mutual aid counselling: the helper principle at work

M u t u a l a id counsel l ing: the he lper pr inc ip le a t w o r k

R. VANCE PEAVY*

INTRODUCT ION

Mutual aid counselling is a model of cooperative counselling for adults which utilizes counsellor-client role exchange and embodies the 'helper principle'. This article presents a rationale and description of mutual aid counselling.

MINISTERING TO THE HELPLESS

Since the early 1900's counselling has developed in association with social casework and psychotherapy. In counselling, one person attempts to help another mainly through the use of skillful dialogue. Counselling differs from psychotherapy mainly in the severity of problems addressed. It can be argued that both counselling and psychotherapy are examples of social casework principles appled to the individual rather than to the social milieu. However they may differ, conventional forms of social case work, psychotherapy and counselling all imply a treatment approach in which experts minister to the helpless. Whatever the benefits of 'expert' treatment orientations, they ex- hibit one major flaw: they are inclined to reinforce helplessness on the part of help-seekers. In fact, social casework, psychotherapy, and counselling as professions require helpless others as their raisons d'&re.

MUTUALITY IN COUNSELLING

All conventional counselling models utilize the counsellor-as-expert orientation which keeps help-seekers in the low status position which they bring to counselling in the first place. However, some counselling approaches have indicated that a degree of mutuality in the counselling relationship is de- sirable. Otto Rank (1936/1964) countended that a therapist should hold 'expertise' in check, thus making it possible for the client to utilize his 'will to health'. Rank's goal was to release in the client ' . . . the impulse to free himself so that'he may then continue on his own way' (p. 111).

* University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

Int J Adv Couns 2 (1979) 97-108. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1979 Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague~Boston~London.

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In a much more direct fashion, the client-centered approach developed by Carl Rogers (1961) advocates a 'helping' relationship based on congruence, empathy and positive regard. Such a relationship implies mutuality and de- emhasizes both the expert stance of the counsellor and the corresponding 'helpless' position of the client.

More recently, Boy and Pine (1976) have suggested that mutuality in counselling should be extended to m a k e the counselling relationship equalized. In their view the counsellor can emplo); certain pre-counselling procedures which will enable the counselling relationship to become equalized, The procedures include orienting clients to an equal-status relationship, encouraging clients to become voluntarily involved in the relationship, presenting oneself as a counsellor democratically rather than authoritatively, and perceiving the client as equal to oneself. It remains unclear, however, how following these procedures would actually result in a relationship of equality.

Thus one may conclude that while mutuality in the counsellor-client relationship is an important factor in some counselling approaches, no model has been presented within conventional counselling which actually specifies principles and procedures whereby equality of relationship between counsellor and client can be obtained.

LAY COUNSELLING

The recent advent of lay (non-professional) counselling de-emphasizes the 'expert' role of the counsellor. There is evidence that lay counsellors, in some settings, are as effective, or even more effective, then professional counsellors (Brown, 1974; Carkhuff, 1969). Carkhuff (1968) and Rioch (1966) have speculated about the reasons for lay counselling effectiveness. Lay counsellors are often closer to the distressed person's style of life and thus are better equipped to enter actively into the help-seeker's milieu. Because they have been successful in surmounting some of the difficulties which the help- seeker is facing, they are able to suggest sensible solutions. Since they have not been inducted into the professional mental set, they may have a greater degree of flexibility coupled with a practical attitude. Whereas the professional helper may be viewed by the help-seeker as very different from himself, the lay counsellor, on the hand, is often a peer and can function as a role model for the help-seeker. Finally, the professional counsellor may 'excuse' the client's irrational or helpless behavior while the lay counsellor is more inclined to 'demand' that the help-seeker face up to his responsibilities.

MUTUAL AID COUNSELLING: THE HELPER PRINCIPLE AT WORK 99

PEER COUNSELLING

Peer counselling, where both counsellor and counselled come from a common reference group, is yet another genre of counselling which does not rely on the concept of the 'expert' counsellor. Like lay counsellors, peer counsellors typically receive only a limited amount of training in such skills as listening, offering support, and identifying alternatives. Peer counselling is carried out with diverse groups and settings such as schools (Samuels and Samuels, 1975); colleges and universities (Goldschmid and Burkhardt, 1974; Leventhal, Berman, McCarthy and Wasserman, 1976; Upcraft, 1971); prisons (Hannum & Warman, 1963); and widowhood (Abrahams, 1972; Silverman, 1972). Whatever the milieu, the essential characteristics of peer counselling include (a) common experience for helper and helpee, (b) a desire to help, (c) personal involvement on the helper's part, (d) constructive action toward some agreed upon goal, (e) limited training in counselling skills for the helper.

