MECHANISATION OF SMALL SCALE ONION PLANTATION

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AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION

OF SMALL SCALE ONION

PLANTATION IN MAURITIUS

MINISTRY OF AGRO-INDUSTRY & FOOD SECURITY

APRIL 2016

B.TANDARAYEN

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to the Chief Agricultural

Officer, Mr Punchoo and the Deputy Permanent Secretary, Mr

Teeloku for giving the opportunity to the Engineering Division of

the Ministry of Agro Industry & Food Security to provide its

inputs in this project.

15 APRIL 2016

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement I

Table of contents II

1.0 Introduction 1

2.0 Agricultural mechanisation 2

3.0 Status of agricultural mechanisation in Mauritius 3

3.1 Looking back at the history of agricultural mechanisation in

Mauritius 3

3.2 Need for mechanisation 4

4.0 Mechanisation of onion production 4

4.1 Nursery bed preparation 5

4.2 Land preparation 6

4.2.1 Tractor 6

4.2.2 Rotary power tiller 8

4.3 Planting 9

4.3.1 Tillage operation 9

4.3.2 Harrowing operation 10

4.4 Sowing/Transplanting/ Plant propagation 10

4.5 Irrigation 11

4.5.1 Surface irrigation 11

4.5.2 Sub-surface irrigation 12

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4.5.3 Sprinkler irrigation 12

4.5.4 Drip irrigation 13

4.6 Weeding 13

4.6.1 Power weeder 14

4.7 Plant protection 14

4.7.1 Knapsack sprayer 15

4.7.2 Motorised knapsack mist blower 16

4.7.3 Tractor mounted sprayers 16

4.8 Harvesting 17

4.9 Grading, packaging, transportation and storage 19

4.10 Land clearing 20

5.0 Issues and constraints in the adoption of agricultural

mechanisation 21

5.1 Requirements 22

6.0 Engineering Division 23

6.1 Experience and training 24

7.0 Conclusions 25

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Food security had become an increasingly important agenda especially with the

climate change in the island countries in the Indian Ocean. Modernising the

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agriculture industry requires infusion of the needed agricultural infrastructures,

development of agricultural enterprises and mechanisation in the countryside.

As in the experience of other advanced countries, agricultural mechanisation

played a key role in raising production and market efficiencies. Of all the

modern agricultural technologies introduced however, mechanisation is

probably one of the most controversial. Mechanisation is usually blamed for

escalating rural unemployment. The trend however, that most of the younger

generations is now more inclined to “urbanisation” will make mechanisation a

very important agenda to help attain food security. Due to the tedious nature of

work involved in the agricultural sector, agricultural mechanisation plays a

pivotal role in sustaining this industry.

Onions are one of the oldest vegetables in continuous cultivation dating back to

at least4,000 BC. The ancient Egyptians are known to have cultivated this crop

along the Nile River. Onions are among the most widely adapted vegetable

crops. They can be grown from the tropics to subarctic regions. This adaptation

is primarily due to differing response to day length.Onion (Allium cepa) is a

vegetable crop grown almost all over the world. It is grown mainly for its bulb,

which is used in every home, almost daily. It is rarely used as a sole dish or in

large quantities. Its main use lies in flavouring and seasoning of a wide variety

of dishes. Its popularity is due to its aromatic, volatile oil, the allyl-prophl

sulphide which imports a cherished flavour to food. As a constituent of a meal,

both the green leaves and bulbs can be eaten raw, cooked, or in soups and

salads. Onion also has an important role as a medicinal herb in many

communities, and is claimed to minimise high blood pressure and other heart

diseases due to its favourable action on the elasticity of blood vessels.

Onions grow best on fertile, well-drained soils. Most sandy loam, loamy sand or

sandy soils are also advantageous to sweet onion production. These soils are

inherently low in sulphur, which allows greater flexibility in sulphur

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management to produce sweet onions. Avoid soils with heavy clay content and

coarse sandy soils. Clay soils tend to have a higher sulphur content that can lead

to pungent onions. Sandy soils are difficult to manage because they require

more fertilizer and water.

