mit radiaton lab series v28 index

8/8/2019 MIT Radiaton Lab Series V28 Index

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z ,~ .AL-- ~MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ~IWDIATION LABORATORY SERIES It/lh

Board of EditoreLouIs N. RIDENOUFt ,!Mdor


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INDEX

Edited byKEITH HENNEY~D1lWIt[.L OI1!ECTON, EI,ECT1 {ONICS, .XIJC1.EX)NICS

F oreword byVANN13VAR BUSH

PRESIDENT, C4RSEGIE INSTJ TUTICJ N OF WASHINGTON

Inkoduciory N otes byKARL T. COMPTONLEE A. Du13RIDGE

LOUIS N, RIDENOUROFF ICE OF SCIENTIF 1(: RESEAR(:J 1 .iN 1) DJ 3J ELOPM t 3NT

NATIONAL DEFENSE RESE


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(-, .;INDEX

COP YRIGHT, 1953, BY THE3fcGR .+Iv-H ILI, BoOK COMPANY, INC.

l>R ISTED 1>- THE UNITED STATES OF AM E F ll C .\

All right.$ re.servwl. lhis book, orparts thereof, may not be reproducedin any form without pennmion oj

the prih[ishers.

1

THE M.4P LE P RESS COMP ANY,

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t!!

Foreword

Linked to mans age-old propensity for waging war has been his tsnd-en cy to boast of his war like accomplishments. In the ancient sculpturesof the Euphra tes Valley and the colorful fr iezes of Egypt ian tombs wecan see the war r ior s of preh istory march ing to bat t le and can surmisesomethin g of th eir weapona , their tact ics, and th eir equipmen t. H er odo-tus, the fa ther of h istory, earned his t it le for his story of the Greco-Persian wars; and the epic verse of Homer has preserved for ever thelegendary ba t t les of Troy, preceding in t ime the cen tury-long st rugglesof the Peloponnesian wars. La ter , J ulius Caesar r ecorded for us notmcdest ly, but with revea ling deta il, t he story of his Gallic conquest s.The men of the Nor th first r ecorded the sturdy her itage of the Anglo-Saxon in the epic story of Beowulf. The wars which ravaged Europedur ing t he dar k ages wer e pr eser ved in history in th e cloisters, last r efu geof the wr it t en word. In modern t imes, the chronicles of war have lostthe epic touch and become the handbooks for future war r iora . Everygenera l has read his Clausewitz, and ever y admiral his Mahan.Wor ld War II brought with it the responsibility for a new kind of

documenta t ion . Technologica l progress in weapons and devices of war -fa re was of such t ranscendent impor tance tha t it in fluenced the turn ofeven ts at a lmost every point . Science waa organ ized for war in a waytha t it had never been organized before. It ther efore became a mat terof m ajor impor ta nce t o r ecor d pr ocesses a nd a ch ievemen ts of t ech nologyin such a way that fu tu re genera t ions might benefit to the fullest by thet ria ls, er ror s, a nd su ccesses of t he exper imen ter s.The late Presiden t Roosevelt , with an appreciat ion of the histor ica l

significance of cur ren t happenings, directed tha t each agency of theF eder al gover nmen t should wr ite th e histor y of its war time accomplish-ments. In the case of the Office of Scient ific Research and Develop-ment , the mere chronology of it s under takings and accomplishmentswould not have sufficed to aid the researchers of the fu ture in dealing

SWith rela ted problems. The Office of Scient ific Resea rch and Develop-ment , therefore, has left behind it full documenta t ion in the form ofsummary techn ica l repor t s cover ing the programs of the techn ica l divi-

a v


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Ivi RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESsions of the Nat ional Defense Research Commit tee; a technica l mono-graph ser ies dea ling with specia l aspects of it s program-of which thisRadia t ion Labora tory Ser ies is a par t ; and a deta iled h istory by field ofendea vor , including tha t of the Commit tee on Medica l Resear ch , expa nd-ing the popular h istory by J ames Phinney Baxter , III, Scien t ists againstTime, which won the Pulitzer pr ize for h istory for 1946. It is hoped tha tth is a t t empt a t full docum enta t ion , made though it was by busy scient istsamid all the pressures of war and postwar adjustments, will con t r ibu tesubstan tia lly t o t he sou ndn ess of ou r pr esen t pr ogr am of m ilit ar y r esea rchand development and will preven t the ret racing of old ground and theexplora t ion of unfruit fu l pa ths, a lready explored to no avail. For oneof the pr incipa l funct ions of the scient ist s not ebook is t o r ecor d his fail-u res aa well as his successes in order tha t other s may not duplica te hiseffor t s in va in .I am par t icular ly happy to cont r ibu te these few words to this, the

concluding volume in the ser ies of 28 volumes which compr ise the t ech-nical deta ils of radar . It is gra t ifying to observe tha t not all the effor t sof scien t ific warfar e wer e dir ect ed to the crea tion of letha l devices whosesole object ive is dest ruct ion . Radar , which is the ear -ca tch ing wordcoined to descr ibe the processes of radio detect ion and ranging, was oneof the grea t est tools of the recen t war , but it a lso has vast usefulness inthe postwar wor ld and its powers are happily extensible to many prob-lem s of moder n n aviga tion .Ear ly warning radar can look into 300,000 cubic miles of space. It is

as efficien t on a moonless nigh t as on the br igh test day, and t he obscur ingeffect s of storms and fogs, which have beset naviga tors from ear liestt imes, hold no problems for it . It not on ly revea led the hiding places ofthe enemys ships and planes, but it ident ified ou r own planes in darknessand in bat t le and guided many a flyer back to the sa fety of his own base..Now an inst rument which can accomplish such wonder s is necessa r ily acomplex mechanism. Although its development spreads over the twodecades of the twent ies and thir t ies, the per iod of grea test progressoccur red dur ing the war under the impetus of st r a tegic and tact ica lneeds. It is the technologica l ach ievements of these years which thepr esen t ser ies r ecords .Back of the effor t s of the Radia t ion Labora tory lie the percept ive

observa t ions of A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young of the United Sta tesNavy Depar tment , who in 1922 were quick to grasp the implica t ions ofin ter ference in the signals caused by a steamer passing on the Potomac.Three yea rs la ter , Gregory Breit and Mer le A. Tuve of the Carnegie

