n,bu n,nkJourna/of Philippine Depelopment

NumberTwenty*Nine,VolXVI,No.2, 1989

CONCEPT PAPER ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY*

Josef 7".Yap**

Introduction

To say that science and technology (S&T) plays a critical role in thedevelopment process of a society is almost like citing a cliche, The impor-tance of this field cannot be overemphasized, hence the rationale for thispaper. Although the discussion will focus on the relationship of science andtechnology and economic development, itdoes not implythat other aspectsof society (e. g., cultural and politicaldevelopment) are of less significance.On the contrary, the emphasis on science in the educational system maylead to more rational human relations since a sense of objectivity would

generally prevail in society. What may be a more tangible benefit, however,are the effectsof science and technology inthe economic sense, in the formof greater productivity, higher Incomes, and a more comfortable way of life.

The paper isdivided into six parts, in the next section, some key termswill be defined in order to set the basic framework of the discussion. The

types of technology consistent with the definitions will then be enumeratedalong two dimensions. These concepts will facilitate a general analysis ofthe development of S&T found in the third section. The fourth sectiondescribes a methodology by which the record of technological developmentin the Philippines can be traced, while Section 5 discusses the role ofgovernment In the development of science and technology in the Philip-pines. The last section enumerates a listof possible research topics.

Several issueswill be given prominence in this paper. These include:

1. A discussion of the nature of the various types of technology and thedifferent ways to develop them.

2. An analysis and description of the present state of scionce andtechnology in the Philippines. Included in this item would be a critique

of the forces that influenced and shaped the present state of scienceand technology.

_q*hlspaper was presentedduringthe PIDS-DOSTSeminaron ScienceandTechnologyPoliciesheldattheNEDAsaMakatiBuildingon5May1989.

=*ResearchFellow,PhilippineInstituteforDevelopmentStudies(PIDS).

166 JOURNAL OF PHILIPPLNEDEVELOPMENT

3. Giventhe presentstate of scienceand technology in the Philippines,it is but logical to lay down a set of objectives and goals that identifya preferred state of affairs. Consequently,a set of strategies that leadto the achievementof these goals must be specified.The concept ofan appropriate technology isaddressed in this area.

Theseissuesare quite broad in their scope and should be mademoremanageablethrough individualstudies. It mustbe emphasizedthat the mainpurpose of this paper is to simply identify Important areasthat must be thetopics of more detailed research.

The Nature of Scienceand Technology

Science isa systemof activitieswhichseekto describe,understand,andpredictnaturalphenomenaintermsofa cumulativebodyofexperimen-tallyverifiablelaws,principles,andtheories.It is usuallyclassifiedintothebasic sciences (biology,chemistry,physics,mathematics,and the earthsciences)and applied sciences (agriculturalsciences,engineeringscien-ces, and the health sciences).The core activityof science consistsofresearch and development. Researchaims to acquire new knowledge.Development,on the other hand, involvesthe transformationof researchfindingsintoprototypeinventionsof newmaterials,devices,andprocesses.

Technology is a system of hardware (tools,equipment,machines,materials)andsoftware(processes,techniques,organization,and manage-ment)which are used to produceand distributegoodsand services.Thecore activity of technology is technological innovation which seekstotransformthe prototype inventionsof researchand developmentinto acommercialproductor process.Technologicalinnovationcomprisesthefollowingchain of activities:pre-investmentstudies,investmentdecision,engineeringdesign, toolingand constructionof manufacturingfacilities,manufacturingstart-up,and marketingset-up. A usualIndicatorof tech-nologicaldevelopment,whichissomewhatnarrowInscope, isthe numberof patents.

Technologiescan be classifiedaccordingto the area where theyaredeveloped.Posadasenumeratesthe followingbasictypes:1

1. Materialstechnologies,which deal with the extraction,processing,fabrication,combination,and synthesisof materials;

2. Equipmenttechnologies,whichdeal withthe designand fabrication

1. RogerPosadas,"LeapfroggingtheSclentlflo andTechnologyGap: AnAlternativeStrategyfor Masteringthe Future,"n,p.

YAP:CONCEPT PAPERON $&T 167

of tools, instruments, devices, andmachinery;3. Energytechnologies,whichdealwiththegeneration,conversion,and

distributionof variousformsof energy;4. Informationtechnologies,which deal with the collection,storage,

processing,retrieval,transmission,and utilizationof information;5. Life technologies,which deal with the preservation,repair, main-

tenance,reproduction,andimprovementof livingsystems;and6. Management technologies,whichdeal withthe planning,organiza-

tion,mobilization,coordination,and controlof socialactivities.

