motivation and emotion. psychology: an introduction charles a. morris & albert a. maisto © 2005...
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Motivation and Emotion
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Did You Know That? The founding father of American psychology believed that there is a
human instinct for cleanliness. According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line
for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable that you would if the tickets had been easy to come by.
A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger.
The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents that to the weight of the parents who raise them.
Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have.
There is no emotion center in the brain Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations.
?Questions?
Why does Lucho play football so intensely?
Why do people try to climb Mount Everest or cross the Atlantic in a balloon?
Why are some people obsessed with fantasy football or baseball…while others cannot tell you the difference between the Panthers and the Braves?
Why do fools fall in love?
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Motivation and Emotion
MotiveSpecific need or desire, such as hunger,
thirst, or achievement,The urge to move towards one’s goals, to
accomplish tasksEmotion
Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior
MotivationMotivation: An internal state that activates
behavior and directs it towards a goal.Meaning:In other words, motivation includes various
psychological factors that cause you to act a certain way at a certain time.
The words anger, fear, pain, starving, etc…can all trigger certain motivations within your body.
So how do psychologists attempt to explain these things?
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Instincts
Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species
Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts becauseMost important human behavior is learnedHuman behavior is rarely inflexible
Instinct Theory
In the 1900’s, William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were driven by a variety of instincts.
Instincts: Are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason.
For example, salmon have an instinctive urge to swim thousands of miles through ocean waters and up rivers until they reach the exact gravel spot where they were spawned years earlier. They then lay their eggs and die.
Instinct Theory
Psychologist William James proposed that humans have instincts such as cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy.
Eventually, psychologists realized a flaw in the Instinct Theory.Instincts do not explain behavior; they simply
label behavior.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Something that motivates us moves us to an action.
The thing that motivates us starts with a need that leads to a drive.
Need: Biological or psychological requirement of an organism.
A need results from a lack of something that is desirable or useful.
We have both physiological and psychological needs.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Every need produces a drive.
Drive: A state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism towards a goal.
We all have different drives with different goals!
For example, hunger drives us to eat and fatigue drives us to rest.
Drive – Reduction Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory: When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants (such as food or water), it becomes tense and agitated. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity. So, biological needs “drive” an organism to act, and the organism strives to maintain homeostasis.
Homeostasis: The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state.
The Incentive Theory
The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.
While a drive is something inside of us that causes us to act, our actions are directed towards a goal, or an incentive.
Incentive: An external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward, that motivates behavior.
The Incentive Theory
While drives push us to reduce needs, incentives pull us to obtain them.
For example, hunger may cause us to walk into a cafeteria, but the incentive for our action is the sandwich we hope to eat.
What is another example of the Incentive Theory?
Cognitive TheoryCognitive Psychologists seek to explain
motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.
They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives.
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations.
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Incentives
External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior
We are often unaware of the incentiveExamples
Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry
Advertisements can lead us to buy a product
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivationMotivation for a behavior is the behavior itselfChildren playing is an example
Extrinsic motivationBehavior is performed in order to obtain a
reward or to avoid punishmentA bonus program is an example
Cognitive Theory Example
Example: If you spend hours and hours playing basketball because you wish to excel at the sport, you are following intrinsic motivation!
Example: If you hours playing basketball because your parents want you to excel at basketball, you are following extrinsic motivation.
Biological Motives
Hunger – What motivates you to seek food? Often you eat because of the sight and smell of, say, pizza makes you want to go to a restaurant.
At other times you eat because of habit. For example, if you always eat at 8pm, you become hungry every day around 8pm.
Water, Air, etc.
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Hunger
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamusLateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding
center, triggering the onset of eatingVentromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety
center, stopping eating behaviorParaventricular nucleus influences the drive to
eat specific foods In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord
also play a role
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food
Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety
Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cultural and Environmental Factors
Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioningFor example, time of day can trigger the body
to become hungryCulture also influences what we choose to
eat and how much we consume
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual
cycles (for women)
About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white upper-
and middle-class females
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa
Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as
self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three
months Body shape and weight overly influence self-image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia
About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the
most common eating disorders in more affluent nations
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Obesity
Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today
Obesity can lead to increased risk forHypertensionCardiovascular diseaseDiabetesSleep apnea
Tendency may be inherited
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Thirst
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Thirst
Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst driveInternal cues include level of fluids inside
body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells
External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions
Social Motives
Measuring need based solely on achievement.
I need the approval of certain people or groups.
Fear of FailureFear of Success
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Abraham Maslow, there are 3 basic types of needs:
Fundamental Needs: Biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life.
Psychological needs: The urge to belong and give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem.
Self-Actualization Needs: The pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Emotions
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Basic Emotions
Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust
Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance
Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Plutchik’s Basic Emotions
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Basic Emotions
Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers
Revised model of basic emotions includes:HappinessSurpriseSadnessFearDisgustAnger
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theoryEnvironmental stimuli bring on physiological
changes that we interpret as emotionsCannon-Bard theory
Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously
Cognitive theoryEnvironment gives us clues that help us
interpret physiological reaction
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Theories of Emotion
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Nonverbal Communication of Emotion
Voice qualityFacial expressionBody language
Posture and the way we move communicates information
Personal spaceExplicit acts
For example, slamming doors
EmotionsWhat drives Michael Jordan to perfect his
basketball game? How did he feel when he hit all of those winning shots? Was he tired, thirsty, excited, nervous, or happy?
It is very difficult to draw a clear line between motives and Emotions.
So what are the differences?Well, let’s take a look shall we.
Emotion
Emotion: A set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior.
See Page 329 in your text for a chart of the full range of emotions.
James – Lange TheoryBoth William James and Carl Lange came
to the conclusion at about the same time that “we use the word emotion to describe our visceral, or gut, reactions to the things that take place around us.
Because they came up with this theory at the same time, it was named the James-Lange Theory.
The Cannon – Bard TheoryThe Cannon – Bard Theory: According to this
theory, certain experiences activate the thalamus, and the thalamus sends messages to the cortex and to the other body organs.
The theory states that the brain sends two reactions – arousal and the experience of emotion. Yet, one does not cause the other.
So, when we use the word emotion, we are referring to the simultaneous burst of activity in the brain and gut reactions.
More about the various Theories
See Text Page 335 for more info!
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment
Yerkes-Dodson lawStates that there is an optimal level or arousal
for best performance on any taskThe more complex the task, the lower the
level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sexual Motivation
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Biological Factors
TestosteroneImportant in both men and women in early
developmentNot very important for regulating sexual
activity in humansPheromones
Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cultural and Environmental Factors
Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biologyMen are very responsive to visual stimuliWomen respond better to touch
Culture can influence what is sexually attractive
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Human Sexual Response Cycle
Excitement Plateau
Orgasm Resolution
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Sexual Orientation
Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest Heterosexual
Sexual attraction to other gender
Homosexual Sexual attraction to same gender
Bisexual Sexual attraction to both genders
Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Other Motives
Exploration and curiosityManipulation and contactAggression
Intent is a key element of aggressionAggressive behavior may be innate, although
learning clearly plays a roleAggression and cultureGender and aggression
Males are more physically aggressive
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Other Motives
Achievement Motivation to excel at a taskDesire is for achievement for its own sake
AffiliationMotivation to be with others
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Gender, Culture and Emotion
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Gender and Emotion
Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently
Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation
AngerMen tend to direct their anger outwardWomen tend to direct their anger inward
Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion
Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Culture and Emotion
Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms
Some emotional displays are universalDisplay rules
Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate