neuroreceptor modulation will deliver many different flavors

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Neuroreceptor Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Modulation Will Deliver Many Deliver Many Different Flavors Different Flavors Denise H. Rhoney, Pharm.D., FCCP, FCCM Denise H. Rhoney, Pharm.D., FCCP, FCCM Associate Professor Associate Professor Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences Wayne State University Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan Detroit, Michigan

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Page 1: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Neuroreceptor Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Modulation Will 

Deliver Many Deliver Many Different FlavorsDifferent Flavors

Denise H. Rhoney, Pharm.D., FCCP, FCCMDenise H. Rhoney, Pharm.D., FCCP, FCCMAssociate ProfessorAssociate Professor

Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy & Health SciencesEugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy & Health SciencesWayne State UniversityWayne State University

Detroit, MichiganDetroit, Michigan

Page 2: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

What is Delirium?What is Delirium?

Otherwise known as ICU psychosis, acute brain Otherwise known as ICU psychosis, acute brain dysfunction, acute confusional state, toxicdysfunction, acute confusional state, toxic‐‐metabolic metabolic encephalopathy, postencephalopathy, post‐‐op confusional state, organic brain op confusional state, organic brain syndromesyndrome

Complex neurobehavioral syndrome caused by the Complex neurobehavioral syndrome caused by the transient disruption of normal neuronal activitytransient disruption of normal neuronal activity

Clinically characterized by :Clinically characterized by : Acute confusion, fluctuating mental status, inattention, Acute confusion, fluctuating mental status, inattention, 

disorganized thinking, altered levels of consciousnessdisorganized thinking, altered levels of consciousness

Page 3: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

ICU Delirium FactsICU Delirium Facts

60% to 80% of ventilated patients 60% to 80% of ventilated patients develop delirium develop delirium 

20% to 50% of lower severity ICU 20% to 50% of lower severity ICU patients develop deliriumpatients develop delirium

3 times higher risk of death by 6 3 times higher risk of death by 6 monthsmonths

$15k to $25k higher hospital costs$15k to $25k higher hospital costs

Estimated national $4 to $16 billion Estimated national $4 to $16 billion associated costs associated costs 

5 fewer ventilator free days (days alive 5 fewer ventilator free days (days alive and off vent), adjusted P=0.03and off vent), adjusted P=0.03

9 times higher incidence of cognitive 9 times higher incidence of cognitive impairment at hospital discharge, adj. impairment at hospital discharge, adj. P=0.002P=0.002

Ely EW ICM 2001;27:1892‐900Ely EW JAMA 2001;286,2703‐2710Ely EW CCM 2001;29,1370‐79McNicoll L, JAGS 2003;51:591‐98Ely EW et al, JAMA 2004;291‐1753‐1762Milbrandt E et al, Crit Care Med 2004;32:955‐962Lin et al, Crit Care Med 2004;32:2254‐59

Page 4: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Delirium Subtypes*Delirium Subtypes*

Characteristic Hyperactive Hypoactive

% in ICU 0‐6% 43.5‐94%

Level of Consciousness Hyperalert/vigilant, distractibility Lethargy,  alertness, inattention

Cognition Diffuse deficits, speech loud/rapid/disorganized, disorientation

Diffuse deficits, slow speech/quiet

Perceptual disturbances Hallucination/delusions None

Physiologic Low‐voltage fast EEG,  or normal cerebral metabolic activity

Slow/diffuse EEG,  cerebral metabolic activity

Behaviors Psychomotor activity, restless, combative, mood liability

psychomotor activity, apathetic,  stimuli response

Possible etiology BZD w/drawal, ETOH/drug w/drawal, drug intoxication

BZD intoxication, hepatic encephalopathy, hypoxia, metabolic disturbance

Outcome Best Worst

*64%  ICU patients with mixed forms

Page 5: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Overview of Acute Brain Overview of Acute Brain DysfunctionDysfunction

Normal &  consistent connectivity betweenposterior parietal cortex (PPC),dorsal prefrontal cortex (PFC),& medial temporal/ hippocampal region (MTL) –circuit is innervated & maintained by  ascendingreticular activating system (ARAS) in the brainstem

Elderly patients show signs of grey matter atrophy in PPC, MTL and PFC

Functional connectivity remains intact but strength of connections is no longer robust