The emphasis on mutuality in some conventional counselling approaches, and by both lay and peer counselling (not always distinguishable from one another) incline toward equalization of helper/help-seeker status. However, the condition of equal status is not achieved in any of these forms of counselling. It is only in cooperative counselling, which is described in the following section, that actual parity of counsellor and counselled is permitted through the mechanism of role exchange.

COOPERATIVE COUNSELLING

It is not my intention to argue that cooperative counselling has demonstrated its superiority over other forms of counselling. Rather, I will first describe the direction this approach to counselling has taken so far; and then I will present the most recent form of cooperative counselling, mutual aid counselling which I and my students have developed at the University of Victoria.

Counselling is 'cooperative' when counsellor and client roles are inten- tionally exchanged within a counselling session, thus providing the potential for parity between the two members of the counselling dyad. In general, cooperative counselling approaches are based on two key concepts: mutual aid (also referred to a self-help) and the helper principle. I will explain both concepts in the following sections of this paper.

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MUTUAL AID

It is a matter of history that mutual aid is a long-extablished concept of 'people helping people'. Kropotkin (1902) concluded from his studies of primitive, medieval and early industrial societies that mutual aid:

' . . . favors the development of such habits and characters as to ensure the maintenance and further development of the species, together with the greatest amount of welfare and enjoyment of life for the individual...' (p. 6)

The mutual aid movement began in modern Europe with the advent of the English Friendly Societies at the end of the Seventeenth Century. Early American colonists formed mutual aid societies; subsequently, mutual aid groupings have waxed and waned throughout Western society. In the 1970's, Europe and North America have witnessed the greatest proliferation of mutual aid (self-help) groups ever known in human history.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the reasons why the mutual aid phenomenon has mushroomed in recent times. Suffice it to say that the mutual aid impetus stems from people's desire to meet their material and emotional needs and determine their own destinies within a society where conventional professional mechanisms are lacking or inadequate, especially for the stigmatized a n d the poor. Beyond this, a host of factors may be contributing to the movement: mechanization, a money economy, the growth of vast bureaucracies leading to alientation and powerlessness. Finally, one may speculate that on a large social scale, human problems have become too widespread to be served by professional care alone.

PSYCHOLOGY OF THE MUTUAL AID PHENOMENON

In psychological terms, just what does the mutual aid association provide to participants? The mutual aid liaison, whether as group association or as members of a counselling dyad, serves as a support system.

Caplan (1974) has identified the three main benefits which individuals derive from membership in a support system:

1. some relief from, and possible control over, emotional distress; 2. guidance about expectable, daily problems and discussion of possible

methods of dealing with such problems, and 3. feedback from mutual aid confreres which can be used to bolster self-

esteem and evaluate one's performance in coping with daily problems.

In other words, the mutual aid liaison is one in which people get and give


emotional support, discuss common life problems together with possible solutions, and provide participants with useful information about self and about one's coping performance.

THE HELPER PRINCIPLE

First formulated by Riessman (1965) the helper principle states that benefit to help-seekers in conventional treatment (counselling, social casework, psychotherapy) is always uncertain; conversely, it is almost certain that help-givers profit from their role - not only psychologically, but also materially.

Skovolt (1974) examined the helper principle in terms of personality theory, theories of social exchange, modeling and direct reinforcement. He concluded that helpers receive psychological benefiets from helping in at least the following ways. First, helpers often feel more personal competence as a result of helping some one else. Second, helpers may gain a higher sense of status from helping. Third, helpers frequently experience valuable personal learning and insight while helping others. Fourth, helpers get approval from those they help. Clearly, help-givers frequently achieve important psychological payoffs. Conversely, clients all too often tend to remain helpless after being helped. The question arises: Is it possible to channel some of the benefits received by the help-giver in the direction of the help-seeker? In an attempt to answer this question in the affirmative, certain theorists in counselling (Heron, 1974; Jackins, 1965; Peavy, 1977; South- gate, 1974) have developed cooperative counselling models. These models, based on the mutual aid and helper principle concepts, incorporate deliberate role-exchange within the process of two-person counselling. A brief description of the essential features of cooperative counselling approaches follows.

