myers’ psychology (8th ed) chapter 10 thinking v. intuition and language
TRANSCRIPT
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Ed)
Chapter 10
Thinking v. Intuition and Language
“ A bat and ball cost$1.10. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?”
“A man bought a horse for $60 and sold it for $70. Then he bought the same horse back for $80 and again sold it for $90.
How much money did he make in the horse business?”
10, 4, 3, 11, 15, …?
100204180
YYURYYUBICURYY4ME
Thinking
Cognition mental activity associated with processing,
understanding, and communicating information
Cognitive Psychology the study of these mental activities
concept formationproblem solvingdecision makingjudgement formation
study of both logical and illogical thinking
ThinkingConcept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or peopleaddress
• country, city, street, house• zip codes
Prototype the best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.)
Thinking
Algorithm methodical, logical rule or
procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone use of heuristics
Thinking
Heuristic rule-of-thumb strategy that often
allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms more error-prone than algorithms sometimes we’re unaware of using
heuristics
Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y GAlgorithm
all 907,208 combinationsHeuristic
throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?
Thinking
Insight sudden and often novel realization of the
solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias tendency to search for information that
confirms one’s preconceptionsFixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving
Thinking- Insight
Wolfgang Kohler’s experiment on insight by a chimpanzee
The Matchstick Problem
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
The Three-Jugs Problem Using jugs A, B, and C with the capacities
shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?
The Three-Jugs Problem
Problem A B C
Given jugs of these sizes: Measure out this much water:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
21 127 3
14 46 5
18 43 10
7 42 6
20 57 4
23 49 3
15 39 3
100
22
5
23
29
20
18
The Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
Thinking
Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Thinking
Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
impediment to problem solving
The Matchstick Problem
Solution to the matchstick problem
The Three-Jugs Problem
Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B-A-2C= desired volume.
b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A-C for problem 6.
The Candle-Mounting Problem
Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container
Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic rule of thumb for judging the
likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Heuristics
Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of
events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
Thinking
Overconfidence tendency to be more confident
than correct tendency to overestimate the
accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgements
Thinking
Framing the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and judgements
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef- As 25% fat or 75% lean?
Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting
beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid
conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after
the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence designing and programming
computer systemsto do intelligent things to simulate human thought
processes
• intuitive reasoning• learning• understanding language
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence includes practical applications
chess playingindustrial robotsexpert systems
efforts to model human thinking inspired by our current understanding of how the brain works
Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks computer circuits that mimic the
brain’s interconnected neural cells
performing taskslearning to recognize visual
patternslearning to recognize smells
Language
Language our spoken, written, or gestured
works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme in a spoken language, the
smallest distinctive sound unit
Language
Morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that
carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word
(such as a prefix)Grammar
a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others
Language
Semantics the set of rules by which we derive
meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
also, the study of meaningSyntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
Language We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all
the world’s languages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage ableto discriminateHindi t’s
Hindi-speaking
adults
6-8 months
8-10months
10-12months
English-speaking
adultsInfants from English-speaking homes
LanguageBabbling Stage
beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in
which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development
during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Language
Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development
during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech early speech stage in which the child
speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
LanguageSummary of Language Development
Month(approximate)
Stage
4
10
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households language.
One-word stage.
Two-word, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly intoComplete sentences.
Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience fills them as it modifies the brain
Language
Genes
Environmentspoken language
heard
BrainMechanisms for
understanding andproducing language
BehaviorMastery of
native language
provides input to
design
Language
New language learning gets harder with age
100
90
80
70
60
50Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage correct ongrammar test
Age at school
Language
Linguistic Relativity Whorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Language
The straight-line part of the dance points in the direction of a nectar source, relative to the sun
Direction ofnectar source
AP Psychology Chapter 10: Thinking and Language Learning Objectives Review
•Describe the nature of concepts and the role of prototypes in concept formation.
•Discuss how we use trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight to solve problems.
•Describe how the confirmation bias and fixation can interfere with effective problem solving.
•Explain how the representative and availability heuristics influence our judgments.
•Describe the effects that overconfidence and framing can have on our judgments and decisions.
•Discuss how our beliefs distort logical reasoning, and describe the belief perseverance phenomenon.
•Describe artificial intelligence, and contrast the human mind and the computer as information processors.
•Describe the structure of language in terms of sound in terms of sounds, meanings, and grammar.
•Trace the course of language acquisition from the babbling stage through the two-word stage.
•Explain how the nature-nurture debate is illustrated in theories of language development.
•Discuss Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis and the relationship between thought and language.
•Describe the research on animal cognition and communication, and discuss the controversy over whether animals can use language.