Island(e.g., Arnold and Graesch, 2001; Arnold and Munns, 1994; Graesch, 2004).

Other than Olivella biplicata, we know relatively little about the scale and scopeof different types of shell bead production. Arnold and Graesch (2001) recentlydescribed bead production for a number of shell bead types on Santa CruzIsland, however, including purple olive (Olivella biplicata), red abalone (Haliotisrufescens), California mussel ( Mytilus californianus), and Pismo clam (Tivela

stultorum). Arnold and Rachal (2002) also described the sequence of Pismo clambead production including experimentation on modern specimens. These studieshave focused on Santa Cruz Island bead industries with comparatively limitedattention given to bead production on adjacent Santa Rosa and San Miguel islands.Although Kennett and Conlee (2002) and Rick (2004a, 2004b) presented densitiesof Olivella bead making detritus for these two islands, little is known aboutthe types of beads being manufactured, the production sequences for various shellbeads, and how beads and ornaments produced on these islands articulate withbroader exchange systems and interaction spheres in western North America.

In this article I present data on the production of red abalone beads at twoChannel Island villages: CA-SMI-163, the Chumash village ofTuqan located onSan Miguel Island, and CA-SRI-2, the village of Niaqla located on Santa RosaIsland (Figure 1). The red abalone bead assemblages at these two sites appear tobe largely Protohistoric and Historic in age, providing a unique opportunity toinvestigate the production of this bead type during the contact period. These dataprovide important information on Chumash bead making and exchange systems,illustrating the prominent role that Native peoples on San Miguel and Santa Rosa

islands played in exchange networks in California and western North America.

RED ABALONE BEAD MAKING IN CONTEXT

Red abalone is generally a coldwater species, ranging from southern Oregonto Baja California. North of Point Conception they are found in the intertidal

216 / RICK


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zone to a depth of at least 60 feet, but to the south they are usually subtidal reachingdepths of over 100 feet (Haaker et al., 1986). They would normally requirediving to be procured on the Channel Islands, but during periods of colder seasurface temperatures they may have occurred in shallower waters (see Glassow,1993; Sharp, 2000). While people may have been diving to obtain abalone asa source of food, they also used the shell as a source of raw material (seeKing, 1990).

Red abalone shells contain a shiny interior mother of pearl (nacre) and a roughexterior epidermis that is usually a reddish, pinkish, or tannish color. Red abalonewas commonly used in coastal southern California for making fishhooks, beads,ornaments, and dishes. Abalone artifacts and shells have been found as far awayas the Southwestern United States (see Bradley, 1996; Kidder, 1932; Smith,2002). Although they are relatively rare, green and pink abalones have also been

identified in postcontact deposits in the Northwest Coast (Sloan, 2003). With theexception of some red abalone middens dated primarily to the Middle Holocene(see Glassow, 1993; Glassow et al., 1994; Sharp, 2000), Haliotis rufescens rarelydominates Channel Island archaeological shellfish assemblages. In most sitesdated to the last 1,000 years, red abalone appears to have been a minor dietaryresource, with the majority of red abalone shells in recent island sites appearing to

RED ABALONE BEAD PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE / 217

Figure 1. Location of the Northern Channel Islands andSites discussed in the text.


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be modified for bead, fishhook, or ornament production (Arnold and Graesch,2001:90-91). The CA-SMI-163 and CA-SRI-2 red abalone assemblages followthis general trend.

The production of abalone shell artifacts has a long tradition on the southernCalifornia coast extending back 8000 years or more (King, 1990). Rectangularbeads made from abalone nacre have been made in the region for at least 6000years and nacre disk beads appear by at least 3000 years ago (King, 1990:237).Here I focus on the production of red abalone epidermis disk beads (K1eII inGifford, 1947:16). Red abalone epidermis beads appear to have been madesince the Middle-to-Late period Transition or early Late period, starting aroundAD 1100 (Arnold and Graesch, 2001; King, 1990:184), but the density and scaleof red abalone epidermis beads increased substantially during the Late and

Historic periods (Arnold and Graesch, 2001). Based on data from Santa CruzIsland, Arnold and Graesch (2001) suggested that red abalone bead makingincreased after European contact. Data from San Miguel and Santa Rosa islandsfollow this general pattern. Recent research at a series of four archaeologicalsites on San Miguel Island spanning the last 3000 years, for example, identifieda few red abalone epidermis beads in Middle-to-Late period Transitional(AD 1150-1300) deposits, with the highest densities found in postcontact assem-blages (Rick, 2004b).