Inst itu t ion developed a shor t -pu lse techn ique for measur ing the heigh tof t he r eflect in g la yer s in t he ion osph er e. This was the fir st t rue radar , &for radar is in essence the method of loca t ing object s in space by propa -


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FOREWORD viigat ing a beam of shor t pulses of elect romagnet ic energy and meaaunngthe t ime between the pulse and its echo at the sending sta t ion. In thedecade of the th ir t ies, the Brit ish advanced the ar t to the poin t wherethey were able to throw up around their island a lifeline of radar surveil-lance sta t ions and so made possible the defense of Brita in against thesu per ior n umber s of t he Lu ftwa ffe.To tef.f the fu ll story of the United Sta tes radar program would neces-

sar ily be to tell, a lso, the story of the Office of Scien t ific Research andDevelopm en t u nder wh ose cogn iza nce t he wor k of t he Radia t ion Labor a-tory of the Massachuset t s Inst itute of Technology was done. For largethough it was, both in dollar volume and in achievement , the Radia t ionLaboratory cont ract was but one of the many research and developmentcont ract s through which the OSRD made it s cont r ibu t ions to the win-ning of the war . One would find, too, that applica t ions of radar extendedin an importan t way to other phases of the OSRD program such as firecont rol, submarine detect ion , and wave propaga t ion . To tell such ast or y fu lly wou ld be in effect t o r eca pit ula te t asks wh ich h ave a lready beenadequately done. It is suggested, therefor e, that the reader who findsthe presen t ser ies of in terest and who cares to explore the backgroundagainst which the radar story developed, may do so through the mediumof the histor ica l ser ies which has been made available to the public a tlarge and through the summary repor t s which are available throughofficia l ch annels t o a ut hor ized per son s.The individual au thors of the volumes of the Radia t ion Laboratory

Ser ies and t he over-a ll edit or , Dr . Louis Ridenour , a re t o be commendedfor the immense amount of addit ional work and research they have per -formed a bove an d beyon d t heir t ech nica l accomplishment s in t hu s r ecor d-ing in such deta il the

WASHINGTON,.C.February, 1953

a ch ievemen ts in t h e Labor at or y.VANNEVAR BusH


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Establishment oj the Radiat ionBy Karl T. Compton

Laboratory

One of the fir st steps taken by the members of the Nat iona l DefenseResearch Commit tee after its appointment in J une, 1940, was a prelimi-na ry br ea kdown of t he fields of act ivity in to four main ca tegor ies dea lingrespect ively with ordnance, chemist ry, communicat ions, and physics.Drs. Tolman, Conant , J ewet t , and Compton were respect ively given thein it ial cogn iza nce over t hese a rea s.Through the Army and Navy members of NDRC there were next

received lists of all of the research and development project s cur rent lybeing car r ied on by the Services, each with a br ief descr ipt ion and anest imate of pr ior ity. This list was dist r ibuted among the four divisionsof the Nat ional Defense Resea rch Commit tee and provided the star t ingpoint for its th inking and its a ct ivit ies.To Sect ion 1 of Division D was assigned the problem of detect ion

devices. Since it waa clear tha t the ar t of elect ronics would play a veryimportant par t in pract ica lly all detect ion devices, it was to someonever sed in tha t ar t , and who at the same t ime had demonst ra ted a highdegree of imagina t ion and administ ra t ive skill, tha t we turned to headthis division . This person waa Dr . Alfred L. Loomis of Tuxedo Park,New Yor k.E ar ly in t he 1920s Dr . Loomis ha d esta blished his own pr iva te r esea rchlabora tory in Tuxedo Park, to which he had invited visit ing scient ists tocoopera t e with him or to car ry on their own independent research work.In this labora tory, shor t ly before the war , there had been completedimportant explor atory invest iga t ions on the subject of brain waves, andDr . Loomis had decided tha t the t ime had come to pass on his equipmentand techniques t o medica l schools and hospita ls where the applicat ionsa nd fu rt her scien tific invest iga tion s cou ld mor e effect ively be ca rr ied on .For over a year he had been studying var ious scient ific fields with a viewto deciding what genera l line he should select next for the major act ivityof his labora tory. Mter consulta t ion and visits to university and indus-t r ia l la bor at or ies he had decided on t he field of micr owa ves and had begunto assemble equipment and a small st t i of collabora tors. Thus Dr ....vm


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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY ixLoomis select ion wa a a na tur al t o hea d this original det ect ion sect ionof NDRC.A second for tuna te coincidence bear ing on the ult imate select ion of

Massachuset ts Inst itu te of Technology as the place for the Radiat ionLabora tory was the fact that its Elect r ica l Engineer ing Depar tment hadfor a couple of year s been car rying on a microwave development for theblind la ndin g of a ir pla nes, u nder t he spon sor sh ip of t he Sper ry Gyr oscopeCompany in the in terests of the Air Force of the Army. This develop-ment , using a 40-cm wavelength and an oscilla t ing tube of the newlydeveloped klyst ron type, had rea ched the stage of successfu l flight test sa t Wright F ield by the t ime NDRC was established. Thus there was a tM.I.T. a small gr ou p a ct ively wor kin g in t he m icr owa ve field.The ot her pr incipal cen ter s of microwave interest in the United Sta tes

a t tha t t ime were the Bell, Genera l Elect r ic, West inghouse, and RCALabora tor ies, and Stanford University, in all of which the in terest hadbeen pr in cipa lly cen ter ed on t he developmen t of oscilla tin g t ubes ca pa bleof pr oducin g a ppr ecia ble power in t he wa velen gt h r an ge of r ough ly 50 cmor less .One of our fir st moves was for Dr . Loomis and me to visit resea rch and

development establishments of the Army and Navy where work in thedet ect ion field was in progr ess. Our fir st visit was to the Naval Resear chLabora tory where for the fir st t ime we saw radar in the labora tory and inopera t ion . Rea r Admiral Harold G. Bowen as Chief of the NavalResearch Labora tory gave us every oppor tun ity to see what that labora-tory had done and to learn its fu ture plans, and gave us every encourage-ment to en t er this field to supplement the NRL act ivit ies. On this visitwe a lso examined t he sta tus of t he subma rinedet ect ion t echniqu es wh ichwer e pr in cipa lly Asdic, an engineered improvement over the under -wa ter su per sonic det ect or wh ich ha d been developed by P rofessor La nge-vin in France dur ing World War I.Our next visit was t o the Signal Cor ps labora tor ies at For t Monmouth ,