ICU patients subjected  to medical and pharmacological challenges that disrupt normal CNS connectivity and weaken functional links between these cortical regions

Gunther ML et al. Medical Hypotheses 2007;69:1179‐1182

Page 6: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Neuroimaging StudiesNeuroimaging Studies

Delirium results in significant hypoperfusion in several brain Delirium results in significant hypoperfusion in several brain regions (frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions)regions (frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions)

Critically ill patients with delirium (61% with abnormalities)Critically ill patients with delirium (61% with abnormalities) Significant ventricular enlargementSignificant ventricular enlargement

Generalized atrophyGeneralized atrophy

Focal lesions in frontal and parietal regionsFocal lesions in frontal and parietal regions

White matter lesions/hyperintensitiesWhite matter lesions/hyperintensities

Cortical and subcortical lesionsCortical and subcortical lesions

Fong TG et al. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2007;61A:1294‐9.Sbordone R et al. Brain Inj 1998;12:505‐12.

Page 7: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Risk Factors for DeliriumRisk Factors for Delirium

Predisposing Host FactorsAgeAPOE4 polymorphismCognitive impairmentDepressionStroke HistoryVision/hearing impairment

Critical Illness FactorsAcidosisAnemiaCNS pathologyElectrolyte disturbancesEndocrine derangementFeverHepatic FailureHigh severity of illnessHypoperfusionHypotensionHypoxia/anoxiaInfection/sepsisMalnutritionMetabolic disturbancesRespiratory failureShockTrauma

Iatrogenic FactorsFew social interactionsFrequent nursing careImmobilizationMedicationsOversedationPoorly controlled painSleep disturbances

Page 8: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Risk of Delirium with Commonly Risk of Delirium with Commonly Administered DrugsAdministered Drugs

High RiskOpioids (particularly meperidine & morphine)Antiparkinsonian agentsAntidepressants (particularly anticholinergic agents)BenzodiazepinesCorticosteroids

Medium RiskAlpha‐blockersBeta‐blockersNSAIDS

Low RiskACE‐IH2 antagonistsCalcium channel blockersAnticonvulsants

Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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Pathophysiology of DeliriumPathophysiology of Delirium

Page 10: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Theories on the Development of Theories on the Development of DeliriumDelirium

Oxygen deprivation hypothesisOxygen deprivation hypothesis Neurotransmitter hypothesisNeurotransmitter hypothesis Large neutral amino acid hypothesisLarge neutral amino acid hypothesis Neuronal aging hypothesisNeuronal aging hypothesis CellularCellular‐‐signaling hypothesissignaling hypothesis Physiologic stress hypothesisPhysiologic stress hypothesis Inflammatory hypothesisInflammatory hypothesis Genetic FactorsGenetic Factors Cortisol & HPA disruptionCortisol & HPA disruption Disruption in circadian rhythmDisruption in circadian rhythm Disruption in thalamic gatingDisruption in thalamic gating

Page 11: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Hypotheses of DeliriumHypotheses of Delirium

Figueroa‐Ramos MI et al. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:781‐795

Oxygen deprivation hypothesis

Inflammatory hypothesis

Neurotransmitter hypothesis

Large neutral amino acid hypothesis

Page 12: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Neurotransmitter HypothesisNeurotransmitter Hypothesis

Suggests that changes in neurotransmitter concentration or Suggests that changes in neurotransmitter concentration or receptor sensitivity may underlie the different symptoms receptor sensitivity may underlie the different symptoms and clinical presentations of deliriumand clinical presentations of delirium ReducedReduced cholinergic functioncholinergic function

ExcessExcess release of release of  DopamineDopamine

NENE

GlutamateGlutamate

BothBoth decreased and increased activitydecreased and increased activity SerotoninSerotonin

HistamineHistamine

GABAGABA

Page 13: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Acetylcholine & DeliriumAcetylcholine & Delirium

Decreased ACh synthesis and releaseDecreased ACh synthesis and release Ach is an important neuromodulator of cortical and hippocampal Ach is an important neuromodulator of cortical and hippocampal 

neuronal functionneuronal function

Widespread dysfunction of arousal seen in delirium correlates weWidespread dysfunction of arousal seen in delirium correlates well ll with the blockade of the muscarininc cholinergic systemwith the blockade of the muscarininc cholinergic system

Low levels of ACh described in plasma and CSF of patients with Low levels of ACh described in plasma and CSF of patients with deliriumdelirium

Higher levels of serum anticholinergic activity (SAA)  have beenHigher levels of serum anticholinergic activity (SAA)  have beenassociated with increase likelihood of delirium in surgical and associated with increase likelihood of delirium in surgical and medical inpatientsmedical inpatients

Detectable SAA levels have been reported even in patients with Detectable SAA levels have been reported even in patients with delirium who were not exposed to anticholinergic agentsdelirium who were not exposed to anticholinergic agents

Flacker et al. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; Mach et al. J Am Geriatr Sco 1995; Mulsant et al. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003.