2.0 AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION

Over the last few years, there has been considerable progress in terms of

Research & Development in agriculture mechanisation worldwide. It is

generally believed that the benefits of modern technology have been restricted

to farmers with large land-holdings. Yet the fact remains that even small

farmers are adopting and utilising selected farm equipment for efficient farm

management through custom hiring. Mechanical equipment for various farm

operations like tillage, sowing, irrigation, plant protection and threshing are

generally being used by the farming community in Mauritius.

Today we have improved implements such as Mould Board plough, puddle,

disc harrow, peg tooth harrow, spring line harrow being more efficient have

been adopted. Further, use of sowing or planting devices is also registering a

higher growth due to their impact on seed and fertiliser use.

Agricultural mechanisation is the process whereby equipment, machineries and

implements are utilised to boost agricultural and food production. It is the

application of machineries, equipment and implements in the day to day farm

activities to increase marginal output in food production and poverty

eradication.

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3.0 STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION IN MAURITIUS

Generally, the level of farm mechanisation in Mauritius remains low compared

to other countries. Majority of the farmers in the country mainly rely on the

contributions from human powers and some from mechanical power.

3.1 Looking back at the history of Agricultural Mechanisation in Mauritius

During the colonial era, mechanised farming where animal and machine powers

wereextensively used was mainly focused in sugarcane and sugar production. In

other cultivation, growers were just reliant on farm hand tools and animal

power.

After the post-independence of Mauritius, four-wheel tractors, and associated

farm machineryand equipment were introduced to meet the new challenges in

sustainabledevelopment of the agriculture sector. Introduction of large four-

wheel drive tractorsand associated machineries and equipment in the sugar

industry was a majorchallenge for the benefit of the industry. Use of these

machines was concentrated inthe sugar industry, which enjoyed assured market

in the United Kingdom. Large scale mechanisation activities were also

undertaken by the private consortium.

Towards the end of the last century, more sophisticated and appropriate

agriculturalfarm machineries and equipment were introduced to meet the

demands of the modernagricultural farming. A wide range of farm machines

and associated equipment wereavailable and introduced in the country from

various company dealers, but withoutmuch emphasis on applied research for

testing and evaluation on the applicability andappropriate use of these machines

to suit our local conditions.

With the down-fall of the assured price of sugar operations, and deregulation of

the sugar industry, the mechanisation priorities within the ministry also had a

setback.

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3.2 Need for Mechanisation

Farm mechanisation continues to play pivotal role as part of the agronomical

practices to ensure economic viability of the agriculture sector. Mauritian

farmers had been struggling for ages to transform agricultural farming practices

from traditional method of production to modern farming technologies. The

mechanisation technologies are very efficient and thus yields higher farm

returns in terms of export earnings and as food security.

The importance of using the appropriate tools and machines in farm operations

cannot be overemphasised, as mechanisation increases labour efficiency, eases-

up the drudgery of farm work, saves time and promotes technical accuracy.

Moreover, the level of mechanisation technology increases as the source of

power shifts from human to animal to mechanical power

4.0 MECHANISATION OF ONION PRODUCTION

The quality and yield of onion crop can be increased by adopting quality

planting materials and modern production techniques.

Most of the field operations in onion production are labour intensive and

traditional tools do not yield quality output. In Mauritius, the scarcity of labour

is highly being felt and in the years to come it will be even more difficult to find

people willing to work in the agricultural fields. Hence the need to go for

efficient power operated equipment to improve the yield of onion production in

Mauritius.

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The mechanisation of onion production can be effected in most of the

following:

I Nursery/seedling preparation

II Land preparation (Power operated equipment)

III Seeding

IV Plant protection/pest control

V Weeding

VI Irrigation system (Sprinkler/drip)

VII Harvesting

together with grading, handling packing and transportation.

These are major part of mechanisation activities.

Efficient equipment and machinery are commercially available locally and

abroad (India and China) and can be used to remedy the scarcity and cost of

labour and at the same time to improve the quality of the operations and quality

of products.

4.1Nursery bed preparation

Nursery beds are prepared for raising the seedlings for transplanting. The land is

normally selected at higher elevation to avoid water logging. After initial

preparation of the land, the raised nursery bed are made by the use of hand tools

or by using bed formers.