New J ersey, where we saw two Army versions of radar , one for detect ionand the other for fire con t rol. Here the Commanding Officer wasColonel (la ter Major Genera l) Roger B. Colton , t he warmth of whosewelcome r ose many degr ees when he lear ned that our organiza t ion mighthave a considerable amount of money to devote to fu r ther research anddevelopment in th is field. We learned from him of the grea t st ruggleaga inst economy through which the Signa l Corps had finally succeededin car rying the radar development to its then opera t ing stage.Fina lly, Dr . Loomis and I visit ed the Army maneuvers in the fall of

1940 in the nor thern New York Sta te region of Ogdensburg where forthe fir st t ime the Army ver sion of radar was tested as a par t of an ear ly-warn ing network against enemy aircra ft . Here we fir st saw the ear ly-


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x RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESwarning repor t ing cen ter with its complica ted array of char ts, plot t ingboa rds, a nd communica tion networks. Radar was so secret a t that t imethat even genera ls of the Army were not permit ted to approach the radarequipmen t unless t hey wer e dir ect ly con cer ned with it s oper at ion .As a result of these visits Dr . Loomis decided that the work of his Com-mit tee on Detect ion Devices should concent ra t e init ially on the field ofmicrowave radar . Since the Army and Navy were working at the longerwavelengths, this decision avoided a duplicat ion of effor t . Since theairplane and the submarine appeared to be the two most impor tantth ings to be detect ed in the type of mobile war fa re which might beexpected, and since detect ion of submerged submarines by supersonicdevices was already an established ar t in the Navy, th is decision to star tout by concent ra t ing on applicat ions of microwaves for detect ion was ahappy one. As the work developed, it soon became eviden t that theoppor tunit ies for th e applicat ion of microwaves wer e so numer ous and soimpor tant that this commit tee actually n ever expanded its field of act iv-ity outside of the microwave range, except for the development of thelong-range navigat ion system, Loran , which involved something of thesame t ech niqu es a nd pr in ciples. Con sequ en tly t his in it ial sect ion , D-1,on detect ion devices soon became the Micr owave Division of NDRC.An en ormou s lift t o t he developmen ts in this field was pr ovided t hr ou gh

a visit of the Brit ish Scient ific Mission headed by Sir Henry Tizard inthe fall of 1940. Accompanied by Dr. Cockcroft and other Brit ishscient ist s, this Tizard mission br ought t o the United Sta tes th e full storyof research and development for military applicat ions which had beencar r ied on by the Brit ish up to that t ime. Among the mater ia l broughtto America by the Tizard mission was a cavity magnet ron of a typewhich had been invented in llngland by Dr. Oliphant and which wascapable of deliver in g power at m icr owa ve fr equ en cies far in excess of anyof the tubes which had thus far been developed in America . This cavitymagnet ron , as fur ther improved, became the hear t of microwave radar .Small as it was in size, it has been called the most impor tant piece ofcargo ever to cross the At lant ic Ocean. Another valuable gift from Grea t Br ita in was Dr . E. G. Bowen, a

Brit ish physicist and communicat ions engineer wh o had wor ked with SirRober t Watson-Watt in the development of Brita ins first version ofradar , and who also had had flying exper ience and was keen ly in terestedin the problems of detect ion of en emy aircra ftespecia lly t he develop-ment of radar , which could be mounted in a pursuit plane and used todetect and home on the enemy bombers. Dr . Bowen also had the vi$ionof microwave radar , with it s enormous advantages over the longer waveradar , provided sufficient output power could be secured. Dr . Bowenwas immediately a t tached to the Microwave Commit tee and it was as a

,


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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY xiresu lt of a ser ies of discussions between Dr . Bowen and Dr . Loomis tha tthe decision was reached to make the first radar-system object ive ofNDRC the development of a 10-cm AI (Air In terceptor ) radar equip-ment . The init ia l ten ta t ive specifica t ions were drawn up and the nextmove was to organize a laboratory, under some cont ractor , to ca rry outt he wor k.The select ion of the site and the con t ractor for the Radia t ion Labora-

tory came about in th is wav. It was immediately rea lized that a labo-ra tory for the development of radar must be close to an impor tant a irfield in order that exper iment s with and on aircraft could be carr ied out ,and should also be near the seashore in order that similar exper imentscould be car r ied out on the detect ion of ships. The fir st idea was tolocate the labora tory at the Depar tment of Ter rest r ia l Magnet ism of theCarnegie Inst itu t ion of Washington. When this laboratory was visited,however , it was found that another NDRC project had a lready becomeestablished t here, and it was felt tha t the remaining space available in t hela bora tor ies of this or gan izat ion was in adequ at e for t he fu tu re expan sionof that other project , together with the new microwave work.Negot ia t ions were then under taken with the Army to use one of its

hangars on Boiling Field as a radar laboratory. Since this solu t ionseemed feasible, a cont ract was prepared for submission to the NDRC,providin g for t he opera tion of this con tr act t hrou gh t he Ca rn egie Inst itu-t ion of Washington as cont ractor , with the work to be car r ied on atBoiling Field .When I a r r ived in Washington to at t end the meet ing at which this

proposal was to be submit ted, I found, through Drs. Bush and Loomis,that t he hopes for this solut ion had been completely dashed by a decisionjust t r ansmit ted from the Army to the effect that fur ther plans for the useof Boiling Field made its use by NDRC impract icable. Another solu t ionhad to be found in a hurry. Bush and Loomis had one to propose. Theyasked me t o find out whet her the Massachuset ts Inst itu te of Technologycould immediately make available 11,000 sq ft of floor space and couldsecure the use of the National Guard Hangar at the East Boston Airpor t ,adjacent to the Boston Harbor . The idea was that the resea rch anddevelopment could be done in the laborator ies of M.I.T. and the exper -iments on a ircraft or naval ships could be car r ied ou t with insta lla t ions inthis Nat ional Guard Hangar. I immediately called up M. I.T.s Vlce-President , Dr . J . Rh~ Killian, J r., and asked him to explore the situa-t ion and repor t back immediately. Within a few hours he repor t ed thatthe desired arrangements could be made, and thus this proposa l wen tbefore NDRC and resu lted in t he init ia l cont ract with M. I.T.I e&ablish-ing what soon came to be ca lled the Radia t ion Laboratory. Thefailure of t he first t wo plans waa a blessin g in disgu ise, for n eit her of t hose