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Acetylcholine & DeliriumAcetylcholine & Delirium

Potential contributing Potential contributing mechanismsmechanisms AgingAging

Dementia & other Dementia & other ““organic organic brain injurybrain injury””

Hypoxia Hypoxia ACh productionACh production

anticholinergic activityanticholinergic activity DrugsDrugs

Endogenous anticholinergic Endogenous anticholinergic substancessubstances

Hshieh TT et al. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63:764‐72

Central cholinergic pathways overlap with locations of neuroimaging abnormalities 

Page 15: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

DopamineDopamineDopamine associated with many functions inlcuding cognition, motor activity, thinking, perceptual function, motivation/reward, anxiety

Dopaminergic and cholinergic pathways overlap significantly in the brain

Overactivity of DA neurons in mesolimbic pathway may account for symptomssimilar to those in schizophrenia: agitation, disorganized behavior,hallucinations and inattention

Dopaminergic neurons are among most susceptible to oxidative stress massive DA release

Page 16: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

Dopamine & DeliriumDopamine & Delirium Enhanced central dopaminergic activityEnhanced central dopaminergic activity

DA agonists cause deliriumDA agonists cause delirium DA antagonists treat deliriumDA antagonists treat delirium

Follows an inverted UFollows an inverted U‐‐shaped curveshaped curve Lack of dopamine = Parkinsonian symptomsLack of dopamine = Parkinsonian symptoms Excess dopamine = psychosisExcess dopamine = psychosis

D2 receptor density declines with age and correlates with frontaD2 receptor density declines with age and correlates with frontal cognitive l cognitive test scorestest scores

DA transporter gene allele A9 is more prevalent in alcoholics wiDA transporter gene allele A9 is more prevalent in alcoholics with th withdrawal delirium and seizureswithdrawal delirium and seizures

DA agonists cause EEG slowingDA agonists cause EEG slowing

DA release is increased in hypoxia (while ACh is decreased)DA release is increased in hypoxia (while ACh is decreased) Dopaminergic blockade can be used to reduce hypoxic damage in hiDopaminergic blockade can be used to reduce hypoxic damage in hippocampusppocampus

Trzepacz PT. Sem Clin Neuropsychiatry 2000;5:132‐148.

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Pharmacology of AntipsychoticsPharmacology of Antipsychotics

Page 19: Neuroreceptor Modulation Will Deliver Many Different Flavors

GABA & DeliriumGABA & Delirium

Predominant inhibitory Predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNSneurotransmitter in CNS in hepatic encephalopathy and in hepatic encephalopathy and 

benzodiazepine usebenzodiazepine use sedative/alcohol withdrawalsedative/alcohol withdrawal

Flumazenil has improved hypoactive Flumazenil has improved hypoactive delirium in cirrhotic patientsdelirium in cirrhotic patients

Oversedation with GABAergic agents Oversedation with GABAergic agents has been found to be a risk factor for has been found to be a risk factor for transitioning to delirium and transitioning to delirium and prolonged mechanical ventilationprolonged mechanical ventilation

Pandharipande P et al. Anesthesiology 2006; 104:21‐6Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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GABA & DeliriumGABA & Delirium

GABAergic agents contribute to the development of GABAergic agents contribute to the development of delirium via various possible mechanismsdelirium via various possible mechanisms Interfering with physiologic sleep patternsInterfering with physiologic sleep patterns

Interfering with central cholinergeric function causing Interfering with central cholinergeric function causing centrally mediated acetylcholine deficient statecentrally mediated acetylcholine deficient state

Disrupting circadian rhythm of melatonin releaseDisrupting circadian rhythm of melatonin release