A proposal for Mauritius might be the use of greenhouse or shed cultivation for

raising seedlings

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Figure 4.1 Seedling/ Nursery Bed Preparation

4.2Land Preparation

Onions are annual crops grown in specific regions in Mauritius. Onions are

grown in raised beds. Onion as a root crop require better tilth for good yield.

Tractor drawn implements such as mould board plough, disc harrows, and

cultivators are available for large scale plantation. However, small power tiller

can be used for small scale production, in addition to hand tools.

4.2.1Tractor: Farm Tractor is a self-propelled machine or equipment that pulls

or pushes tools or implements over the land. It is equipment designed and used

for farm operations for the purpose of land preparations, cultivation and

harvesting of crops.

Mainly used for power machinery, agriculture of different types,

walking/handheld equipment, wheeled and crawler tractors. In accordance with

the horsepower is divided into small (less than 40 horsepower), medium (40

horsepower and 70 horsepower), large (more than 70 horsepower tractor).

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For the mechanisation of onion plantation, small capacity tractors ranging from

25 to 40 Hp will be optimum for the purpose.

Figure 4.2 Small-scale Tractor & Large Scale Tractor

Some of the implements are:

Disc plough and mouldboard plough

Disc Harrow and mouldboard Harrow

Disc Ridger and mouldboard Ridger

Boom Sprayer and Gun Sprayer

Seed Planter and Cassava Planter

Fertilizer Spreader

Figure 4.3 Cultivator Figure 4.4 Disc Plough Figure 4.5 Chisel Plough

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4.2.2Rotary Power Tiller: Rotary power tiller also known as two wheeled

tractor is light duty agricultural equipment used for tilling operation.

It is affordable in price when compared with the four wheeled tractors, for the

small and medium scale farmers. It could be used on undulating terrain and

fragile soil. It is portable and can be used or taken to the interior farmlands

where there is no access road for big tractors. The affordability of this

equipment in terms of low price to local farmers will definitely make the onion

production to increase considerably.

The rotary power tiller, apart from tilling operation could also perform the

following: ploughing, wet pudding, ridging, cultivating, water pumping,

planting and weeding operations while making use of appropriate implement.

The equipment in conjunctions with the trailer could be used to transport the

appropriate implement to be used in the fields and could also be used to bring or

convey farm produce from the field to the main access road.

The equipment is economical, safe and efficient in use than manual operation. It

can perform tilling operation of about 1.25 hectares of land per day.

Figure 4.6 Power Tillers for Land Preparation

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There exist different types of power tiller and it is chosen according to the type

of soil and the engine capacity will vary and the type of implement is fitted

accordingly.

4.3Planting

Mechanisation plays a vital role in enhancing sustainable food production,

thereby boosting food security in Mauritius as exemplified in various

mechanised operations in the farm that has to do with planting, germination,

growth and weed control of the crops.

4.3.1 Tillage operation

To start with, the land to be cultivated goes through the first tillage operation

of soil breaking making use of Disc Plough which is one of the first tillage

implement.

Figure 4.7 Power Tillers for Planting Operation

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4.3.2 Harrowing operation

Harrowing operation which is breaking of the soil into smaller particles so as to

achieve fine soil texture, making use of either tractor mounted or trailing Disc

Harrow is carried out.

Figure 4.8Harrowing for Large Scale

4.4 Sowing/Transplanting/ Plant Propagation

Some vegetables seeds are directly sown, while seedlings of onion are raised in

nursery for transplantation. Below is a typical transplanter which can be used

for onion seedlings:

Figure 4.9Transplanter

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4.5Irrigation

Water from different sources, from irrigation canal and from pipes for irrigation

purposes, is applied to the crops by various methods. The four common

methods employed are:

I Surface irrigation

II Sub-surface irrigation

III Sprinkle irrigation

IV Drip irrigation

Different types of pumps, pumping systems, sprinkler irrigation and drip

irrigation are available in addition to surface irrigation methods practiced by

growers in Mauritius.

The most important factor to consider is the determination of the appropriate

type of irrigation system for the plantation, then the design of the irrigation

network, together with the sizing of the water pump and appropriate selection.

Further the most economical design of the lay out of the piping network with

minimum wastage and leakages to ensure optimum use of water.

4.5.1 Surface Irrigation

Water is applied to the soil surface, that is, at ground surface level. The water

flows from a water channel to the field due to gravity. In surface irrigation water

may be distributed in border strips, check basins or furrows.