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xii RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESloca t ions in Washington wou ld have permit ted the unexpectedly la rgeand rapid growth of the radar project .

Because of the background of microwave work car r ied ou t by theM.I.T. Elect r ica l Engineer ing Depar tment in it s coopera t ion with theSper ry Gyroscope Company and the Army, this cont ract , which wasmade through the Division of Indust r ia l Coopera t ion of M. I. T., wasor igin ally u nder t he gen er al su per vision of M. I.T.s E lect rica l E ngin eer -ing Depar tment . This wae a conven ien t a r rangement a lso because Dr .Edward L. Bowles, who was secreta ry of the NDRC Microwave Com-mit tee, had been in charge of the elect r ica l engineer ing group working onthe microwave blind-landing problem. However , it waa agreed from thebeginning that the prosecut ion of the radar program would requir e theimpor ta t ion of a grea t deal of ou tside ta len tphysicists, elect r ica lengineers, and many other sand that as soon as possible this labora toryshould be set up in as autonomous a-manner as possible, with a maximumdegree of fr eedom and responsibility for init ia t ing and car rying ou t it sprogram. It had of cour se to be responsible t o M. I. T., since M.I.T. hadthe con t ract responsibility, and it had to be responsible t o NDRC. Butwith in these limits of financia l responsibility and over -a ll direct ion it iscer ta in ly t rue tha t the grea t success of this labora tory was in no smallmeasure du e t o t he oppor tun it y a fforded its sta ff t o a ccept responsibilityand t o t ake in it ia t ive.The next most impor tan t problem facing the labora tory was its selec-

t ion of per son nel, a nd t o aid in t his select ion P rofessor E rn est O. Lawr en ceof the Univer sity of California , who at about tha t same t ime was made amember of the Microwave Commit tee of NDRC, 1 was called in to assistt he Microwa ve Comm it tee and M.I.T. in t he init ia l select ion of per sonnel.This was a most for tuna te choice and Professor Lawrence natura llytu rn ed t o his many associa t es and disciples in t he cyclot ron field, beca usethe circu its of a cyclot ron , like those of rada r , involve the pulsing of largeamount s of h igh -fr equ en cy elect ric power . Thus the in it ia l members oft he h igh -power ed t eam wer e select ed, wit h t he r ea lly in spir ed ch oice of t hetwo top execu t ives of the labora tory, Dr . Lee A. DuBr idge as Directorand Dr . F. Wheeler Loomis as Associa te Director .Th e oper at ion s a nd a ccomplishmen ts of t his Ra dia tion La bor at oW h ave

been well and adequately descr ibed elsewhere and I shall not a t t empt toduplica te these sta tements. However , I should like to say someth ingI The firstmembershipof the MicrowaveCommitt eeconsistedof AlfredL. Loomis,Cha irman,Edward L. Bowlea ,Secre ta ry,Ra lph Bown, Hugh WWs. In Ju ly, 1945,it con sis ted of A. L. Loomis , Ch ief, J . R. Loofbou row, Secr et a r y,W. R. G. Baker ,Rafph Rown, L. A. DuBridge ,MelvifleEaetham,J . A. Hut ilmwn, L. F. J ones.,M. J .Kelly, E . O. Lawrence,I. I. Rabi, C. G. Suit s,F . E . Ter r nan ,A. T. Wa terman ,War -r en Weaver , H . H. Willie.


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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RADIATION LABORA TORY xiiiabout the rela t ionship of the Massachuset t s Inst itu te of Technology tot his r ada r pr oject .Until t he Radiat ion Labora tory was so st rongly established tha t it

could do it s own recr uit ing, M.I.T. had the responsibility of select ing th efirst staff, as descr ibed above, Then it had the responsibility of makingt he arrangements with scient ist s and en gineer s fr om oth er inst itut ions,and pa rt icu lar ly it had t he job of n egot ia tin g wit h t heir h ome in st itu tion sthe leaves of absence for these scient ists. At that t ime the United Sta teswas not yet a t war . The durat ion of th is preparedness effor t was uncer-ta in. Consequent ly the leaves of absence were negot ia ted for a per iod ofone yea r .M.I.T. had to take the financial responsibility for the members of thesta ff thu s r ecr uit ed, as well as for t he pu rch ases and su bcon tr act s. This

fin an cial r espon sibilit y in volved two difficu lt fa ct or s, on e of dela y a nd t heother of r isk. The delay was incurred because of the t ime required toassemble vouchers and have them cleared through the GovernmentAccount ing Office, and for this reaaon M.I.T. was cont inuously out ofpocket by amounts which ult imately ran in to severa l million dollars.The payments of course came through eventually, but in the meant imeM. I.T.s endowment fund had been reduced by a sizable por t ion .The r isk involved was of two types. The regulat ions of government

pu rch asing wer e su ch as fr equ en tly t o r equ ir e con sider able t im e for com -pet it ive bids or other established procedures. The exigencies of thesit ua tion , however , r equ ir ed speed. M.I.T. fr om th e beginning adoptedthe policy that it would permit no considerat ion of convenience orfinancial safety or any other considera t ion to stand in the way of doingwhat had to be done as prompt ly as possible for the winning of the war .Con sequ en tly, t her e wer e some pu rch ases made for wh ich r eimbu rsemen twas n ot a llowed, but t he lar gest item of finan cia l r isk waa in t he r eappoin t-ment of the scient ist s on leave of absence for their second year of duty,which came about in the following manner .It was the end of J une, 1941, before Congress voted the appropr ia t ion

