MOTIVATION

COURSE OBJECTIVES

• COMPARE & CONTRAST MOTIVATION THEORIES

• APPLY MOTIVATION THEORY TO A BUSINESS SCENARIO

WORKSHOP STRUCTURE• Meaning of Motivation• Primary /General/ Secondary Motives? • Theories-Content Theories / Process Theories/

Contemporary TheoriesMotivation in a business context • Motivation & Productivity• Motivation of Performance through Job Design & Goal

Setting/Job Enrichment/Task Design& Measuring Task Scope

• Job Redesign• Application of Goal Setting to Organisational System

Performance

Meaning of Motivation• Desires, Wants, Aims, Drives, motives,....It is the

set of forces that lead people to behave in particular ways.

• Motivation is the process that starts with a psychological or physiological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

• The key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, & relationship among needs , drives and incentives.

DEFINITION

• PROCESS THAT ACCOUNTS FOR INDIVIDUAL’S INTENSITY, DIRECTION AND PERSISTENCE OF EFFORT TOWARDS ATTAINING A GOAL

FAVOURABLE? HOW HARD ONE TRIES

FOR HOW LONG ONE TRIES

Importance of Motivation

• Motivation is important to organizations because in conjunction with ability and environment it determines performance.

P=f(M, A, and E).P-Performance.A-Ability.M-Motivation.E-Environment.

NEEDS, DRIVES & INCENTIVE

• NEEDS created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance.

• DRIVES Drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs Physiological & psychological drives are action oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive.

• INCENTIVES the thing that will alleviate the need and reduce the drive in the motivation cycle. Attaining an incentive will restore the balance and reduce corresponding drives.

MOTIVES• PRIMARY- Human motives that are unlearned and

physiologically based- Seek to reduce tension or stimulation eg Hunger , pain , thirst

• GENERAL- Must be unlearned but not physiologically based - Induce the person to increase stimulation(Also called Stimulus Motives) eg:curiosity, manipulation, affection

• SECONDARY- Must be Learned eg, Need for Achievement, Power, Affiliation,Security, Status

Historical Perspective of Motivation

• Scientific Management Approach assumed that employee motivation is economically induced

• Human Relations Approach suggested that favourable employee attitudes result in motivation to work

• Need Theories take the content approach by attempting to specify what motivates behavior

• Process Theories focus on how motivated behavior occurs in an effort to satisfy needs

• Equity Theory -focuses on people’s desire to perceive equity and avoid inequity

Defining Motivation

Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries

CONTENT THEORIES Scientific Management-wages & incentives Human Relations Economic security, working conditions Maslow’s Hierarchy Herzberg-motivators & Hygiene factors Alderfer-ERG Needs McClelland’s –need for achievement, power and affiliation

PROCESS THEORIES Lewin & Tolman- Expectancy concerns Vroom Valence/expectancy Porter & Lawler Performance Satisfaction Lawler E-P-O expectations

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Festinger & Homans Cognitive dissonance /exchange Heider, De Charmes and Bern Cognitive evaluation & self perception Adams - equity Kelly & Rotter Attribution/ Locus of control

WORK MOTIVATION APPROACHES

CONTENT THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

• MASLOW’S THEORY OF NEED HIERARCHY- Human side of Enterprise

• HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY- based on critical incident method data analysis on Engineers /accountants at Pittsburgh

• ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

Defining Motivation

Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

E X H I B I T 6-1

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness & Love

Esteem

Self-actualization

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Can be categorized as deficiency needs -physiological, security and belongingness needs & Growth needs- Esteem & Self Actualization. Beginning at the bottom each need level must be satisfied before the level above becomes important.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Holland’s

Typology of

Personality

and Congrue

nt Occupati

ons

E X H I B I T 6-2

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Comparison of

Satisfiers and

Dissatisfiers

E X H I B I T 6-3

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Contrasting Views of Satisfactionand Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 6-4

Presence Absence

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core NeedsExistence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships.Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:More than one need can be operative at the same time.If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