Red abalone epidermis beads are almost exclusively disk shaped, but a few arealso cylinders and tubes (King, 1990). Gifford (1947:16) described these beads asranging from 2 to 16 mm in diameter. Red abalone beads from Santa Cruz Islandgenerally measure between about 3 and 6 mm in diameter (Arnold and Graesch,2001). These beads were probably perforated using stone microdrills, but duringthe Historic period iron needles were also used (Arnold and Graesch, 2001;Graesch, 2001). According to King (1990:185), red abalone disk beads are oftenfound in burials strung with Olivella, clam, and mussel shell beads. Red abalonedisk beads are relatively common in southern California coastal sites, but areusually recovered in lower quantities than Olivella beads, which make up theoverwhelming majority of Late Holocene bead assemblages (see Arnold andGraesch, 2001; Arnold and Munns, 1994; Graesch, 2004).

The distribution of red abalone epidermis beads outside of coastal southernCalifornia is relatively poorly documented, making it difficult to determine howwidely they were exchanged. King (1990) suggested that all of the abaloneepidermis beads found outside the Santa Barbara Channel were made from redabalone shell. Red abalone beads have been found in Yokuts territory as far north

as Stockton, California, in Plains Miwok and Patwin territory, in Kern andLos Angeles counties, and on the Southern Channel Islands (King, 1990:186).Smith (2002) noted red abalone disk beads in Anasazi and Hohokam sites inthe Southwest, but these may contain nacre and generally predate red abaloneepidermis disk bead making on the Channel Islands, making the relationship ofthese Southwestern beads and those produced on the Channel Islands unclear.

218 / RICK


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6/23

Ta

ble1

.Ra

diocarbon

Date

sfor

Excava

tedUn

itsan

dDirec

tlyDate

dRe

dAba

lone

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ds-

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roduc

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(BIP)a

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bnum

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Prove

nience

Uncorrec

ted

14Cage

13C/1

2C

Adjuste

dage

1Sigmaca

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tedage

range

(ca

lAD/BC)

CA

-SRI-2

Be

ta-1

58147

Be

ta-1

58148

CA

-SMI-163

OS

-27183

OS

-33417

OS

-34803

OS

-34802

Blac

ka

ba

lone

Ca

liforn

iamusse

l

Blac

ka

ba

lone

Ca

liforn

iamusse

l

Re

da

ba

lone

BIP

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dAba

lone

BIP

Unit1

:63cm

Unit1

:14cm

Topo

fUn

it2

Bo

ttomo

fUn

it2

Unit2

,70

-80cm

Unit2

,10

-20cm

170

70

310

80

600

70

740

80

655

60

880

30

1010

40

1320

30

AD1690(1820)1950

AD1690(1820)1950

AD1690(1820)1950

AD1630(1660)1680

AD1470(1510)1560

AD1270(1300)1320

aAllda

tesw

ereca

libra

tedus

ing

Ca

lib4

.3(Stuiverand

Re

imer,

1993

,2000),an

dapp

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35years

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(see

Kenne

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tal.,

1997).

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are

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ta-1

5814

8.

Additiona

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tescan

be

foun

dinRick(2004b).

220 / RICK


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CA-SRI-2 is a large village and cemetery complex located on a marine terracebisected by a series of gulches. Twenty-six radiocarbon dates bracket the majorityof the site occupation between about AD 330 to 1820, providing a continuousrecord of occupation from the Middle through Historic periods. Ethnohistoricrecords suggest that CA-SRI-2 is the probable location of the historic Chumashvillage ofNiaqla (Johnson, 1999; Kennett, 2005; Rick, 2004b). Orr (1968:189),who worked at the site in the 1940s and 50s, suggested that CA-SRI-2 may containas many as 70 housepits, making it one of the largest Chumash villages on theChannel Islands. I recently identified between 20 and 25 housepits on the sitesurface (Rick, 2004b), an estimate consistent with the size of other villages inthe area (Arnold, 2001b).