to cont inue the work of OSRD in the following fiscal year . However ,M.I.T. could not wait this long to re-engage the staff of the Radiat ionLabor ator y for th e following year , because the personal financia l r isk t othe individuals would have been too grea t , and also because the inst itu-t ions which had loaned them to M.I.T. wer e demanding, as ear ly as Marchor April, defin ite. informat ion aa to wh et her the leave of absence of theirscient ists should be cont inued in the following academic year . In orderto meet this situat ion the Execut ive Commit tee of M.I.T. agreed tounderwr it e the.st t i appointments for the following year to the extent of ahalf million dollars. This, however , was only about half enough tohandle the situat ion , and I secured permission from Dr. Bush to descr ibe


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xiv RADIATION LABORA TORY SERIESthe problem to J ohn D. Rockefeller , J r ., who immedia tely agreed tounderwr it e another half million dollars, and thus the stall of the Radia-t ion Labora tory was saved from disin tegra t ion at this cr it ica l per iodbet ween t he fir st and second yea rs of its opera tion .I have ment ioned M. I.T.s responsibility in the radar program by act -ing as cont ractor and banker and by following the basic pr inciple thatnothing within it s power should be allowed to inter fere with doing whatneeded to be done to help win the war . There were other contr ibu t ions,however , which were also significant for the work of NDRC and of itsother cont ractors. Because M.I.T. was the first la rge cont ractor ofNDRC, and probably also because it had previously, over a number ofyears, given a good deal of thought to the appropr ia te condit ions underwhich research and development work should be carr ied on for , outsideagencies in an educat ional inst itu t ion, M.I.T. became the guinea pigfor working out a wide var iety of cont ractual policies having to do withthe repayment of overhead expenses, the establishment of sa lary andwage scales, the handling of patentable invent ions, the advancement offunds to meet contractual obliga t ions, and many other factors. Notablyh elpfu l in su ch n egot ia tion s an d a gr eemen ts wer e Vic~P residen t J . Rh yn eKillian, J r., Director Nathaniel M. Sage of the Division of Indust r ialCooper at ion , an d Phillips Ketchum, legal counsel of M.I.T. Theirservices on such mat ter s were not only of grea t advantage to the Office ofScient ific Resea rch and Developm ent and its ot her cont ractor s, but th eya lso r elieved t he r esea rch a nd developmen t st aff of t he Ra dia tion La bor&t or y from as much tr ou blesome business detail wor k as possible.In conclusion I should say a word with reference to the relat ions

bet ween t he Radia t ion Labor ator y and ou r allies of t he United Kingdom.I have already ment ioned the Tizard mission and the valuable services ofDr. E. G. Bowen. I should also ment ion Dr. Denis M. Robinson , whoarr ived shor t ly a fter Dr . Bowen and teamed up with him in contr ibut ingto the work of the Labora tory, at the same t ime taking genera l oversigh tof the design and product ion of cer ta in types of radar equipment inwhich the TJ nited Kingdom waz par t icular ly interested. There was alsoa cont inual st ream of r esear ch wor ker s fr om Canada, Aust ralia , and NewZealand, toget her with addit ional scient ists fr om England, wh o stayed inthe Labora tory for longer or shor ter per icds and contr ibu ted both to theproduct ivity of the Labora tory and to the coordinat ion of it s work witht he effor ts of ou r allies.Par t icular ly important in our coopera t ion with the United Kingdomwas the work of two parallel commit tees, one the United Sta tes J ointChiefs of Staffs Commit t ee on Radar , and th e oth er a para llel commit t eeof the Br it ish Radar Boakd which, under Professor G. P . Thomson andSir Rober t Watson-Wat t , was charged with the development of the


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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY xvUnited Kingdoms program in radar . I served with Dr . Lee DuBr idgeand Dr . Alfred Loomis as civilian members of th is United Sta tes com-mit tee, and Dr . I. I. Rabi served as the commit tees ch ief analyst . Ibelieve that one of the cla ims to fame of this commit t ee is the fact tha tin ear ly 1943 it select ed, as a means for focussing its thought on pract ica lissues, the concept ion of a landing opera t ion car r ied across the At lan t icOcean from the United Sta tes to the nor th coast of Afr ica , making alanding and establishing a beach-head, and la ter a base, in Afr ica , thenmoving armies across Nor th Afr ica with para llel fleet movements in theMedit er ran ean , an d finally crossin g t he Medit er ra nean t o It aly an d wor k-ing up th rough Ita ly in to the backdoor of Germany. At every stage inthis hypothet ica l process, of whose actual concept ion as a military planwe had no informat ion , ou r commit tee at tempted to analyze each move-ment and hazard, t o see whether radar cou ld advantageously be usedand whether it was bet t er than any other method of handling thesituation. Then , if radar appeared to be indicated for any purpose inthis whole ser ies of opera t ions, we asked the quest ion : Is the radara lready available for this use, or does a new type of radar have to bedeveloped and, if so, what a re its specifica t ions and what is the pr ior ity?In th is way the American Program of Research and Developmen t in

Radar came to be established and actually wen t in to opera t ion in thevar ious civilian and military radar agencies of the count ry while the dis-cu ssion s wer e goin g on , beca use of t he pr esen ce of r epr esen ta tives of t heseimport an t a gen cies a t ou r comm it tee meet in gs.


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Organization oj the Radiation LaboratoryBy Lee A. DuBridge

The story of the growth , the act ivit ies, and the accomplishments of theRadiat ion Labora tory of the Massachuset ts Inst itu te of Technologycannot easily be condensed into a few shor t pages. Its opera t ions wereso complex and far reaching tha t an en t ire book would be requ ired todescr ibe them. Such a book has, indeed, been writ t en by Dr . HenryGuer lac, who was brough t to the Radiat ion Labora tory for the purposeof compiling its h istory. Unfor tunately, no mechanism for the publica-t ion of th is extensive and impor tant document is now available. Variousbr ief accounts of the Labora tory have appeared, however , t he most com-plete being that which const itu tes Chap. 9 of Scien tists again st T ime byJ ames Phinney Baxter , III (Lit t le, Brown, and Company, 1946). Themater ia l covered therein , rela t ing par t icula r ly to the role played bymicrowave radar in the war effor t , need not be repea ted here.The technica l work of the Radiat ion Labora tory is a still longer story.