THEORY X –THEORY Y

THEORY X• DISLIKE WORK• DISLIKE RESPONSIBILITY• MUST BE

COERCED/CONTROLLED TO PERFORM

• PLACE ECURITY NEEDS ABOVE ALL FACTORS

THEORY Y• LIKE WORK• SEEK RESPONSIBILITY• CAN EXERCISE SELF

DIRECTION• ARE CREATIVE

MURRAY’S MANIFEST NEEDS• MURRAY’S THEORY BASED ON HUMAN PERSONALITY:THE

CONCEPT OF NEEDS-PHYSICAL&PSYCHOLOGICAL• DID NOT ARRANGE IN ANY PARTICULAR ORDER OF

IMPORTANCE• BELIEVED THAT EACH NEED HAS 2 COMPONENTS -DIRECTION

( WHAT WILL SATISFY THE NEED) & INTENSITY ( IMPORTANCE)SOME IDENTIFIED NEEDS-ACQUISITION AFFILIATION AGGRESSIONAUTONOMY EXHIBITION IMPULSIVITYNURTURANCE ORDER POWERUNDERSATNDING

APPROPRIATE ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS ARE NECESSARY FOR A NEED TO BECOME MANIFEST

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

• HYGIENE FACTORS

• Company Policy & administration

• Supervision• Salary• Interpersonal relations

Working Conditions• Advancement

• MOTIVATORS• Achievement• Recognition• Work Itself• Responsibility

HERZBERG’S 2 FACTOR THEORY• Hygiene Factors determine dissatisfaction

and are extrinsic to work itself like pay , Job security

• Motivation factors affect satisfaction and are intrinsic to work itself such as recognition & achievement

THE EXISTENCE,RELATEDNESS & GROWTH NEED HIERARHY

Existence

Growth

Relatedness

Existence needsfrustrated

Growth needs satisfiedGrowth needs

frustrated

Relatednessneed satisfied

Relatednessneeds frustrated

Existence needssatisfied

Deficiency cycle

Enrichment cycle

McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

• NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT- is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past. Characterised by people with

» set moderately difficult goals» make moderately risky decisions» want immediate feedback» become preoccupied with their task» assume personal responsibility Successful but do not reach top positions why

McCLELLAND’S MOTIVATION THEORY

• NEED FOR POWER-desire to control the resources in one’s environment

• NEED FOR AFFILIATION need for human companionship, need reassurance and approval from others

PROCESS THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

• VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY• PORTER LAWLER MODEL

EXPECTANCY THEORY

• Suggest that people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think they can get it.

• Emerged from work of Kurt Lewin & Tolman but applied to workplace by Victor Vroom.

EXPECTANCY THEORY

• Strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on:– Strength of an expectation of a given outcome– Attractiveness of an outcome to the individual

EXPECTANCY THEORY• Effort to performance expectancy- is the

individual’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance

• performance to outcome expectancy- is the individual’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to a certain outcome

• outcome-anything that might result from performance

• valence-how attractive or unattractive an outcome is to an individual

VROOM’S THEORY• Departs from the content theories in that it depicts a

process of cognitive variables that reflect individual differences in work motivation. Does not attempt to describe what the content is or what the individual differences are.

• Everyone has a unique combination of valences, instrumentalities and expectancies. It only indicates the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they are related. Does not provide suggestions on hat motivates employees as Maslow-Herzberg Alderfer...

Expectancy Theory

E X H I B I T 6-8

EQUITY THEORY• People form perceptions of equity or

inequity by comparing what they give to the organisation relative to what they get back and how this ratio compares with those of others

• As a result of perceptions of equity or inequity, people can choose a variety of responses in an effort to maintain equity or reduce perceived inequity

EQUITY THEORY• EQUITY THEORY -Stacy Adams- COGNITIVELY

BASED MOTIVATION THEORY• Argues that a major input to job performance &

satisfaction is the degree of equity ( or inequity) that people perceive in their work situation

• If a person’s perceived ratio is not equal to the other’s he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This striving to restore equity is the explanation to work motivation.

Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons:Self-insideSelf-outsideOther-insideOther-outside

Equity Theory (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 6-7

Equity Theory (cont’d)Choices for dealing with inequity:1. Change inputs (slack off)2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self4. Distort/change perceptions of others5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Equity Theory (cont’d)Propositions relating to inequitable pay:1. Overrewarded employees produce more

than equitably rewarded employees.2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but

do higher quality piece work.3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce

lower quality work.4. Underrewarded employees produce larger

quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

Equity Theory (cont’d)

PORTER LAWLER MODEL

• Content theories presume that satisfaction leads to improved performance & vice versa.

• P-L extends Vroom’s model & takes motivation, satisfaction, and performance as separate variables Effort needs to be mediated by abilities, traits & role perception and links it to rewards that follow.