RE-EVALUATION COUNSELLING

The original, best known form of cooperative counselling is reevaluation counselling (also known as co-counselling) formulated by Harvey Jackins (1965). Re-evaluation counselling is both a group process (class) and a two- person counselling method. Within the initial class where re-evaluation counselling techniques are taught, pairs are formed to meet for a co-counselling session between class meeting. The partnerships move from the initial group to secondary groups were more time is spent on actual counselling, still under supervision. Finally, members 'graduate' to independent groups where co- counselling, continues but no further formal instruction is provided.

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During co-counselling, one partner counsels the other and then roles are exchanged. 'Clients' choose their own topics or problems to work on at their own speed and depth. The main tasks of the counsellor are to (a) make it possible for the other person to discuss freely, (b) listen with full attention, and (c) to provide support to the help-seeker, especially as a means of facili- tating the discharge of feelings. The 'counsellor' is instructed not to give advice, not to interrupt, and not to interpret.

Catharsis, or the discharge of pent-up feelings, is a central feature of this counselling method. Once an individual has discharged, then a rational evaluation of the problem situation is possible. This, in turn, often leads to changed behavior, a better attitude, or a plan of action to alter circumstances.

RECIPROCAL COUNSELLING

As defined by its originator, John Heron (1974), reciprocal counselling is a two way growth process for normal people. At each counselling session, two people take turns being client and counsellor, each assisting the other's discussion, exploration and growth. The 'client' is selfdirective but has a contract with the helper to intervene when requested to do so by the client. The interventions take the form of suggestions; the helper is instructed in listening and a number of counselling interventions and is cautioned not to criticize, interpret or label the client. Methodologically, reciprocal counselling is more open and less structured then re-evaluation counselling. The goals of reciprocal counselling include: feeling discharge, goal setting, action planning, life review and the stimulation of creative thinking. The emphasis in reciprocal counselling is clearly on personal growth.

KAREN HORNEY COUNSELLING

First called 'dialectical peer counselling' (Southgate, 1974), then renamed 'Karen Horney Counselling' (Southgate & Randall, 1976), this third type of cooperative counselling is similar in procedure to re-evaluation counselling but is based on quite different theoretical principles. The rationale for this method includes ideas from Hegel and Marx, and also on concepts taken from Karen Horney's two books Self-analysis (1942) and Neurosis and Human Growth (1950). The major goal in this approach is to aid lay people gain skills in self-directed analysis through the mechanism of peer co- counselling.


MUTUAL AID COUNSELLING

The most recently developed method of cooperative counselling is mutual aid counselling (Peavy, 1977, 1878). This approach, which builds on the re- evaluation model, attempts to maximize the benefit of the helper principle described earlier in this paper, and concentrates on the utilization of five helping skills: attention, empathy, support, clarification, and instruction. In corporating role-exchange, mutual aid couselling is designed to be easily learned by receptive adults. It is a peer counselling method for normal people to use in coping with problems of daily living. The remaining discussion of mutual aid counselling is in two parts: mutual aid orientation and mutual aid method.

MUTUAL AID ORIENTATION

The concept of'orientation' is important. An individual with a given orientation is disposed to 'notice' or 'perceive' certain aspects of reality rather than others. Abstractly, a person's orientation is composed of what he believes to be true, to be valuable, and to be real. Having a mutual aid orientation implies receptivity to opportunities for giving and receiving personal assistance in day-to-day interaction. The person who values peers will seek assistence from peers and will try to help his peers when they are perceived to be in need of aid. The mutual aid orientation implies 'being-with' others rather than 'being- against' them. Six principles are embodied in the mutual aid orientation.

First, mutual aid orientation is existential in that it focuses upon the concrete, actual problems of daily existence. Second, the mutual aid orientation is transformational because it assumes that personal existence is mutable and characterized by growth, crisis and transition. Third, the mutual aid orientation incorporates the principle of reciprocity, expressed by the basic formula: Tll help you and then you help me'. Fourth, the mutual aid orientation embodies the helper principle and tries to distribute to both persons those benefits which ordinarily accrue only to the counsellor. The attempt is to transform seekers of help into dispensers of help. Fifth, the mutual aid orientation is an expression of the democratic ideal. The role of the expert is minimized by participants taking direct action to alleviate human suffering and meet the needs of peers, while at the same time receiving support and assistance themselves. The democratic ideal asserts that power, including the power to help those in emotional need, should be distributed widely in society rather then remain the perogative of a professional group or groups. In a democratized system of emotional care, mutual aid counselling would be one amongst several types of care available for help-seekers.

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A final element of the mutual aid orientation is the principle of creativity. In his theory of bisociation, Arthur Koestler (1964) proposed that all kinds of creative activity are a kind of do-it-yourself therapy. The creative element in mutual aid counselling includes exploring, trying out new ideas, new behaviors, new experiences, new accomplishments. Creativity means depart- ing from static patterns of behavior and thought. An important function of mutual aid counselling is to affirm the individual's efforts at creativity.