This 28-volume Radia t ion Labora tory Ser ies is an a t tempt to tell theessent ia l fea tures of th is wor k, and, in addit ion , t o compile fr om the wor kof all the radar laborator ies in the a llied count r ies a reasonably completeaccoun t of the sta tus of technica l developments rela ted to radar as theystood at the end of World War II.This present summary is in tended pr imar ily as a background for thosewho are in terested in the kind of organiza t ion which produced thist echn ica l ser ies. It will con cent ra te on t he funct ioning of t he La bor at or yitself r a ther than on its accomplishments in providing new milita ryweapons.

HistoryThe Radia t ion Labora tory as an organ izat ion da tes from Nov. 10, 1940.

On this da te a group of about 15 physicist s assembled a t the Massa-chuset t s Inst itu te of Technology in Cambr idge, following weeks of pre-liminary planning and recru it ing by the NDRC Microwave Commit tee,as descr ibed in Dr . Comptons ar t icle in this volume. Drs. Kar l T.Compton, Alfr ed L. Loomis, and Edward L. Bowles, r espresen t ing theMicrowave Commit tee, presented to th is group the NDRC plans for the

xvi


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ORGANIZATION OF THE RADIATION LABORA TORY xviiestablishment of a la bora tory t o be devot ed t o the development of micro-wa ve-r adio-det ect ion t echn iques a nd t heir a pplica tion t o t he pr oblem s ofwarfare. The init ia l project which the Microwave Commit t ee hadagreed to under take a t the request of the Brit ish , namely, the develop-men t of m icr owa ve-det ect ion equ ipment for u se in night figh ter s, was out -lined in broad terms by Dr . Loomis and a week la ter in more deta il byDr . E. G. Bowen , the represen ta t ive of the Br it ish effor t in th is field. Apreliminary labor atory organ iza t ion designed t o under take this pr ojectwas agreed upon at the Nov. 10 meet ing and the embryonic labora torygroup proceeded to prepare the quar ters which had been assigned to it inBuilding 4 of M. I. T., t o become familia r with the techn ica l problemsinvolved, and t o r ecr uit addit ional members for the sta ff.The Microwave Commit tee had agreed tha t the new labora tory shouldbe recru ited la rgely from the ranks of the physicist s of the coun t ry. This

wa s pa rt ly beca use Br it ish exper ien ce in t his dir ect ion h ad a lr ea dy pr ovedhighly successfu l; par t ly because t he elect r ica l and radio engineer s wer ea lr ea dy being dr awn into indust r ia l labora tor ies t o man their expandingwar programs, while the physicists as a group had not yet been drawn in towar work. Also the field of microwaves was a t tha t t ime an almostunexplored area in which few engineers had been t ra ined. Since itdepended on the basic pr inciples of physics, it seemed tha t physicist swou ld be well equ ipped by pr eviou s tr ain ing a nd exper ien ce t o u nder ta keits development .The th r ee la bora tory r ooms init ia lly assigned t o th is new gr oup almost

at once became a beeh ive of act ivity. Equipment was ordered anda ssembled, compon en ts pr eviou sly or der ed by t he Micr owave Commit teesoon began to ar r ive, and new recruit s t o the sta ff came in at an averagera te of about one per day. By J an. 1, 1941, most of the men who wereto be the key leaders of the Labora tory th roughou t its five year s ofa ct ivit y h ad been a ssembled.By mid-J anuary a crude labora tory model of a microwave radar set

was in actua l opera t ion in a shack on the roof of Building 6. By Marcha set was being successfu lly flown in a B-18 aircra ft provided by theArmy. A few weeks la ter , in May, a model for an a irborne AI set wastu rned over to the Bell Telephone Labora tor ies which had received anArmy order for its fu r ther development and product ion . The SCR-520,and la ter the vast ly improved and widely used SCR-720, resu lted fromth is p roject .F ollowing this init ia l blitz effor t t he La bor at or y gr ou p r ea lly set tleddown to work. It was now eviden t tha t microwave radar waa feasiblea nd h ad man y pot en tia lly impor ta nt a pplica tion s. It was a lso clea r tha tt he microwave a r t was in the very ear ly stage of development and a largeeffor t wa s st ill a hea d.


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.. .Xvlll RADIA lIION LABORATORY SERIESTwo ot her pr oject s in it ia lly decided u pon by t he Micr owa ve Commit tee

were also under way. One was the design of a precision ant ia ircra ft fir e-con t rol rada r and the other a long-range radio navigat ional system, la terca lled Lor an , wh ich wa s t he on ly major n onmicr owa ve pr oject t he La bor a-t or y ever u nder took .The init ia l AI project it self tu rned out t o be less importan t in the war

than a whole host of other project s which grew direct ly ou t of it . Thesein cluded ra da r equ ipmen t for det ect in g su rface vessels and submar ines,for fir ing of gu ns a nd r ocket s, for blin d bombing, for h ar bor su rveillan ce,and for genera l naviga t ion of both ships and aircraft . A var iety of setsserving each of these funct ions were developed in sequen ce as improvedtechniques came along and as it became necessa ry to meet the specia ldemands of clifferen t types of Army and Navy a ircra ft .The fire-con t rol project , a lso off t o an ear ly sta r t , even tually led t o oneof the most successfu l of a ll Radia t ion Labora tory equipments, theSCR-584, which proved adaptable t o many uses and which gave r ise tomany other radar sets for grou nd and sh ip applica t ions.The Loran equipment developed by the Labora tory even tua lly pro-

vided a radio navigat ional system which cover ed a large pr opor t ion of th eair and sea t ra ffic lanes of the wor ld.At the t ime of Pear l Harbor , Dec. 7, 1941, the Labora tory had grown to