A few red abalone beads or beads-in-production were identified in sea cliff

or other erosional exposures, but the densest concentrations were found inintact midden deposits in Unit 1 on the edge of House 1 (Rick, 2004b). Unit 1,the focus of my analysis, was a 50 50 cm unit excavated to sterile sedimentsdown to a depth of roughly 90 cm (volume = 0.242 m3). Radiocarbon datesfrom the top and bottom of the unit suggest that these materials date pri-marily to the 18th or early 19th centuries (see Table 1). Because stratigraphicvariation in the unit was minimal, the unit was excavated in arbitrary 10 cmlevels. I present the analysis of bead making artifacts recovered in 1/8-inchmesh, along with a subsample of artifacts from the smaller 1/16-inch meshresiduals.

Both villages contain diverse shell, bone, and stone artifact assemblages. AtCA-SMI-163, red abalone beads, beads-in-production, and bead blanks arethe most abundant shell artifact type in Unit 2 (not including detritus), making up60% of the shell artifact assemblage in the unit (Rick, 2004b:213). At CA-SRI-2,red abalone beads, beads-in-production, and detritus make up about 26% of allshell artifacts (not including detritus), making them the second most abundantshell artifact behind Olivella beads (Rick, 2004b:288).

ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION

All red abalone shells were analyzed and classified following proceduresoutlined by Arnold and Graesch (2001) and Graesch (2000). Red abalone wasinitially separated from the other materials in the excavated midden samples.Virtuallyall of the red abalone in the two units were broken or otherwise modified,with only two whole shells recovered in Unit 2 at CA-SMI-163 and only three

from Unit 1 at CA-SRI-2. All of these shells are of modest size and containrelatively thin epidermal layers, suggesting they were probably collected forsubsistence rather than for bead or fishhook production.

The Arnold and Graesch (2001:91) red abalone bead making scheme includessix categories: beads, beads-in-production, bead blanks, bead preblanks, chippedand modified specimens, and detritus (Figure 2). Finished beads are usually



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ground and completely drilled (Table 2). Beads-in-production represent the

stage at which the shell was drilled and many of these specimens are brokenor otherwise discarded. Bead blanks are small, rectangular or circular shell

fragments between 4 and 7.8 mm in diameter that represent the bead before it

was drilled. Preblanks are oversized (>7.8 mm) fragments of epidermis that

are usually 2 to 10 times the size of a blank and may be ground. Chipped and

modified specimens are large pieces of partially nacreous and epidermal pieces

222 / RICK

Figure 2. Red abalone beads (top), beads-in-production (second row),

bead blanks (third row), bead preblanks (fourth row), detritus (fifth row),and chipped/modified fragments (bottom) from the

Northern Channel Islands.


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that have been chipped or otherwise modified. Finally, small fragments thatare irregularly shaped or are of poor quality were classified as detritus. I

have added two additional categories to this scheme. These include waterwornfragments; small specimens that have been rounded and polished by beingtossed around in the surf and were presumably collected from the beach. I havealso added a broken shell category composed of specimens that are not obvi-ously chipped and modified, but are broken and may represent preparationof specimens for bead, ornament, or fishhook production. Many of these broken


Table 2. Classification Scheme for Red Abalone Bead Production

(adapted from Arnold and Graesch, 2001)

Classification Description

Broken shell

Waterworn shell

Chipped/modified

Bead preblanks

Bead blanks

Beads-in-production

Detritus

Bead

Small, medium, and large broken pieces of abalone shell

that are not obviously modified. Pieces generally contain

nacre and epidermis, including fragments of the whorl,

siphon hole, etc.

Small pieces of abalone that have been smoothed and

polished by being tossed and rolled in water.

Large to medium pieces of nacre with missing epidermisfrom chipping, scraping, or other modification.

Oversized pieces of epidermis isolated from the nacre.