PORTER LAWLER MOTIVATION MODEL

EFFORT

Perceived effort-

Reward probability

Value of reward Abilities& Traits

Role perception

Performance

Perceivable equitable rewards

Intrinsic rewards

Extrinsic rewards

Satisfaction

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

• COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY• GOAL SETTING THEORY• REEINFORCEMENT THEORY• EQUITY THEORY Focuses on people’s desire to

perceive equity and avoid inequity• ATTRIBUTION THEORY-LOCUS OF

CONTROL/ SELF EFFICACY ATTRIBUTIONS• CONTROL THEORY• AGENCY THEORY

Matching Achievers and Jobs

E X H I B I T 6-5

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:Behavior is environmentally caused.Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Ken Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation

• Employees are intrinsically motivated when rewards an employee gets from work result from:– Choice– the ability to freely self-select and perform

task activities.– Competence– the sense of accomplishment from

skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities.– Meaningfulness– pursuing a task that matters in the

larger scheme of things.– Progress– the feeling of significant advancement in

achieving the task’s purpose.

Performance Dimensions

E X H I B I T 6-9

Integrating

Contemporary

Theories of

Motivation

E X H I B I T 6-10

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL PERCEPTION AND INTER PERSONAL BEHAVIOR THAN A THEORY OF MOTIVATION. People will behave differently if they perceive internal attributes or external attributes which has important implications for work motivation.

CONTROL THEORY

• Degree to which individuals feel they are in control of their own lives/ their jobs affect JOB SATISFACTION & ABSENTEEISM

• Perceived control also affects job satisfaction & absenteeism

AGENCY THEORY

• ASSUMPTION THAT INTEREST OF PRINCIPALS AND AGENTS DIFFER OR MAY BE IN CONFLICT. THIS CAN BE COMPENSATED WITH ESTABLISHMENT OF APPROPRIATE REWARDS OR INCENTIVES TO AGENTS FOR APPROPRIATE OUTCOMES THAT CAN BE A MOTIVATOR FOR ENHANCED PERFORMANCE

SUMMARYCONTENT THEORIES Scientific Management-wages & incentives Human Relations Economic security, working conditions Maslow’s Hierarchy Herzberg-motivators & Hygiene factors Alderfer-ERG Needs McClelland’s –need for achievement, power and affiliation

PROCESS THEORIES Lewin & Tolman- Expectancy concerns Vroom Valence/expectancy Porter & Lawler Performance Satisfaction Lawler E-P-O expectations

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Festinger & Homans Cognitive dissonance /exchange Heider, De Charmes and Bern Cognitive evaluation & self perception Adams - equity Kelly & Rotter Attribution/ Locus of control Goal Theory Reinforcement Control Agency

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the characteristics of high achievers? Evaluate their needs against the three classifications of needs.

2. What implications does security have in a globalised environment where reengineering & downsizing are the order of the day?

3. What is the major criticism of Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation? Do you think it makes a contribution to a better understanding of motivation at the work place?

4. Is it useful to characterise motivation in terms of deficiency? Why or why not? Is it possible to characterise motivation in terms of excess? If so , how?

5. Identify examples from your own experience that support , others that refute , Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory?

MOTIVATIING PRODUCTIVITY

• Individual-Team • Employee Involvement * Participation

Programs- Quality Circles, Suggestion Schemes

• ESOP’s

MOTIVATING PERFORMANCE

• JOB DESIGN- JOB ENGINEERING• JOB ENRICHMENT, JOB CHARACTERISTICS • SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING, • QUALITY OF WORK LIFE• PAY-Skill based, Variable , • BENEFITS-Flexibility

JOB DESIGN

JOB ENGINEERING

QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

JOB CHARACTERISTICS

JOB ENRICHMENT

MOTIVATING FOR ORG GOALS

• MBO APPROACH• GOAL SETTING

– Recognize individual differences– Use goals- individual tasks * team roles– Give feedback on goal achievement

• Participative decision making• Link rewards to performance• Check for inequities

Systems& processes

QUESTIONS FOR ASSIGNMENT/DISCUSSION

• Evaluate the need & process theories of motivation.Which of these is of practical value to managers.

• Apply equity theory to a classroom setting. Specify your inputs and potential outcomes. Choose a likely comparison other , and determine whether you should feel equity or inequity.

• Do you think expectancy theory is too complex for direct use in organizational settings.

• what are the motivational problems of participative management or quality circles.

• do you agree or disagree with the relationship suggested by Porter & Lawler. Cite examples to support or refute the model.