a staff of over 400 and was just moving from its ou tgrown quar ter s in themain M. I .T. building in to a new permanent building. It was at work onmany of these project s and had made importan t improvements in a llm icr owave compon en ts a nd t ech niqu es.The en t rance of th e United Sta tes into the war enormously accelera ted

the Labora torys act ivity and its ra te of recru it ing. It expanded in toaddit ional buildings, of which some were r en ted in nearby Cambridge,and others were tempora ry st ructures built on the M.I.T. campus. Bythe end of the war the Labora tory had a sta ff number ing just under 4,000individuals, it occupied a half million square feet of space in buildings onor nea r the M.I.T. campus, and had groups spread in a dozen field sta-t ions th roughout the wor ld, including a branch labora tory in Malvern ,England, and another in Par is, F rance. By th is t ime it had under takenand had fu lly or pa r t ia lly completed wor k on some 100 differen t models ofradar equipment for use on land, on sea , and in the air . Over a billionand a half dollar s wor th of equipment , which had its incept ion at theRadia t ion Labora tory, had been produced, and another billion dolla r swor th was on order when the war ended. This equ ipment saw ser vice inevery figh t ing area and was supplemented by a substant ia l amount ofequipment manufactured direct ly in the Labora tory and in th e Resea rchCon st ruct ion Company model shop that reached the field befor e produ c-t ion lines wer e deliver in g it in qu ant ity.


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ORGANIZATION OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY xixAs the end of the war approached, the desirability of wr it ing a system-

at ic account of the technical development s in the field of radar becameapparent and the Office of Publica t ions, under the dkect ion of Dr . L. N.Ridenour , was established in the Labora tory. At the end of the war , aspr oject s wer e t ermin at ed, t he Office of Pu blica t ions acqu ired a lar ge st affwhich remained at work for an addit ional six to nine months, dur ingwhich per iod the bulk of the manuscr ipt for the Radia t ion Labora torySer ies was completed .

The Funct ion s oj the Radiation LaboratoryThe Radia t ion Laboratory has oft en been refer red to as a resea rch

laboratory. As a mat t er of fact , r esea rch , in the t rue sense, was only asmall, t hou gh vit al, pa rt of it s a ct ivit ies. A complet e list of it s fu nct ion swould go someth ing like t hk+:

1. Research on microwave equipment and techniques2. Compon en t developm en t and en gin eer in g3. Syst em design, engineer ing, and test4. Collaborat ion with the manufacturer s on design of product ion

equipment5. Coordina t ion of military tact ics with equipment design6. F ield t ria ls of pilot -model equ ipmen t7. Oper at ion al t r ia ls, oft en u nder actu al bat tle con dit ion s8. Assist ing milit ary ser vices in in tr odu cin g n ew equipmen t in to oper a-

t ional u se, modifyin g it t o meet n ew oper at ion al r equ ir emen ts, and assist -ing in t he t ra ining of opera t ion and maintenance personnel9. Repor t in g field exper ience and problems back t o t he Labora tory for

gu ida nce in fu tu re design10. Manufacture of small quant it ies of new equipment for immediate

use in the field11. Collabora t ion with all ot her resea rch and development agencies inthis count ry and abroad, seeking and render ing assist a nte in all of thefor egoing a rea s

During the ear ly days of the Laboratory the first th ree funct ionsnat ura lly occu pied t he major por tion of t he a tt en tion . As t ime went on ,and equipment got in to the field, the other items on this list occupied ala rger and la rger fra ct ion of t he La bor at or ys effor t.This ar t icle would be ent irely too long if we a t t empted to give a com-plet e account of a ll the above funct ions. It would, however , be desirable

to say a few words about severa l of the more importan t items.Research Activities

All the important act ivit ies of the Labora tory, other than the ear lyones in which the exper ience of the Br it ish and of other United Sta tes


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xx RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESlabora tor ies was copied, depended upon two things: (a) research whichuncovered basically new microwave and elect ronic techniques, and(b) imaginat ive th in king on t he ada pta tion of t hese t ech niqu es t o tact icalproblems.The research act ivit ies of the Labora tory did not get under way dur ingthe ear ly ra ther hect ic days of invest igat ing whether a microwave radarcould be made to work at a ll. Indeed, it was always a st ruggle to giveproper emphasis to long-range research problems in the face of pressureto get equipment completed for immediate opera t iona l use. Never the-less, some research got under way at quite an ear ly stage, and the effor t sgr ew steadily in magnitude, pr ovin g in t he end ext remely produ ct ive.Sh or tly after th e first 10-cm magnet rons, copied from Brit ish designs,wer e deliver ed by th e Bell Telephon e Labora tor ies, r esearch was under -

taken to develop a magnet ron which would opera t e at a wavelength of3 cm. As ear ly as the spr ing of 1941 such a magnet ron was actua llyoper at ing as a r esult of th e combined effor ts of th e Radiat ion Labora tor ymagnet ron group and the model shop of the Raytheon Manufactur ingCompany. This success init ia ted a considerable effor t a imed toward thedevelopment of other 3-cm equipment , and eventually some of the bestand most impor tant set s developed by the Labora tory opera t ed at th iswavelength.La ter the extension of magnet ron and radio-frequency techniques to

wavelengths in the range of 1 cm was under taken. This endeavorencountered very ser ious and difficu lt problems, most of which wereeventually solved, and equipment oper at in g at 1 cm actually was get t ingin to product ion at the end of the war . In this program the ColumbiaRadiat ion Labora tory played a most impor tant role, par t ly because itwas purposely isola ted from the press of equipmentdevelopment prob-lems a t the M.I.T. Radia t ion Laboratory it self. The research groups ofboth laborator ies opera ted under the inspir ing leadership of Dr . I. I.Rabi.The pr oblems involved in exten ding r adio techniques in to ever high er

frequency ranges led to research in many areas aimed at a bet t er under -standing of h igh-frequency phenomena. As a result , the radar equip-ment designed toward the end of the war incorpora ted apparatus andtechniques which made the ear ly sets look ver y crude and inefficient , asindeed they were. Research on the theory of propaga t ion of elect ro-magnet ic waves in waveguides and in free space, on the opt ics ofmicr owave-an tenna design , on the basic t heor y of componen t and systemopera t ion and per formance, and indeed, on every subject discussed inthis 28-volume Radiat ion Labora tor y Ser ies eventua lly paid la rge divi-dends in bet t er understanding of radio and microwave technology and inmar ked impr ovemen ts in t he per forma nce an d adaptability of m icr owa ve


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ORGANIZATION OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY xxiradar set s. Possibly never before in h istory has a new technologyadvanced so rapidly on so wide a front as in this area .