Roughly 2 to 10 times the size needed to make one

bead. Some specimens exhibit grinding. Greater than

7.8 mm in length and over 1.0 mm thick.

Smaller pieces of epidermis that are generally

rectangular, although some circular blanks also occur.

Usually between 4.0 mm and 7.8 mm in length.

Some specimens are ground.

Stage at which blank is drilled. Generally broken or

otherise rejected at this stage. Most are broken in half.

Primarily irregularly shaped, small pieces of epidermis

that are too small or narrow to be blanks, are of poor

quality, or are too thin. A few partially nacreous and

epidermal pieces are also present.

Perimeter ground and completely drilled bead.


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specimens, however, may also be subsistence remains, making this a fairlyambiguous category.

The diameter and thickness of all the complete beads were measured in mmusing calipers. To determine if the beads were being drilled using stone drills oriron needles, the ventral and dorsal dimensions of each drilled hole were alsomeasured. Following Graesch (2001), if values were less than or equal to 1.1 mm,similar on both sides (bevel), and contained a relatively straight hole then thebeads were presumed to be needle-drilled. Larger-holed specimens were probablydrilled using stone microdrills. In a test of the hardness of several California shelltypes, Arnold and Rachal (2002:193) found that red abalone epidermis wasmoderately hard, about 3.5 on Mohs hardness scale. Because of the large amountof beads-in-production, there also appears to have been a relatively high degree

of failure when making these beads, with many broken during drilling.Two AMS 14C dates were obtained from red abalone beads-in-production

from Unit 2 at CA-SMI-163 (see Table 1). Because most of the red abalone in thesite deposits appears to be for making beads or fishhooks, dates were obtainedon these beads to determine if people were collecting shells that were fresh orif they were obtaining shells that had washed up on the beach or from other nearbyolder archaeological sites. These beads yielded intercepts of AD 1300 and 1510, orroughly 150-500 years older than the dates obtained on subsistence remains fromthe same deposits. These data suggest that people were at least occasionally usingold shells to make beads.

RED ABALONE BEAD PRODUCTION ON THE

NORTHERN CHANNEL ISLANDS

CA-SMI-163

Roughly 3,509 fragments (13,045/m3) of red abalone were analyzed from1/8-inch residuals in Unit 2 at CA-SMI-163 (Table 3). The assemblage includesroughly 2,198 pieces of detritus (8171/m3), nine beads (34/m3), 164 beads-in- production (610/m3), 132 bead blanks (491/m3), 42 bead preblanks (156/m3),and 157 chipped and modified specimens (584/m3). About 757 (2814/m3) speci-mens were broken pieces of partially nacreous and epidermal fragments classi-fied as broken shell, and 50 additional specimens (186/m3) were waterworn redabalone. One of the beads-in-production was made from nacre and two additionalbeads-in-production appear to have been burned. The densest accumulations ofbead making artifacts occur in the 20-30, 30-40, and 60-70 cm levels of the unit,

but bead making artifacts are relatively evenly distributed throughout the deposits(Figure 3). The ratio of complete beads to the number of beads-in-productionis 0.05:1, indicating there are roughly 20 times as many beads-in-productionas finished beads. These data suggest that most of the beads were intended fortrade or use outside of the house or village in which they were produced (seeArnold and Graesch, 2001:93).

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Ta

ble3

.Re

dAba

lone

Bea

ds

from

Un

it2a

tCA

-SMI-163(1/8

-inc

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)