In whateverfieldtechnologyis to bedeveloped,a basicprerequisiteto a successfulprogramisthedevelopmentofscientificandtechnicalmindsamongthe local population.This,of course,dependsa great deal on thetype of educationalsystemthat exists.The prioritygivento educationandski,, or human capital, is part of the shifttoward emphasizingsoft ordisembodied technologyratherthanembodied technology.Thelatterhasitsmainproponentsinbusinesscycletheoristswhocontendthatforcesofproductiondeterminethe path of economicactivity.An extensionof theargumentistechnological determinism. Changesinembodiedtechnologyare consideredto inducechangesin socialrelations.This perspectiveoftechnologicaldeterminismsupportsthe earlierviewsof Marx.

The emergingschool of thought on technologyhas been termedflexiblespecialization.Much of the attentionIs on the social relationsofproduction;embodied technologyIs seen as being largely malleabletoalternativesetsof socialorganization.

The Development of Scienceand Technology

Whetherit be embodiedor disembooled,technologystillhas to becreatedor acquired.Figure1 showsa moredetailedtechnologyinnovationchain startingwith basicresearchand endingwith the marketingaspect.The Institutionsinvolvedinthisprocessaretheacademeandorganizationsdevoted solelyto research,businessand Industry,the government,andwhatwould be termedforeign sources.Individualinventorsalso a play apartInthe Innovationchain,butforthe time being,theircontributioncanbedisregarded.

Figure2 givesa summaryverslonofthe InnovationchainIncorporatingthe roleof thevariousInstitutions.Itmustbeemphasized,however,that thediagramIsa highlysimplifiedmodelofthe realworld. Firstofall,theprocessofdevelopingtechnologydoesnot proceedIna linearfashion.Interactionsoccurat each Interfaceand evenacrossthe variousstages.Secondly,thedifferentInstitutionsare InvolvedInallthe phases.What Is Indicated InthedlagremIs the major playerIna particularstage.

Figure1

THE INNOVATION CHAIN

ResearchThroughDevelopmentto Use

Phase Description of Activity Nature of Activity

1 Scientificprinciple,inventionor discovery_j A Pure researchwithoutofa newphenomenon / industrialmotive

Thisisthe 2 Preliminarymeasurementandanalysis _,areawherecJoseattention 3 Basicresearchnecessaryto getan | Appliedresearchwherebypolicy understandingofthe phenomenon J B scientificstafftrainedinAmanagementfirst _4 Contructionoffirstworkablemodelwith are requiredappears applicationinmind " _o

5 Developmentof prototypefor demonstrationImprovements 6 Demonstrationand evaluationto assessvalue o

and for production C Developmentby engineerswith "_aodificetiona 7 Engineeringdesignof productionmodels "I, productioninmind C::

8 Toolingand manufacture _ Z9 Inspection,qualitycontrol,and testing _ D Manufacture, m

10 Marketingandacceptancebythe publicbuyer.It marketingand use r_

B'10

mz

YAP: CONCEPT PAPERON S&T 169

Figure 2

SUMMARY VERSION OFINNOVATION CHAIN

A -* --_ (Eduoa¢|onal I

Level) I

- 1- ,____ Kesearo_ ........... ]

B ..... b ( DesignEngineering) J

IIIIII

P_oduo_ion i...... | and ] C

.......... " (¢..,_-lGoods _du._P_oduo_ion)

. flanufaoCure,

and Use

170 JOURNALOF PHILIPPINEDEVELOPMENT

The diagramis usefulinenunciatingthe variousmethodsto developtechnology.At one extremewe have the case of autonomouseffort intechnologygenerationwhereintheaccentisonself-reliance.Inthiscasenoforeign sourcesare involved.In actualpractice,however,no developingcountry,eventoday, is ina positionto mounta researchand developmenteffort of such scale, quality,and speedas to be able to generateall thetechnologiesit needs.At theoppositeof thespectrumwe havethe caseofa pseudo-transfer whereinimportedtechnologyfunctionsonlyas an inputintoproductionwithnorepercussionswhatsoeverondomesticscienceandtechnology.Inthiscase, the innovationprocessisshortcircuited;in otherwords, the flow of informationor technologyrunsdirectlyfrom outsidesourcesto the market.In theshort-run,pseudo-transfersarethe easiesttoworkout.Theyalsocreatethecomfortablefeelingthatoneisgettingaccessto the "latesttechnology."But they ignorethe specificconditionsof theimportingdevelopingcountry.Furthermore,they perpetuatea situationofcompletetechnologicaldependence,notto speakof the burdenplacedonthe country'sforeignexchangeresourcesfor thepaymentsfortechnologyundersuchformsof transfer.

