myers psychology seventh edition in modules module 8 infancy and childhood james a. mccubbin, ph.d....
TRANSCRIPT
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Myers PSYCHOLOGY
Seventh Edition in Modules
Module 8
Infancy and Childhood
James A. McCubbin, Ph.D.Clemson University
Worth Publishers
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Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development
Maturation biological growth
processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
relatively uninfluenced by experience At birth 3 months 15 months
Cortical Neurons
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Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development
Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile--and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989, 1997).
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Cognitive Development
Developmental psychologists try to describe how children think and evaluate the world.
The work of Piaget had a great impact in this area.
He developed a theory of cognitive development.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Cognitionall the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Schemas are the frameworks that we use to organize and interpret information.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Assimilation interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas
Accommodationadapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
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Schema: Dogs are four legged animalsScenario: child sees a cat
Assimilation The child thinks that
the cat is a dog.
Accommodation The child changes
their schema to include both dogs and cats as having four legs.
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Schema – Everything with wheels is a truck.Scenario – Child is presented with a bicycle.
Assimilation He thinks the bicycle
is a type of truck.
Accommodation He changes his
concept of things with wheels to include trucks and bikes.
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Typical Age Range
Description of Stage
Developmental Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety
About 2 to 6 years
About 7 to 11 years
About 12 through adulthood
PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development
Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
•Conservation •Mathematical transformations
Formal operationalAbstract reasoning
•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Object Permanence the awareness that things continue to
exist even when not perceived
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Characteristics of the sensorimotor stageThe child acts on the environment by
knocking down blocks, making sounds, finding toes.
The child sees an object and reaches.The child realizes that objects still exist
although the objects is no longer seen.The child cries when the parent is no
longer present. This is called stranger anxiety.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Baby Mathematics Shown a numerically impossible outcome,
infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992)
1. Objects placedin case.
2. Screen comesup.
3. Object is removed.
4. Impossible outcome:Screen drops, revealing two objects.
4. Possible outcome:Screen drops, revealingone object.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Conservation the principle that properties such as
mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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Conservation Experiments
Conservation of liquid quantity
Conservation of mass
Conservation of area
Conservation of number
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Egocentrism the inability of the preoperational child to take
another’s point of view
Theory of Mind people’s ideas about their own and others’
mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict
Autism a disorder that appears in childhood Marked by deficient communication, social
interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind
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Characteristics of the preoperational stage The child starts to represent the world internally
through language. The child cannot take another point of view. The child thinks all objects have life. The child thinks human beings created everything. The child uses inaccurate logic by assuming that
the characteristics of a specific idea can be applied to a similar idea – birds fly – airplanes fly – birds must be airplanes.
The child classifies objects by only one trait – typically color.
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Concrete Operational Stage
The child can now understand simple operations performed on concrete reality.
They have a mental schema for quantity, mass, volume and number.
Change in shape does not affect quantity.
They can comprehend math transformations.
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Characteristics of the concrete operational stage
The child begins to understand that objects can change shape without other changes in the characteristics.
The child understands and performs operations that go in the other direction.
The child draws conclusions from a number of specific facts.
The child classifies objects into larger classes of objects.
The child classifies by a number of characteristics.
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Formal Operational Stage
Occurs around adolescenceManipulate complex mental
representationThink in terms of abstractionsMetacognition
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Characteristics of the Formal Operational stage
The child thinks abstractly.
The child hypothesizes.
The child can get specific facts from a generalization.
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Assessing Piaget
Pros We learn best when
we build on what we already know.
New reasoning abilities require previous abilities.
Children don’t reason with adult logic.
Cons He underestimated
children. Development is
continuous not in stages.
Children go through the stages more rapidly than was estimated.
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Examples
1. Jake looks at a string of plastic beads; six are white and ten are blue. Jake is asked how many white beads there are and answers correctly – six. He is then asked how many plastic beads there are and he answers ten.
• Stage• Age• Concept
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Social Development
Stranger Anxiety fear of strangers that infants commonly
display beginning by about 8 months of age
Attachment an emotional tie with another person shown in young children by their seeking
closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation
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2. Carrie can solve an algebraic equation.Stage – age - concept
3. Pierre loves to play peek-a-boo. He laughs when someone puts a blanket over his face and then pulls it away. Stage – age – concept.
4. Paul sees a piece of ribbon tied in a bow. He unties the bow and stretches it to its full length. Which is longer – they are the same. Stage –age - concept
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Social Development
Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred
contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother
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Social Development
Critical Period an optimal period shortly after birth
when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Imprinting the process by which certain
animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
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Social Development
Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.
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Attachment
Work of Mary AinsworthStudied attachment between infants
and mothers3 types of attachment
Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Anxious attachmentIn all studies she observed infants’ reactions when placed
into a strange, novel situation when their parent left them alone for short period of time and then returned.
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Secure attachment
These infants usually appear active and happy.
They are willing to explore a new room if the mother is present. They warm up quickly to a stranger who talks with the mother.
They are not greatly disturbed if the mother is absent for a brief period of time.
When the mother returns to the room the infant becomes anxious and runs to the mother’s side.
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Avoidant attachment
These infants are not even upset by separation from the mother. They do not cry when she leaves.
When she returns, the infant may ignore her or react casually to her presence. The infant may even avoid her.
If the infant is distressed they will not seek contact.
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Anxious attachmentThese infants do not explore a strange
room full of toys.They cry and cling to the mother even
before being separated from her.They act suspicious of strangers and get
very upset if the mother leaves the room.When she returns they pout or even cry.They show extreme stress when she leaves
but resist being comforted when she returns.
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Social Development
Groups of infants left by their mothers in a unfamiliar room (from Kagan, 1976).0
20
40
60
80
100
3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 20 29
Percentage of infantswho criedwhen theirmothers left
Age in months
Day care
Home
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Social Development
Basic Trust (Erik Erikson) a sense that the world is
predictable and trustworthy said to be formed during infancy by
appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Self-Concept a sense of one’s identity and
personal worth
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Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices
Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect
obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said
so.” Permissive
submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment
Authoritative both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and
encourage open discussion
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Parenting examples
For each scenario determine an authoritarian response, a permissive response, and an authoritative response.
1. Your 7 year old daughter wants to sleep over at her friend’s house with three other girls. You have met the friend but not her parents.
2. You decide to run away from home. You are caught just as you are heading out the door.
3. Your 4 year old has coloured on the wall for the first time.
4. You have missed your curfew by 30 minutes.
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Developmental Issues
There are three major issues in the study of developmental psychology.
1. Continuity and stages How is our development continuous, and how do we
develop in stages?
2. Stability and change What remains stable across our development, and how
do we change?
3. Nature and nurture How does the interaction of nature and nurture affect
development?