Leve

l(cm

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d

Bea

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pro

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pre

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tritus

Chipped/

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she

ll

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terworn

To

tal

0-1

0

10

-20

20

-30

30

-40

40

-50

50

-60

60

-70

70

-80

75

-80

80

-90

90

-100

To

tal

1 2 1 1 3 1 9

2 0 1

27

2 3 3

11

55

1 6 4 1 3

164

3 525

17

2 0 7

1 4 9 9

10

13

132

1 1 7 6 4 2 7 5 5 4 42

74

16

498

465

215

176

216

186

49

144

159

2198

48

37

1 3 9

1 7 8 1 6

18

157

1 3 4

155

105

71

58

92

65

62

41

91

757

4 11 0 5 4 1 6 6 5 5 3

50

115

29

770

660

331

265

410

296

135

207

291

3509



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Arnold and Graesch (2001), Gibson (1992), and Graesch (2001) suggestedthat the diameter of red abalone beads increased during the Historic period.At the same time the diameters of the drilled holes decreased, likely becauseof the introduction of iron needles. None of the beads at either CA-SMI-163 orCA-SRI-2, however, appear to have been drilled with iron needles. The beaddiameters are also relatively similar throughout the deposits, with eight of thebeads from CA-SMI-163 ranging in diameter from 3.6 to 4.1 mm. However, onebead found in the 10-20 cm level of Unit 2 was roughly 8.1 mm in diameterand 3.1 mm thick. It is possible that this represents an increase in bead size atthe site, but the sample is currently too small to determine precisely.

Because red abalone beads break in irregular patterns during the drilling process, I also analyzed all of the red abalone from the 1/16-inch residualsof level 30-40 cm (Table 4). This sample, weighing 1486 g, yielded two beads,121 beads-in-production, 1183 fragments of detritus, and 30 pieces of brokenshell. If these values remained constant throughout the unit, the number ofbeads-in-production would be increased by 6.3 times and detritus by 3.5 times,

raising the number to roughly 1033 beads-in-production (3840/m3

) and thedetritus to 7693 (28,599/m3). This sample suggests that the amount of beads-in-production is greatly underrepresented when only 1/8-inch residuals are analyzed.The ratio of beads-in-production to complete beads for these 1/16-inch meshresiduals is 0.028:1, indicating that the number of beads being removed fortrade would also be greater.

226 / RICK

Figure 3. Red abalone beads, beads-in-production, and

bead blanks by level at CA-SMI-163.


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Ta

ble4

.Re

dAba

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Bea

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from

1/16

-Inc

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MI-163an

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Proven

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Be

ad

Bea

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tritus

Bro

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To

tal

SMI-163

SRI-2

Un

it2

,30

-40cm

Un

it1

,30

-40cm

2 2

121

14

1183

85

30

3

1336

104


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In addition to the large assemblage of red abalone bead making artifacts inUnit 2, smaller amounts of red abalone beads and beads-in-production wererecovered from Unit 1 and several surface units excavated at CA-SMI-163(Rick, 2004b). Because the excavated sample is small for both Unit 1 and thesurface units, the number of beads is also small. In Unit 1 located in House 1, ared abalone bead and bead blank were recovered. Ten surface units, small andshallow units excavated in disturbed deposits, were excavated with a volumeof 4-6 liters each (see Rick, 2004b). Two beads, 29 beads-in-production, and eight blanks were found in six of the surface units. These were located in houses2, 4, and 5, as well as the eastern slope of the site. The highest concentrationswere found in Surface Unit 2 located in House 4 (11 beads-in-production andone blank), and Surface Unit 5 located in House 5 near Unit 2 (nine beads-in-

production and two blanks). Collectively, these data suggest that several differenthouseholds were participating in the production of red abalone beads at the site.

CA-SRI-2

The assemblage of red abalone bead making artifacts at CA-SRI-2 is con-siderably smaller than that at CA-SMI-163 with 581 total specimens (Table 5).Only three whole shells were recovered, but 256 pieces of detritus (1058/m3),12 beads-in-production (50/m3), 54 bead blanks (223/m3), 13 preblanks (54/m3),39 chipped and modified specimens (161/m3), and seven beads (29/m3) wereidentified. Roughly 185 broken shell fragments (764/m3) and 15 waterworn speci-mens (62/m3) were also recovered. The ratio of beads to beads-in-productionis 0.58:1, a value significantly lower than at CA-SMI-163, but comparable toother values reported by Arnold and Graesch (2001) for Santa Cruz Island. Thediameter of the complete beads at CA-SRI-2 was also measured. All of the beadsrange from 3.6 to 4.4 mmin diameter, with no clear increase in size through time.