Enhancing NMDAEnhancing NMDA‐‐induced neuronal damageinduced neuronal damage

Disrupting thalamic gating function leading to sensory Disrupting thalamic gating function leading to sensory overload and hyperarousaloverload and hyperarousal

Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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Other Neurotransmitters & DeliriumOther Neurotransmitters & Delirium

SerotoninSerotonin:: Most abundant neurotransmitter in the brainstem, its synthesis aMost abundant neurotransmitter in the brainstem, its synthesis and nd 

release depends on its precursor tryptophanrelease depends on its precursor tryptophan

Increased and decreased serotonin Increased and decreased serotonin levels are both associated with levels are both associated with development of deliriumdevelopment of delirium

Cerebral serotonin is increased in hepatic encephalopathy, septiCerebral serotonin is increased in hepatic encephalopathy, septic delirium c delirium and serotonin syndrome and serotonin syndrome 

HistamineHistamine:: HAHA11 & HA& HA22 alter the polarity of hippocampal neuronsalter the polarity of hippocampal neurons

Pharmacological antagonism of HAPharmacological antagonism of HA1 1 and HAand HA22 causes deliriumcauses delirium

Both Both excess and deficiency of HA excess and deficiency of HA may be related to deliriummay be related to delirium

HH2 2 BlockersBlockers cimetidine, ranitidine may cause cognitive dysfunction and cimetidine, ranitidine may cause cognitive dysfunction and delirium in elderlydelirium in elderly

Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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Other Neurotransmitters & DeliriumOther Neurotransmitters & Delirium

NorepinephrineNorepinephrine:: Plays important role in modulating attention, anxiety & moodPlays important role in modulating attention, anxiety & mood Enhanced central noradrengergic activity (Enhanced central noradrengergic activity ( NE)NE) Acute NE release due to hypoxia leads to further neuronal injuryAcute NE release due to hypoxia leads to further neuronal injury and worsening and worsening 

deliriumdelirium Cortisol release with injury may lead to further NE release and Cortisol release with injury may lead to further NE release and activityactivity UpUp‐‐regulation of NE receptors due to chronic GABA suppressionregulation of NE receptors due to chronic GABA suppression Dexmedetomidine  has been shown to decrease NE conc. by up to 90Dexmedetomidine  has been shown to decrease NE conc. by up to 90%%

Significantly decreased incidence of delirium associated with DeSignificantly decreased incidence of delirium associated with Dex compared to x compared to midazolammidazolam

Glutamate:Glutamate: Enhanced glutamate activity Enhanced glutamate activity leading to neuronal injury via activation of NMDA leading to neuronal injury via activation of NMDA 

receptorsreceptors Metabolized by glutamate decarboxylase into GABAMetabolized by glutamate decarboxylase into GABA DA may enhance GLUDA may enhance GLU‐‐mediated injurymediated injury

Hshieh TT et al. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63:764‐72Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856

Engelhard K et al. Anesth Analg 2003;96:524‐31Riker R et al JAMA 2009;301:489‐99

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Interaction Between Interaction Between NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters

Hshieh TT et al. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63:764‐72

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Medications, Stroke

Cytokine Excess

Medications, substance withdrawal

Surgical Illness, medical illnessGlucocorticosteroids, Cushing’s syndrome

Hepatic failure, alcohol withdrawal

Benzodiazepine, hepatic failure

Benzodiazepine and alcohol withdrawal

Medications, medical illnessMedications, alcohol withdrawal

Ach (-)Ach (+)

GLU (+)

D(+)

GABA (+)

5HT (-)

5HT (+)

Tryptophan depletionCortisol excess

Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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Maldonado JR. Crit Care Clin 2008;24:789‐856.

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SummarySummary

Firm understanding of pathophysiology of delirium Firm understanding of pathophysiology of delirium remains elusive despite improvements in diagnosis and remains elusive despite improvements in diagnosis and treatmenttreatment

Neurotransmitter imbalance along with a number of other Neurotransmitter imbalance along with a number of other hypotheses have been implicated in the development of hypotheses have been implicated in the development of deliriumdelirium

Understanding cellular response to critical illness, Understanding cellular response to critical illness, including neurotransmitter activity and neuroreceptor including neurotransmitter activity and neuroreceptor expression, may lead to innovative diagnostic and expression, may lead to innovative diagnostic and treatment modalitiestreatment modalities