These six elements: existential, transformation, reciprocity, helper principle, democratic ideal and creativity combine to form the mutual aid orientation in counselling. These elements can be seen as an infusion of belief in the power (both potential and actual) of ordinary people to aid each other in mutually benefiting ways during times of uncertainty, crisis, transition, and suffering.

MUTUAL AID METHOD

Mutual aid counselling participants begin as members of a training class. In this class they are introduced to the mutual aid orientation and taught the mutual aid method. As in other forms of cooperative counselling, participants are paired into co-counselling partnerships for the purpose of meeting between classes for co-counselling and for the pupose of practice within the class.

The mutual aid method consists of a series of co-counselling procedures. These procedures provide the participants with a structure to guide their initial learning and to guide subsequent practice or mutual aid counselling. These procedures (steps), in the method are described in the following paragraphs.

1. The first step is to establish personal contact. This is done through informal conversations about events or experiences which are easily talked about and permit the participants to 'warm up' to each other. The purpose of this surface talk is to establish personal contact, a sense of 'being-with' each other. It is important preliminary for going on to more serious conversation. This can be done in about five minutes.

2. The second step is to decide who will workfirst (be counselled) and who will assist (counsel). Participants are taught to take responsibility for their own preferences ('I would like to work f irst . . . ' ) rather than asking their partner what their preference is.

3. The third step is make an initial check on how deep or involved in the problem the person who has chosen to work wishes to become. This will


vary from 'just wanting to discuss' (surface) to 'really get to the bottom of this for once and for all' (deep). The depth of the conversation usually changes as the counselling goes along. The important consideration in depthchecking is that each person learn how to state the depth to which they wish to work and each learn how to say when they feel that they are getting beyond their limit.

4. The fourth step is to work (counsel). For the help-seeker, this means discussing, trying to express true feelings, describing the troubling life situation, selecting alternatives, talking things out, etc. For the help- giver, this means paying close attention, listening empathically, clari- fying; in short, making it possible for the other person to express himself as fully as he wishes, and talking over possible solutions or alternatives.

5. The fifth step is to make a clear and deliberate decision to stop work. This may be done by simply saying 'I've gone as far with this right now as I want to', or 'I feel a lot better now and I 'd like to stop', etc.

6. The sixth step is a mutual check-out with each other on the session just completed. That is, what did the 'counsellor' do which really helped, or did not help, as the case may be likewise, what did the 'client' do which seemed really important? Emphasis is placed on positive feedback and on behaviors which can be appreciated. For example, 'I really appreciated the way you listened to me without interrupting', or 'I appreciated how you give me room to cry when I needed to cry rather than trying to get me to stop'. Or 'I admired how you worked so hard to sort out the conflict with your friend'.

7. The seventh step is to take a five minute break to let each other achieve some psychological distance from the work they have just done. This is the time for a quick coffee, or casual conversation.

8. The eigth step is to switch roles and repeat steps two to six.

This series of steps provides a frame of reference for both persons to learn and help. It is not meant to be a rigid set of rules which must always be followed to the letter. In helping, people need to establish personal contact, allot time to each other, have an awareness of the depth of the conversation they are wanting and having, and have some method of checking on the impact they are having on the other. Participants are encouraged to follow the steps carefully as they begin to learn the method, yet allow some modification to meet individual needs.

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MUTUAL AID CLASS

In the mutua l aid class, ins t ruct ion is given in six helping skills:

1. how to establish personal contact,

2. how to recognize c o m m o n communica t i on barriers,

3. how to use empathy (listen carefully and reply to what you hear),

4. how to extend emot iona l support

5. how to clarify, and

6. how to problem-solve.

The methods used in the class include role-playing, demonst ra t ion ,

s tructured exercises, group discussion, and co-counsel l ing practice. Classes

are conducted by experienced mutua l aid counsellors who are able to model

bo th the mu tua l aid or ienta t ion and the six basic skills.

REACTIONS TO MUTUAL AID COUNSELLING

The method of evaluat ing mu tua l aid counsel l ing so far has been mainly

phenomenological . Tha t is, what mutua l aid counsel l ing part icipants say

abou t mu tua l aid counsell ing; how they feel abou t the method and how they

benefit (or d o n ' t benefit) is take as direct evidence of its value. The following

exerpts 1 indicate typical par t ic ipant reactions:

'I did not realize that just talking would help something I could not solve, but it d i d - so I 'm quite optimistic about getting something out of this (mutual aid counselling).' 'I have teenage children, and I miss talking to adults - I always seem to be giving of myself - it's a real change to have someone willing to listen to me - that is a new situation for me.'