I also analyzed abalone fragments from the 1/16-inch residuals from Unit 1,30-40 cm at CA-SRI-2 (852 g sample). Although the values are considerablylower than at CA-SMI-163, two beads, 14 beads-in-production, and 85 fragmentsof detritus were recovered. When 1/16-inch residuals are analyzed, the value forbeads-in-production is roughly 8 times greater and detritus is roughly 3.6 timesgreater than if only 1/8-inch residuals were used. These findings illustrate theimportance of analyzing small mesh residuals.

Most of the red abalone bead making assemblage from Unit 1 occurs in theupper 40-50 cm, including all of the beads and beads-in-production and 87% of

the bead blanks (Figure 4). These findings suggest that bead making increased atthe site through time. Numerous red abalone beads were also found in cemeterydeposits at the site excavated by Orr (1968), and a small number of beads wereidentified in House 3 and in sea cliff exposures around the site (Rick, 2004b).Red abalone beads appear to have been produced in a variety of areas at thesite, with most probably made for consumption outside of the house or area in

228 / RICK


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16/23

which they were produced. However, the presence of scores of beads in theCA-SRI-2 cemetery deposits suggests that some of the beads may not have leftthe village in which they were produced.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Red abalone bead making was a significant activity for Chumash peopleson the Northern Channel Islands. The ratio of beads-in-production to finishedbeads suggests that many of these artifacts were being produced for exchange.Although most late prehistoric assemblages are dominated by Olivella beads,red abalone beads are one of the many bead types that Channel Islandersmanufactured. The high proportion of red abalone epidermis beads in someChannel Island sites, especially at CA-SMI-163, indicates that some Islandersincreasingly focused on the production of shell bead types other than Olivellato facilitate exchange and relationships with people throughout the region. AtCA-SMI-163 and CA-SRI-2, red abalone beads appear to have been producedby the same people who made Olivella, California mussel, and other beads,

suggesting that individual bead makers on the islands probably made a widerange of bead types.On Santa Cruz Island, Arnold and Graesch (2001) recently described the

importance of red abalone bead making at several sites. Most of their data are fromCA-SCRI-192, -236, -240, and -330, which are some of the larger late prehistoricand historic Chumash villages on the island. Arnold and Graesch (2001) and

230 / RICK

Figure 4. Red abalone beads, beads-in-production, andbead blanks by level at CA-SRI-2.


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Graesch (2000) demonstrated that the scale of red abalone epidermis bead pro-duction greatly increased in Historic period deposits. At about the same time, thenumber of beads made for exchange was also higher. This may be related to theintroduction of glass trade beads and need to intensify exchange relationshipsduring the decades following European contact (see also Arnold and Graesch,2001; Graesch, 2004). Red abalone beads were one of the few types of beads madeby the Chumash that were not white, gray, or black in color. It is possible that theirintensification during the Historic period was related to the influx of colored glasstrade beads, but further research is needed to test this idea (see Arnold andGraesch, 2001). An increase in red abalone bead production through time is alsovisible at CA-SRI-2 and, to a lesser extent, at CA-SMI-163. The majority of thebeads, beads-in-production, and blanks at CA-SRI-2 are found in the upper half of

the deposits. The upper deposits at CA-SMI-163 also show higher densities, butbead making activities in general appear to be more evenly distributed with someof the lowest densities in the upper 20 cm.

Graesch (2000:81, 88; 2004) reported numerous red abalone epidermis beaddensities for the Channel Islands with the highest in House 8 at CA-SCRI-192(9306/m3 of detritus and 1989/m3 of beads-in-production) and in House 9 atCA-SCRI-236 (8272/m3 of detritus and 1609/m3 of beads-in-production). Mostother sites contained considerably lower quantities. The lowest number was foundat CA-SCRI-240 with just 66 beads-in-production per m3 and 234 fragmentsof detritus per m3 (Graesch, 2000:91; 2004). The densities from CA-SMI-163(8171/m3 of detritus and 610/m3 of beads-in-production) rival the higher densitiesreported for Santa Cruz Island, and when 1/16-inch mesh data are factored inthey increase exponentially (28,599/m3 of detritus and 3840/m3 of beads-in- production). The values from CA-SRI-2 are considerably lower with just 50beads-in-production per m3 and 1058 fragments of detritus per m3. The upper40 cm, however, have higher densities of detritus (1860/m3) and beads-in-production (103/m3). These findings are comparable to some of the lower densitiesreported for Santa Cruz Island samples, suggesting spatial and temporal variabilityin the production of this bead type. Given the large number of finished red abalonebeads in the cemetery at CA-SRI-2, it is also possible that many of these beads mayhave been made in an unexcavated area of the site, or imported from elsewhere.