Sincecompleterelianceonthesetwopolarcasesiseitherundesirableor infeasible,much of the technologyshouldbe acquired from outsidesources but with accompanyingadaptive mechanisms.In other words,renovationsonthe importedtechnologyoritsupgradingshouldbesourcedlocally.This is how the innovationchainis transformedintoa cycle.Theacquiredtechnologyis an inputinto eitherthe first,_rsecondstage thusfacilitatingthe integrationof the Importedtechnology into the domesticsystem.

Whatever choice is made, what is crucial is to be aware of thesedifferent modes of development, not only at the national plan-ning/policymakinglevel,butatthesectorallevel,at theenterpriselevel,andat the userlevel.One shouldalso recognizethat there are differenttypesand magnitudesof socialcostsand benefits,financialcostsand benefits,and politicalcostsand benefits. If we were to operationalizethisanalysis,the centralissuesof policymakingfor designingan integratedstrategyforanoptimalschemeof technologicaldevelopmentwouldbe--

1. What criteria to apply to decide whichtechnology shouldbeimportedandwhichshouldbegeneratedat home;

2. Howto buildupthe threebasicsystemsof the innovationchain,I.e.,educational,researchandengineering,and designengineer-ingandcapitalgoods production,and howto Interconnecttheminwaysthat technologieschosento be generatedat homeare,in fact,s0 generatedindefinedtimeframes,and with highprob-abilitiesof success;and

YAP:CONCEPT PAPERON S&T 17J

3. In caseswhere it is decidedto importthe technology,howtointegratethat Importedtechnologyinto the domesticscienceand technologysystem so that the Indigenoustechnologicalcapacityisstrengthened,subsequentimportof similartechnol-ogy is obviated, and the locally generatedequivalents,if notsuperiors,are generatedand utUlzed.

To elaborate,we will focuson the topicof technologytransfer.Thequestionastowhattypeof technologyisto betransferredmustberesolved,Enos cites the distinctionmade by Ranis between "core" technologies(chemical, electrical, electronic,or mechanical) an(j_"peripheral" tech-nologies(materialshandling,storing,packaging,etc.).;'Thisdistinctionisavariantof the debate betweenembodiedand disembodiedtechnology. Ifonly peripheraltechnologyistransferred,thenwhatwillprobablyresultisaturnkeyplantwithonlya superficialinvolvementofdisembodiedtechnology(i.e.actual learning)withoutthe necessarybackwardand forwardlinkagesthat are crucialto economicdevelopment.

Thetype of technologytransferredis not independentof the vehicleused inthe transfer.Most transfersof technologyare carried out throughcommercialarrangementsbetween domesticfirmsand transnationalcor-porations('rNCs) or other foreign firms.The vehicle is the chief devicethroughwhich ownersof technologyextractthe rentthat is derivedfrompossession;itisalsoanextensionof theirownorganization,a bearerof theirmode of operation,and a re-makerof their reputation.Such vehiclesoftransferor arrangementsmaytakethefollowingforms:

1. Marketing agreements for the domestic sale of foreignmachineries,equipment,and parts;

2. Ucensingagreementsfor the domesticmanufactureofforeign-brandconsumerproducts;

3. Directinvestmentof a TNC in thedomesticmarketthroughtheestablishmentof a localsubsidiary;

4. Jointventureagreementsbetweena localand foreignfirm;

5. Servicecontractsor managementcontractsInvolvinga foreignfirm'ssaleof technicalservicesto a localfirm;and

6. PurchaseofcompleteindustrialfacilitiesfromTNCs ona turnkeybasis.

2. A more complete reviewof the issuesinvolvedin technologytransferis givenbyJ.L. Enosin "TheTransferof Technology:A Survey,_

172 JOURNALOF PHILIPPINEDEVELOPMENT

Other factorsthat influencethe choiceof vehicleof transfer includethepolicystanceof thehostcountry,thematurityof the productor processto be transferred,andthe levelof technicalcompetenceof thehostcountry.For example,if the governmentis bent on Integratingforeigntechnologywiththe domesticsystem,it wouldencouragethe use of licensingagree-mentsandJointventuresand would frownupondirectInvestments.