In Mauritius we can consider rain water collection in basins and irrigation by

gravity method through surface irrigation.

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4.5.2 Sub-surface Irrigation

It is the application of irrigation water below the ground surface, thereby

maintaining artificial water table. Water may be applied through open ditches

having a depth of 30 cm to 100cm, tile drains or mole drains. In case of open

ditches, they may be spaced 15m to 30m apart. Water reaches to the plant

through capillary action.

Sub-surface irrigation is normally used for soils having low water holding

capacity and high infiltration rate, where surface method cannot be used. The

plantation of onion will highly benefit from this method of irrigation.

4.5.3 Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is sprayed into air in the form of coarse droplets. Sprinkler irrigation,

being very easy to operate, is extensively used worldwide, as in Mauritius.

Water is subjected to pressure by pumping and discharged through small

orifices of nozzles, which break the liquid into coarse droplets. Nozzles are

mounted on rotating head to cover a circular pattern.

Sprinkler system is suitable for onion plantation. Sprinkler system is broadly

classified as rotating head system and perforated pipe system.

Figure 4.10Sprinkler Irrigation

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4.5.4 Drip Irrigation

Also known as trickle irrigation, it is one of the most efficient way of applying

irrigation water to crops. The efficiency of this method is around 90%. Water is

applied in the form of drops or very fine stream.

Drip irrigation is most suitable for orchard. Namely for widely spaced trees, it is

more economical than sprinkle irrigation.

Figure 4.11Drip Irrigation System

4.6 Weeding

Weeding is an important operation to remove the unwanted plants and weeds

from the crop as these compete with the desired crop, in our case onion, and

also draw nutrient from the soil which otherwise should only be available to the

crop. The aeration is equally important for proper growth of the onion.

Most of the weeding are done by using hand tools and manually operated

weeders. Onions are sown in lines, therefore manual weeders like wheel hoes

and other wheeled weeders can be used. Tractor drawn cultivators available

locally can be used at the initial stages of the crops. Through mechanical

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weeding, the weeds are uprooted and the soil is manipulated for aeration and

creating a soil mulch.

We can categorise the tools and implements for mechanical weed control on the

basis of power source: manual and power or tractor operated.

The manual tool include the sickle traditionally used in Mauritius, and is very

labour intensive and time consuming.

4.6.1 Power weeder

Mechanical weeding is done by the power weeder. It is a light weight diesel

engine mounted on a frame. From the engine, the power is transmitted to the

transmission gearbox and then to the ground wheels and rotary weeder. It is

suitable for wide spaced plantation onion.

Figure 4.12Power Weeder

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4.7 Plant protection

Vegetables and crops in Mauritius are highly affected by pests and diseases.

Thus in order to derive maximum outputs from the inputs and intensive

farming, it is necessary to combat the menace of insects, pests and other

diseases by the use of integrated pest management techniques including

pesticides. Despite the fact that the Entomology Division of the Ministry has

made intensive research and are encouraging the use of natural type baits,

planters and growers still want effective and immediate remedy to the problem

of pests and diseases, hence the use of pesticides.

The chemicals may be in liquid or powder form. The pesticides have to be

applied in the stipulated time frame, which calls the need of plant protection

equipment. These equipment can apply the chemicals in any form and cover

large area in the shortest possible time depending upon the type of equipment

used.

With the use of equipment it is possible to regulate the quantity of chemicals

and uniformly deposit it on the target area of the onion plantation at any stage of

growth.

4.7.1 Knapsack Sprayer

For onion plantation, knapsack sprayer, which fits comfortably on the operators

back. Its simple use of a lever operated pump and a lance fitted with nozzle,

make this type of sprayer quite popular in Mauritius.

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Figure 4.13 Knapsack Sprayer

4.7.2 Motorised knapsack mist blower

The most simple mechanised plant protection equipment is the motorised

knapsack mist blower which has a two stroke petrol engine and ranges from 25

cm3to 50 cm

3to which a centrifugal fan is connected. The fan produces a high

velocity air stream, which is diverted though a 900

elbow to a flexible discharge

hose which has a divergent outlet.