The red abalone epidermis bead making industry on the Channel Islandsdescribed in this article and by Arnold and Graesch (2001) remains the onlywell documented abalone bead production industry of this scale in western NorthAmerica. Although other Native peoples may have made these beads, many

of the beads found elsewhere in western North America probably originatedsomewhere on the Northern Channel Islands (see also King, 1990:185). Whilemost of the red abalone beads manufactured on the islands were probably usedwithin the Chumash region (see Arnold and Graesch, 2001), finished red abalonebeads have been identified as far away as interior Northern California, empha-sizing the significance of these beads as a trade item.



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Data from CA-SRI-2 and other sites also suggest that red abalone beads werean important funerary bead type. Because these beads are poorly described, theirdistribution and abundance in burials is not as well defined as Olivella. As statedpreviously, hundreds of red abalone epidermis beads were noted in burial andcemetery collections excavated by Orr at CA-SRI-2 in the 1940s and 50s. Whilemany of the red abalone beads produced at CA-SRI-2 and other Channel Islandsites may have been made for exchange, the CA-SRI-2 data suggest that manyof these beads may not have left the villages in which they were manufactured.A burial excavated by Olson (1930; see also Hoover, 1971:196) at SmugglersPoint on Santa Cruz Island also contains four red abalone epidermis disk beadsand a burial at CA-SRI-24 had 21 epidermis disk bead blanks (King, 1990). Whilemany of the red abalone and other beads produced on the Channel Islands

were undoubtedly exchanged to the adjacent mainland and beyond, these findingsdemonstrate the importance of these beads for ritual and burial activities, sug-gesting that we cannot always assume that bead production, even in greatabundance, is for trade alone.

Red abalone epidermis beads were another important bead type for Nativepeoples in western North America. The data from San Miguel, Santa Rosa, andSanta Cruz islands suggest that the Island Chumash produced these beadsfor at least the last 800 years, with the greatest increase occurring during theHistoric period. Chumash peoples on the islands may have intensified bead production to combat the uncertainty of the Historic period and to facilitateacquiring exotic European goods (e.g., glass beads and needles) and otheritems. This project demonstrates the importance of analyzing bead productionsequences of shell and other types to understand ancient human economies andtheir transformation through time. Native peoples on the southern CaliforniaCoast clearly made a number of beads through time and were the primary centerof bead production in southern California. I hope this project will stimulatefurther research into red abalone and other bead production and exchange systemsin North America.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the generous support and encouragement of Ann Huston,Don Morris, Georganna Hawley, Kelly Minas, Ian Williams, Mark Senning,and Steve Schwartz. Aspects of this analysis were originally completed for myUniversity of Oregon dissertation research, and I thank my committee members

Mel Aikens, John Johnson, Doug Kennett, Madonna Moss, and Cathy Whitlock.I am particularly indebted to my committee chair, Jon Erlandson, who helpedwith field and lab analysis and provided insight on bead making and exchange.Kelly Shaw and Danae Rouse provided invaluable assistance in the laboratory.I also thank Jeanne Arnold and Anthony Graesch for graciously providingcomments on aspects of the red abalone bead production sequence. Finally, I

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thank Roger Moeller, Jeanne Arnold, Ren Vellanoweth, Scott Fitzpatrick, ananonymous reviewer, and the editorial staff of North American Archaeologistfor providing comments that greatly improved this manuscript.

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Note: The preceding article was subjected to formal peer review prior to beingaccepted for publication.

Direct reprint requests to:

Torben C. RickDepartment of Anthropology

Southern Methodist UniversityP.O. Box 750336Dallas, TX 75275-0336e-mail: [email protected]


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