Followingthe argumentsoutlinedabove,criteriamustbe set first inorder to determinewhetherforeigntechnologyshouldbe acquiredon aturnkey basis or assimilatedinto the domesticscienceand technologysystem. Thenbased on thisfirstdecision,a subsequentchoicehasto bemadeasto themodeoftransfer,a selectionwhichshouldalsobeconsistentwiththe pre-setguidelines.A myopicpolicythat putstoo muchweightonthe employmentgenerationeffectsof new technologyand neglectsthelongertermconsiderationof self-reliancewouldhavea biastowardpseudo-transfersanddirectinvestment.3 It isimportantto determinethesecriteriaso as to lead to the developmentof a science and technology basesupportiveof thenationalinterest.If a freemarketsolutiondoesnotconformto thesecriteria,thenthe governmentshouldplaya moreactiveroleintheInnovationchain.Thisassuresmaximumbenefitsderivedfromthe importedtechnology. Governmentcan do this by setting up or supporting variousinstitutions that are involved in the development process. The role ofgovernment will be further discussed in another section of this publication:

That the criteria for evaluating technology conform to the nationalinterest Is quite a sweeping statement. Essentially these guidelines will betranslated irttocost-benefitanalyses.One important point though isthat thecriteria should be on an industry-specific basis. Another facet that couldreadilybe incorporated isthedegree to which the technology will strengthenthe backward and forward linkages in the econom_ in this regard, alonger-term strategy should be delineated. These should be consideredwhen definingthe appropriate criteria.

Approaches in AnalyzingS&T in the Philippines

This sectionwill outlinesome of thetop!cs thatmustbe explored whenstudying the development of science and technology in the Philippines.

The first item would be a presentation of the record of technologicaldevelopment in the Philippines (seefor exampleLamberte). 4 The approach

3, We adopt a pragmaticconceptof self.reliance.The latterdoesnot meanautarkyor isolationismbut rather "the-assertionof our right to formulateourpolicies,programmesor ir'=tltutionalmechanisms,"(AshokParthasarathiquoting IndiraGandhi,p.141.)

4. MarioB, Lamberte,"Scienceand Technologyand EconomicDevelopment,"P}'])SWor/cingPtzperSeriesNo. 88.28 (Makati:PhilippineInstitutefor DevelopmentStudies,1988),

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tObe adoptedhere isto comparethe performanceof the Philippineswiththat of other countriesusingsome roughindicatorssuchas the ratioofresearchanddevelopmentexpenditureto GNP, capitaloutputratios,totalfactorproductivity,andthe numberof scientistsand engineersrelativetothe totalpopulation.Anotherusefulundertakingwouldbe to measuretheimpactof scienceand technologyon economicgrowth.

In orderto betterappreciatethe currentstateof scienceandtechnol-ogy inthe Philippines,a criticalanalysisof the historyof the developmentofthisfieldmustbepresented.Itis hypothesizedthatina significantnumberof cases the choiceoftechnologycouldbe modelledwithinthe frameworkof a principal-agentproblem.A major output of thissectionwould be thereasonsfor the failureof the developmentof scienceand technology,ingeneral,andof appropriatetechnology,inparticular.Examplesof reasonscited inthe paststudiesinclude:

1. Too muchemphasison innovativecapability(thefirstphaseofthe innovationchain);

2. Lackoftechnologicalcapabilityto searchfor orto usethe mostappropriate technology because of Insufficientcompetition.This can arise from an overlyprotectivetrade regimeor fromexcessiveregulationof domesticcompetition;and

3. Very little linkagebetweenresearchand developmentcentersandthe productivesector.

Giventhepresentsituationandthe attendantproblemsof scienceandtechnologyin the Philippines,the next step should be to make policyrecommendationswhichwouldhelpimprovethecurrentsituation.It isherethat the role of the governmentwill be made more specific.Prior to thedevelopmentof any program in scienceand technology,however,thecriteriaforchoosingthe appropriatetype oftechnologymustbeformulated.Thisshouldhelpdefinethedesiredstateof scienceandtechnology.