Figure 4.14Motorised knapsack mist blower

4.7.3 Tractor mounted sprayers

These are hydraulic energy sprayers. They utilise Power Take Off (PTO) of a

tractor to operate the pump of the sprayer. Basically the spray boom can be

arranged either as ground spray boom or overhead spray boom. For onion

plantation, to ensure an effective application, the ground spray boom will be

most appropriate. However the onion plantation has to take into account the

track width of the tractor and be planted in rows.

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Figure 4.15Tractor mounted sprayers

The complete sprayer is mounted on a three point linkages of the tractor. It uses

high pressure and high discharge pump as the number of nozzles may be up to

20 depending on the number of rows of the onion plantation.

4.8 Harvesting

Harvesting of onions is normally carried out using hand tools. Harvesters and

power operated diggers are available for harvesting onions in developed

countries. The plantation will have to be modified to accommodate these

equipment for harvesting.

The use of combine harvester and tractor mounted harvester makes agricultural

and food production to be easier, economical and fast.It also reduces wastage

usually encountered when manual method of harvesting is employed. The use of

combined harvester for the harvesting of grain crops such as rice, maize,

cowpea and soybean will definitely reduce wastage that the farmers usually face

when manual labourers were utilised. This is so because the harvester will cover

a large area of farm land and harvested large crops within a short period of time

when compared with what manual labourers will harvest in days.

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This practice of harvesting in a mechanised way makes farming operation to be

less drudgery and less fatigue. It also makes farming to be interesting and

satisfactory, which ultimately brings about increase in food production.

There are available and affordable, several large, medium and small scale

combined harvesters for the harvesting of grain and root crops such as onion, to

farmers, hence the role of agricultural mechanisation in the enhancement of

sustainable food production in the country cannot be over-emphasised.

In the harvesting of onion, agricultural mechanisationplays a vital role with the

use of the implement known as onion harvester. It is a tractor mounted

implement designed to uproot onion with little damage to the onion.

Figure 4.16Tractor Driven Onion Harvester

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4.9 Grading, Packaging, Transportation and Storage

All grading is done manually according to size and quality at the grower’s level

or at the seller’s level. Machines are used for grading according to size and

colour especially for onions.

Onions are packed in “Gunny” bags for transportation. In Mauritius

transportation form fields to selling point is done by lorries and vans normally

own by the growers.

Figure 4.17 Grading and Packaging

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To complete the above, in fact the first step in cultivation is land clearing,

normally meant for new growers:

4.10 Land Clearing

In the past, the traditional method of land clearing for food and agricultural

production was by manual labour with the use of cutlass, axe, hoe and other

farming hand tools. The problem associated with this system includes fatigue on

the part of the labourers, inability to get enough man power to carry out the

operation as at when needed or required. Most times when lands are cleared for

farming purpose, there still left behind stumps of shrubs, and trees felled which

makes it difficult for the rest of operation like ploughing, ridging etc. The

stumps damage equipment when used on the land and causes injury to labourers

working on the farm at long run.

In other to alleviate this aforementioned problems associated with the traditional

method of land clearing, mechanised system is introduced with the use of track

laying tractors otherwise called Bulldozer in construction site, to push down

trees and lift them to the edge of the land in such a way that the soil nutrients

will not be eroded from the surface of the soil.

Figure 4.18 Tractor (Bulldozer)

With this mechanised system, the area of land that will be cleared for several

weeks or months by several people using manual labour will be cleared and

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accomplished within two (2) days. The use of track laying tractors and other

heavy duty earth moving equipment for land clearing is efficient, economical

and fast in operation.

When used properly, soil nutrients and fertility are preserved since there is no

need for the use of fire to burn the grasses and off cut trees, instead they are

heaped at the edge of the farm land and left there to decay which ultimately

increase the soil fertility at that portion. When land clearing operation is

performed in a mechanised way the area to be cultivated will be much within a

limited time and it will boost food security in the nation

5.0 ISSUES AND CONSTRAINTS IN THE ADOPTION OF

AGRICULTURALMECHANISATION

The current status and trends of agricultural mechanisation in Mauritius can be

attributed to the following:

I. High cost of machines

II. Lack of promotion - lack of farmers’ awareness of new mechanisation

technologies (we need to put on record the job FAREI is doing to popularise

mechanisation technologies)

III. Poor quality of machines due to low capability of the local representatives

and also poor after sales service and support

IV Lack of access to formal credit facilities

V. Low income of farmers/small farm sizes - Landholding distribution in the

country also affects the pace of farm mechanisation.

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5.1 REQUIREMENTS

There is the need to make a national survey on onion growers in Mauritius

through designed questionnaires to both literate and illiterate farmers to extract

information from them.

For the illiterate, an assistant may be use to interpret and fill the questionnaires

for them.

The survey will help to obtain vital information such as:

(i) Size of farms/plantations, so as to decide on equipment capacity

(ii) Crops (Onion) variety grown, to ascertain the types of tools needed

(iii) Mechanisation machines available, to know their suitability vis-a-vis

improvement on them, to suit local conditions.

(iv) Extent of human muscle involvement in various farm operations, to

determine the extent of need of mechanisation machines in such operations.

(v) Ability to operate motorised machines, to know what type of machines to

import.

(vi)The levels of farmers’ proposed investment on farm tools, to ascertain their

financial capabilities in purchasing mechanisation machines.

(vii) Farming/planting experience in years

(viii) Availability of crop processing and storage facilities.

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6.0 ENGINEERING DIVISION

The Engineering Division being part of the Agricultural Services under the

Ministry of Agro-Industry & Food Security. Apart from providing Technical

and Engineering support to the Divisions and Departments under the Ministry,

the Engineering Division has the mandate to:

I. Monitor the implementation of new projects and introduction of new

technologies in the field of Agricultural Engineering;

II Assess the design consideration of locally manufactured/ modified farm

machinery and implements from prospective manufacturers/ individuals;

III Advise Ministries and Government Institutions on matters related to

Agricultural Engineering;

IV Assist in the formulation of Agricultural Engineering policies and in framing

of appropriate Engineering Legislation;

V Trials with, and adaptations to, farm equipment and agricultural support

equipment so that they respond better to local conditions;

VI Conducting and supervising research work in the field of Agricultural

Engineering, amongst others.

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6.1 EXPERIENCE AND TRAINING OF THE AUTHOR

The experience and exposure during the two training courses namely:

1. “Training course on Equipment and Technology for Processing and Value-

Addition to Agricultural Products at Small Scale/Rural Level” 16 to 27

October 2009.

was organised by the Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal,

India and was sponsored by the Afro-Asian Rural Development Organisation

(AARDO). The CIAE is a premier Institute in Agricultural Engineering in India

under ICAR. The institute is responsible for the development and modernisation

of Indian Agriculture through engineering application for increasing agricultural

production and productivity, processing and value addition to increase income

as well as rural employment generation, use of renewable and non-renewable

source of energy and reduction in drudgery in farm operations. It specialises in

Research and Development activities on land development, farm mechanisation,

irrigation and drainage engineering, processing of agro produces, efficient

utilisation of renewable energy and mechanical power sources.

2. “Training course on new technology popularising on agricultural

mechanisation for developing countries”15 October to 13 November 2013

was organized by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Mechanization Sciences

(CAAMS) and was sponsored by the Department of Foreign Countries of the

Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China.

The training was attended by 27 participants from 16 countries.

The training consisted of intensive and very high level lectures from eminent

lecturers and researchers on topics such as Land preparation, Harvest, Post-

Harvest and Processing System, Equipment & Technology in Agriculture.

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Emphasis was laid on conservation agriculture through minimum tillage,

mechanised planting and harvesting; together with Research and Development

on means and ways to minimise waste after harvest through drying and

processing of produce of high quality.

The knowledge acquired during the two above named courses has provided

another insight of agricultural mechanisation, and will definitely enhance the

quality of the expertise in this field.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Today the demand for food is increasing at an exponential rate, worldwide. Mauritius

is not an exception. Hence, the need to go for sustainable agriculture to ensure food

security for the population.

The producers of onion need the expertise of the professionals in this sector, and the

Ministry of Agro-Industry & Food Security is a major player in this enterprise.

To ensure the efficient and effective production of onion at low cost and to counteract

the shortage of labour, the producers have to move from the traditional ways towards

more modern technologies in agriculture. One of them is the mechanisation of the

production of onions.

B.Tandarayen

Senior Engineer

15 APRIL 2016