More empirical grammar: Taking on the preposition By Brett Reynolds brett.reynolds@humber.ca http://english-jack.blogspot.com

English has about 300 prepositions. You'd recognize the familiar culprits: of, in, for... But what about: where, given, depending, abroad, as if, in case, contrary, come, whenever, & notwithstanding? We'll discover why most dictionaries misdraw the boundaries between prepositions and adverbs, unearth prepositions taking complements instead of objects, and even call into disrepute a number of erstwhile verbs. And we'll back it all up with logic and evidence. Treat your brain to a grammar workout.

Assumptions:

1.  Lexical categories exist 1.  prototypical cases 2.  marginal cases

2.  Categories and functions are distinct 3.  The category of prepositions exists:

1.  This is one of the most important issues. 2.  In addition to that, we also have increasing numbers. 3.  Thanks very much for coming. 4.  Season to taste with salt and pepper. 5.  Still to come on the news hour tonight…

Your definition

Given the assumptions, please write down your best definition or list of defining characteristics for the category of preposition.

Definitions

•  “An indeclinable word or particle governing (and usu. preceding) a noun, pronoun, etc., and expressing a relation between it and another word.” -OED

•  “A word that is used before a noun, pronoun, or gerund to show place, time, direction etc.” -LDOCE

•  “Prepositions connect words to other parts of a sentence and have a close relationship with the words that follows, which is usually a noun.” -The Grammar Book

•  “Prepositions are links which introduce prepositional phrases. As the most typical complement in a prepositional phrase is a noun phrase, they can be regarded as a device which connects noun phrases with other structures.” -LGSWE

•  “A word like on, off, of, into, normally followed by a noun or pronoun.” -Practical English Usage

Assumptions behind the definitions

•  Prepositions come before, link, or govern nouns or noun-like constructions.

•  He stood before the mirror. (NP complement preposition) •  He stood before he crawled. (clause complement conjunction) •  He has stood here many times before. (no complement adverb)

Wrong!

The etymological fallacy

•  historical meaning = “true meaning” •  e.g., decimate •  The etymology of preposition is: “1388, from L.

præpositionem (nom. præpositio) a putting before, from præpositus, pp. of præponere put before, from præ- before + ponere put, set, place (see position). In grammatical sense, a loan-translation of Gk. prothesis, lit. a setting before.”- Online Etymological Dictionary

Evidence against “coming before, linking, or governing nouns” being a defining criterion •  Verbs:

•  I read earlier. (no) •  I read the letter. (NP complement; object) •  I read him the letter. (2 NP complements; objects) •  I hate to leave so soon. (to infinitival) •  I hate leaving you so soon. (participial) •  I know you hate leaving. (bare content clause) •  I know that you hate leaving. (that content clause) •  I wonder whether that’s so bad. (whether content clause) •  That looks interesting (adjective)

Evidence against coming before, linking, or governing nouns being a defining criterion •  Nouns:

•  a big dog. (no complement) •  a rejection of the idea (PP) •  a cave dweller (pre-head NP) •  the news that things have changed (that content clause) •  a plan to move (to infinitival) •  no idea whether it works (whether content clause)

Evidence against coming before, linking, or governing nouns being a defining criterion •  Adjectives:

•  afraid (no complement) •  afraid of the idea (PP) •  afraid that things have changed (that content clause) •  afraid to move (to infinitival)

More evidence against “before a noun”

•  But the following are undisputed prepositions: •  The mouse came out from under the sofa. (PP) •  I didn’t hear until later. (AdvP) •  There’s debate about whether we should… (whether content

clause) •  I got it for free. (AdjP)

Prepositions taking complements

–  The drink is $2. The drink is free. I got it for $2. I got it for free.

– He became a nice man. He became nice. He’s though of as a nice man. He’s though of as nice.

–  Things returned to the way they were before. Things returned to normal.

– We left him for dead. –  Things went from bad to worse.

More evidence against “before a noun”

•  In sum, traditional definitions: •  arbitrary •  inconsistent

•  Thus: the distinction is an artificial one likely based on: •  Greek & Latin grammar •  the etymological fallacy

•  Consequently, reanalyse: •  He stood before the mirror. (remains a preposition) •  He stood before he crawled. (conjunction preposition) •  He has stood here many times before. (adverb preposition)

Consequences of such a reanalysis

•  Identify other words that could be intransitive prepositions: •  Adverbs

•  He has stood here many times before. •  He stood there afterwards. •  He looked ahead. •  He headed east. •  He came here and went home.

•  “Subordinating conjunctions” •  He stood before he crawled. •  He stood when he was 8 months old. •  He stood although he couldn’t crawl. •  He crawled because he couldn’t stand.

Prepositions vs. adverbs

•  Prototypical adverbs end in -ly: •  really, actually, probably, finally, especially, simply, nearly,

certainly, recently, quickly, usually, exactly

•  They cannot typically function as the complement of be. •  It’s nice. *It’s nicely. •  It’s real. *It’s really. •  It’s probable. *It’s probably. •  The problem is actual. *The problem is actually.