The Role of Government

In a 1987unpublishedWorldBankreport,threeareaswere identifiedwheregovernmentpolicycouldplay a role intechnologicaldevelopment.Theseare :

1. Givingexplicitattentionto technologyinthe industrialdevelop-ment strategy,

2, Providinganadequatetechnologicalinfrastructure,and

174 JOURNALOF PHILIPPINEDEVELOPMENT

3. Promotingparticulartechnologicalactivities,s

Judging from the most recent Medium-TermDevelopmentPlan, itwouldseemthatpolicymakershavea clearunderstandingoftheimportanceof scienceand technology.The specificobjectivesof the scienceandtechnologysectorare the following:

1. To generateandupgradetechnologiesappropriateto the needsof the productionandsocialservicessectors;

2. Toutilizeindigenousandimportedtechnologiesto helpIncreasethegrowthandproductivityof theproductionandsocialservicessectors;

3. To improvetheselection,assimilation,adaptation,anddiffusionof appropriateimportedtechnologies;

4. Todevelopandupgradethenationalscientificandtechnologicalmanpower,financial,informational,andinstitutionalcapabilities;and

5. To developthe nationalinfrastructurefor advancedscienceandtechnologyand ensurethe country'seconomicviabilityandtechnologicalcompetitivenessinthe 21st century.

The detailed recommendationsof the Wodd Bank cleadyfocus onenhancingof theinnovationchain. In developingtechnologicalinfrastruc-ture, the World Bank recommendsthat the government:1) strengthentechnologicalinformationsystems,2) promotecloserand better linksbe-tween publiclyfunded researchinstitutesand the productionsector, 3)further develop product standardsand testingservicesshouldthen bediffusedthroughoutthe country,and 4) strengthenthe Philippinepatentoffice.Anothercloselyrelatedproposalisthedevelopmentof scienceparksthat wouldstimulatebasicresearch,s

On the promotionof technologyactivities,the Wodd Bankcontendsthat:1) greaterspendingbyfirmson industrialtechnologicalactivitiesmustbe stimulatedby governmentincentives,2) a greater emphasismust beplaced on the disseminationof existingtechnologies,3) the developmentof engineeringconsultingfirmsshouldbepromoted,and 4) anareawherethe governmentcan play a potentiallyimportantrole in the monitoringoftechnologicaltrends and identifyingmajorareas of thrustfor local tech-nologleal effort is through a publiclyfunded researchor technologicalInstitute. The strengtheningof the ASEAN cooperation in science andtechnologyis anotherworthwhileendeavor. 6

5. Tomas Kalin,"Science Parksin Deve_jop_'gCountries,"n.p.

6. C_,heePeng Urn, "Science, Technology and Development: ASEAN RegionalCooperation,"n.p.

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Theserecommendationscallfora directroleof thethegovernmentinfosteringthe growthand developmentof scienceand technology.Basedon the neoclassicalparadigm,theappropriate strategyfor governmentinpromotingindustrializationwouldusuallybe to provideincentivessuchasa uniformandtemporarysubsidyto value added, or a modestdegree ofeffective protection.Some neoclassicalswould also advise the publicprovisionof social overheadstoo large or expensiveto be undertakenprivately,and most would advocate policiesto support human capitalformation. Such programswould have to be granted equally,in overalleffectiveterms,acrossindustries,and withoutadministrativediscretion.

We choosetotakeonestepfurtherandadvocatefordirectinterventionbythe governmentinthe industrializationprocessof thecountryinthespiritof PackandWestphal.7 PackandWestphalargueforselectiveintervention(i.e., implementingpolicieswith a strongIndustrybias)withthe objectiveofachievingdynamicefficiencyin the preferredsectors.Dynamicefficiencymeansattaininginternationalcompetitivenesswithinan explicitlyspecified,medium-runtime horizon. Internationalcompetitivenessshouldbe under-stoodintermsof abilityto compete- withoutselectiveinterventions- inthedomesticmarket as well as in the internationalmarket; it shouldnot beunderstoodsimplyintermsof export performance.8

At the heart of an Industrializationprocessis technologicalchange.The reason for governmentinterventionis that, unlike the neoclassicalassumption,technologyis not freely availableand cannot be costlesslyassimilated.Becauseof the inherentnon*tradabiUtyof technology,invest-mentsto acquireand integratethem can generateexternalitieswhicharenotconsideredbyprivateagentsintheirinvestmentplans.Theseconsistofpecuniaryand non-pecuniaryexternalities.Theformerincludea localfirm'spossessionof somerealadvantagevis-a-visimports,partof whichaccruesto its buyersvia a lowerpriceora setof productcharacteristicsmoresuitedto localconditions.Non-pecuniaryexternalitiesare typicallyintra-industryexternalitieswhereinoneagent'sinvestmentsto obtaininformationleadstoa significantreductionIntransactioncostsforaccessbyothernearbyagentsto the sameand closelyrelatedinformation,

This discussionpoints to the relevanceof a sound science andtechnologyprogramasthebackboneof an industrializationstrategy.Again,we emphasizethe needto proceedat an industry-specificbasis.Part of thisindustrializationpackageisa setofconsistentmacroeconomicpolicies.For

7. HowardPackandLarryE_Westphal,"lndustrialStrategyandTechnologicalChange:TheoryVersusReality,"n.p.

8. Seep.103ofPackandWestphal.

176 JOURNALOFPHILIPPINEDEVELOPMENT

example,an overvaluedcurrency, interestrate ceilings,and subsidizedcreditcombineto encouragecapitalintensiveinvestmentswhich maynotbe compatiblewiththe resourceendowmentsof the country.

Possible ResearchTopics

Thefollowingsuggestedresearchtopicsaredrawn fromthe previoussections:

1. Theeconomicsoftechnologychoice(botha reviewof literatureand a theoreticalframework).

2. Ananalysisof the technologicaldevelopmentinthe Philippinesfocusingon the three productionsectors:agriculture,industry,andservices.Thistopicshouldtouchon thefollowing:

a. Theimpactoftechnologyoneconomicgrowthanddevelop-ment;

b. The types of technologytransferred along the differentdimensionsdefinedabove (embodied ordisembodied,andautonomous,adaptivetransfer,or pseudo-transfer);

c. In the case of technologytransfer,the choice of vehicleoftransferandthe reasonforsuchchoice;

d. Theshortcomingsinthedevelopmentoftechnologyandthepossiblereasonsfor these;and

c. Adescriptionandanalysisofa preferreCstateforthescienceand technology sector and a definitionof the selectioncriteriaconsistentwiththisgoal.

3. The roleof the privatesectorinthe developmentof scienceandtechnologyinthe Philippines.

4. The role of governmentin the developmentof science andtechnologyinthe Philippines.Thistopicshouldbe expoundedwitha full-scaleindustrializationstrategyinmind. Itshouldtouchon the [direct]role of the governmentwithinthe frameworkofthe innovationchain and its ihfluence via macroeconomicpolicies.The manualpreparedby Forsyths wouldbe a usefulguide inthiscase.

5. Othermorefocusedtopicslikethe impactof biotechnologyondevelopingcountries,andanassessmentof someproposalstoalleviatethe presentstateof scienceand technology(e,g.,tech-nologicalleapfroggingassuggestedby Posedas).

9. DavidJ.C.Forsyth,AppropriateNationalTechnologyPolicie.s:A Manualfortheir,_s_u'd, n.p.

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BIBUOGRAPHY

Enos,J. L 'rrheTransferofTechnology:ASurvey."Asian-Pacific EconomicL/terature, no.4 (March1989):pp.3-38.

Forsyth,D. J. C. Appropriate National Technology Policies: A Manual forThe/rAssessment. Geneva:InternationalLaborOrganization,1989.

Kalin,T, "ScienceParksinDevelopingCountries."Development and South-South Cooperation,no.3 (December1987):pp.34-37.

Kapllnsky,R. "Crisis in the World Economy: Some ConsequencesforIndustrialPolicyandSouth-SouthTradeinTechnology."Developmentand South-SouthCooperation,no.3 (December1987: pp. 52-56.

Lamberte,M. B. "Scienceand Technologyand EconomicDevelopment."PIDS WorkingPaper Series No. 88-28. Makati:PhilippineInstituteforDevelopmentStudies,1988.

LIm, C. P. "Science, Technology and Development:ASEAN RegionalCooperation." Development and South-South Cooperation,no.3(December1987):pp. 147-178.

Pack, H. and L. E. Westphal. "IndustrialStrategy and TechnologicalChange:TheoryversusReality."Journal of Development Economics22 (1986):87-128.

Parthasarathi,A. '_l"echnology:Some Issuesof Acquisitionand Develop-ment. Development and South-SouthCooperarion, no.3 (December1987):pp. 128-146.

Posadas,R."Leapfroggingthe ScientificandTechnologicalGap:An Alter-nativeNationalStrategyfor Masteringthe Future."Paperread at theColloqiumon "AlternativeScientificandTechnologicalDevelopment,"13Sept.1985,atUniversityof thePhilippines,Diliman.Mimeographed.

The World Bank. The Philippines: Issues and Policies in the IndustrialSector. WashingtonD,C.:The WorldBank,1987.