'There is so much more to be learned, and it could be done so much better and that's the part I find really exciting. It makes a natural process wider and much more effective than it is - I think we do a little with friends - you care about people - if they're upset you try to talk to them, but I think a lot of people get into advice giving and I relize now, that doesn't help.'

'Sometimes when you want to talk to somebody - on a casual basis - a friend, I feel like I 'm dumping on them. With this - when you are listening, you know that you are going to get a chance to talk about your problem - the other person probably feels the same way - that it is not going to be all one-sided.'

'I like the way it works - like the idea of the interaction between two people and the exchange of roles, so that one person does not feel superior to the other. I like the equality it fosters.'

t These excerpts are taken from: McCall, M: Mutual Aid counsellingeffectiveness on aiding daily coping. Master's thesis, University of Victoria, 1978


These reactions give the flavor of positive reaction to mutual aid counselling. Our work thus far suggests that about seventy-five per cent of the people who have learned the mutual aid method perceive it to be personally beneficial both as a form of helping and for being helped.

Individuals who do not benefit or respond positively to mutual aid counselling include: those with chronic emotional deficits, those whose educa- tional background is strongly professional and who 'need' the expert orientation; those who are unable or unwilling to learn basic listening skills; those who are pathologically dependent or helpless; and those who wish to use counselling as a method for correcting unfavorable environmental condi- tions, which it cannot do.

REFERENCES

Abrahams, R. Mutual help for the widowed. Social Work, 1972, 17, 54-61.

Boy, A. & Pine, G. Equalizing the counselling relationship. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, Spring 1976, 13, 1, 20-25.

Brown, W.F. Effectiveness of paraprofessionals: The evidence. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1974, 53, 257-263.

Caplan, G. A study of natural support systems. Boston: Laboratory of Community Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, 1974, (Mimeo).

Carkhuff, R. R. Lay mental health couseling: Prospects and problems. Journal of Individual psychology, 1968, 24, 88-93.

Carkhuff, R. R. Helping and Human Relations, (Vol. I). New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969.

Goldschmid, B., & Burckhardt, C. (1974) Experience de Parrainage dans une Ecole Polythechnique. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference of Engineers 6-10 October, 1974, Barcelona, Spain.

Hannum, T., & Warman, R. The use of inmate 'counselors' in the orientation of new inmates. Corrective Psychiatry Journal of Social Therapy, 1963, 9, 95-99.

Heron, J. Reciprocal Counselling. Guildsford, Human Potential Project, University of Surrey 1974 (mimeoL 12 pp.

Jackins, H. The human side of human beings: The theory of re-evaluation counseling. Seattle: Rational Island Publishers, 1965.

Kropotkin, P. Mutual aid." A factor in evolution. London: William Heinemann, 1902.

Peavy, R. V. ANA: An existential approach to cooperative counselling. University of Victoria, 1977, 105 pp.

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Peavy, R. V. L'Orientation d'aide mutuelle dans le counselling pour adultes. Canadian Counsellor, 4 July 1978, 158-165.

LeventhaU, A., Berman, A., McCarthy, B., & Wasserman, C. Peer counseling on the university campus. Journal of College Student Personnel, November 1976, 17, 504-509.

Rank, O. Will therapy. (Translated by J. Taft). New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963/1964.

Riessman, F. The 'helper' principle. Social Work, 1965, 10, 27-32.

Rioch, M. J. Changing concepts in the training of therapists. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1966, 30, 290-292.

Rogers, C. On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1961.

Samuels, M. & Samuels, D. The comple handbook of peer counselling. Miami: Fiesta Publishing Corp., 1975.

Silverman, P. Widowhood and preventive intervention. Family Coordinator, January 1972, 95-102.

Skovolt, T. The client as helper: A means to promote psychological growth. Coun- seling Psychologist, 1974, 4, 58-64.

Southgate, J. Dialecticalpeer counselling. London: The Polytechnic of North London, 1974 (mimeo.), 84 pp.

Southgate, J. and Randall, R. The barefoot psychoanalyst: An introduction to Karen Homey counselling. Epping, Essex: Assoc. of Karen Horney Psychoanalytic Coun- sellors, 1976.

Upcraft, M. Undergraduate students as academic advisers. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1971, 49, 827-831.

mutual aid counselling: the helper principle at work

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