Prepositions vs. adverbs: complementation

•  But prepositions can typically function as complements of be: •  The dinner is afterwards (after the dance). •  Good things are ahead (in front of us). •  The shortest way is east (to the east). •  They’re here now (at the conference). •  Tell me when you’re home (at school).

Prepositions vs. adverbs: complementation

•  Verbs such as put and head require a locative complement: He headed up (the hill). *He headed upwardly. That put us behind (the others). *That put us finally. It darted around (the room). ?It darted quickly.

• Prepositions are typically allowed. • Adverbs typically aren’t.

Prepositions vs. adverbs: complementation

•  Many nouns take prepositional complements: the journey home/to Greece *the journey outwardly the acceptance of the idea *the acceptance ideationally the way through (the door) *the way ??? control over his movements *control bodily (control is a noun)

• Prepositions are typically allowed. • Adverbs typically aren’t.

Prepositions vs. adverbs: modification

•  In standard dialect, adverbs can’t be modified by words such as straight, right, further, etc. But prepositions can.

•  She shot it right in the hole. She shot it right in. *She shot it right accurately.

•  We came straight from the office. We came straight here. *We came straight quickly.

•  Move it further to the left. Move it further left. *Move it further easily.

•  He did it long before this. He did it long before. *He did it long earlier.

Reanalysis of adverbs as prepositions

∴ We reanalyse as prepositions words such as abroad, now, outside, where, etc. that have traditionally been analysed as adverbs, but which function: •  as complements of be •  as complements of verbs such as head & put •  as complements of nouns •  and that take modifiers such as right, straight, further, long, etc.

Reanalysis of adverbs as prepositions

Advantages of this reanalysis: •  consistency •  reduction in dual classification

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

No reanalysis, but a needed clarification

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

The following properties distinguish prepositions from adjectives:

1.  All prepositions can occur as the head of non-predicative adjuncts. Adjectives can’t.

2.  Adjectives can mostly occur as the complement of become unlike most prepositions.

3.  Adjectives (not prepositions) can mostly be modified by very, more, so, etc. Prepositions (not adjectives) can mostly be modified by right, straight, further, etc.

4.  Prepositions mostly accept NP complements. Adjectives typically don’t.

5.  Prepositions can generally be fronted in suitable situations. Adjectives generally can’t. (e.g., the way in which…)

-Huddleston & Pullum (2002) p. 606

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

Are the following prepositions, adjectives, or both? •  worth •  like •  due •  near, close, far

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

•  Worth is clearly an adjective as it cannot occur as the head of non-predicative adjuncts. •  *Worth $1,000, he sold the paining for $100.

•  Like belongs to both categories. •  Like personalities attract. (adj) •  The crisis seem more like 1929 than 1989. (adj) •  Just like last week, the market is down again. (prep)

•  Due is also AC/DC. •  They exercised due care. (adj) •  The book is due. (adj) •  If you have a balance due to the CRA after April 15, expect to

be charged interest. (adj) •  Due to the changes, new policies are required. (prep)

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

•  Near, close, & far are usually prepositions but do also have a foot in the adj camp •  Near the entrance, there was an astrolabe. (prep) •  *He was calling my name and I could tell he was becoming

nearer. (prep) •  It was a near miss, but the car didn't hit us. (adj) •  The nearest thing to me is my family. (adj) •  He was very close to the truth. (prep) •  Close to school, there were some good hiding places. (prep) •  They became quite close later. (ajd)

Prepositions vs. Adjectives

•  The following are all prepositions, at least sometimes. Create examples illustrating this fact. Be ready to justify your analysis. •  absent •  exclusive •  previous •  consequent •  opposite •  regardless •  effective •  subsequent

Prepositions vs. “subordinating conjunctions”

•  All but three so-called “subordinating conjunctions” are reclassified as prepositions. •  because, if, while, although, though, until, etc.

•  The only members that are not thus reclassified are: •  whether •  if (in the meaning of whether, e.g., I don’t know if I should go) •  that before content clauses and relative clauses

Prepositions vs. verbs

Some prepositions look like participle verbs: •  Depending on the net to catch him, he jumped.

Depending on the net, there may be problems. •  Given a dollar, she could turn it into a fortune.

Given the current dollar, there is new hope for manufacturing.

•  Provided (that) they avoid injury, I think they’ll win.

And then there’s come: •  Come next week, the Christmas shopping season will

be in full swing.

Multi-word prepositions

Are the following decomposable into constituent parts? •  out of, up to, in between, as if, in case, instead, upon, onto, on

behalf of

•  It came (out of) the hole. vs. *It came (out of). •  It came out (of the hole). vs. It came out.

•  Can you front part of it? •  Can you add a determiner? •  Can you change case? •  Can you coordinate part of it? •  Can you strand the whole thing? •  Does the final constituent by itself allow the same

complements?

Prepositions following their complement

notwithstanding, apart, aside, ago

References

Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.