Com ponent Developm entThe act ivit ies of the resea rch division , a imed at discover ing new

phenomena or at a bet t er understanding of old ones, merged imper -cept ibly in to act ivit ies a imed a t the developmen t of new componen ts.The two la rgest divisions of the Labora tory were devot ed to th is work.Magnet rons, pulser s, an tennas, indica tors, receivers, together with allthe vacuum tubes, condensers, waveguide elements, t ransformers, andthe dozens of other par t s a ll had to be developed, improved, tested,adapted to new types of sets, and engineered for mass product ion . Thework of the many component developmen t groups not only cont inua llyimproved the per formance and the reliability of radar equipment buta lso, t hrough new ideas or iginat ing t here, open ed up n ew possibilit ies int he design of sets for n ew tact ica l purposes.The separa t ion in t he Labora tory organiza t ion of equipment develop-

ment from component developmen t made possible more concen t ra t eda t ten t ion on the la t t er as well as a degree of standardizat ion which wasessen tia l for econ omy of effor t a nd pr odu ct ion .It must be r emembered tha t par t s, tubes, and equipment for radar ,especia lly microwave radar , simply did not exist in 1940. Though many

standard radio par ts could readily be adapted to radar , many others hadto be developed and put in to manufacture. These covered an amazingvar iety of devices, from shock mounts to huge antenna st ructu res, fromdet ect or cryst a ls to hydrogen-filled thyra t rons, fr om i-f amplifiers tomicrosecond t iming circu it s, and litera lly hundreds of addit ional items.

It is the work which was involved in component developmen t whichoccupies the bulk of these volumes, and even much of th is work isomit ted for lack of space.

S ystem DevelopmentIt was the task of the severa l syst em divisions to keep in touch with

tact ica l problems on the one hand, and the sta tus of technical develop-ments of component s on the other , and then to design and build the bestpossible radar systems to meet opera t iona l needs. Somet imes theseopera t ional needs cou ld be sta ted in precise terms by military agencies;fr equ en tly, h owever , equ ipmen t wa s evolved t o meet possible oper at ion alrequiremen ts befor e the need for such equipment or the possibility ofobta in ing it was rea lized by the Army or Navy. It was not the pract iceof the Labora tory to wait for officia l requests for new equipment butra ther , by studying the progress of the war , to a t t empt t o visualize suchneeds in advance. In fact , st r enuous selling was oft en requ ired to


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xxii RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESconvince some milita ry agenciea of the need, or the feasibility, or thepossibilit ies of n ew r ada r set s.If the resea rch and componen t development divisions made radar

possible a nd pr act ica l, t he syst em developm en t divisions m ade it usable,va lua ble, a nd ada pt able t o n ew needa . Sin ce a ll gr ou ps in t he Labor a tor yk ept in close con ta ct wit h ea ch ot her , wit h ot her la bor at or ies a nd a gen cies,and with the problems of war , a coopera t ive effor t waa possible whichmult iplied the effect iveness of the whole La bor ator y manyfold. It is th isspir it of fr iendly coopera t ion which now stands for th in my own mind ast he m ost essent ia l fea tu re of t he La bor at or ys oper at ions.

Relu t ion to Other AgenciesAlthough the Radia t ion Labora tory grew to be probably the la rgest

single radar labora tory either in th is coun t ry or in England, it wou ld be amistake to assume tha t it was the predominan t source of radar and elec-t ron ic research and development . The radar effor t of the Allies wen tforward on a very la rge sca le a t a host of research , development , andm an ufa ct ur in g cen ter s, and it wa s ch ar act er ized by ext en sive colla bor a-t ion , on both a na t iona l and an interna t iona l sca le.The Radia t ion Labora tory it self was founded on the basis of informa-

t ion brough t to th is coun t ry by the Br it ish , and it depended heavily, par -t icu la rly du rin g it s ea rly yea rs, u pon Br it ish exper ien ce, bot h oper at ion aland techn ica l. The AI project , which occupied such a la rge sha re of theLabora torys a t ten t ion in the fir st months of its existence, was it selfvisualized as an effor t t o help the Royal Air Force in its n igh t -figh terproblem. The Br it ish magnet ron developments and the Br it ish con-cept s of a irborne microwave radar were brough t to the Labora tory byDrs. E. G. Bowen and D. M. Robinson , and by a la rge volume of cor -r espondence and repor t s exchanged between the two coun t r ies. TheBr it ish ideas wer e the guiding in fluence of the init ia l gr oup of physicist swho had, for the most par t , n ever before hea rd of microwaves or of thedetect ion of a ircra ft by radio.Throughou t the h istory of the Radia t ion Labora tory the con tact with

t he Br it ish labora tor ies and the Br it ish ser vices was ext r emely close andcordia l. Many represen ta t ives from Brit ish labora tor ies visit ed theRadia t ion La bor ator y and ot her la bor ator ies of th is coun t r y r epea tedly,and often for ext ended per iods. As ea r ly as 1941 a Radia t ion Labora toryrepresen ta t ive, Dr . K. T. Bainbr idge, made an extended visit t o Englandto secure a bet t er view of Br it ish developments and problems. Heserved as the vanguard of a host of Labora tory t r aveler s who went toEngland, and la ter to the cont inent , and who sen t or brough t back amost complet e st or y of t ech nica l developmen ts a nd oper at ion al pr oblem s.The Br it ish Br anch of the Radiat ion Labora tory (BBRL) was established


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ORGANIZATION OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY xxiiion the grounds of the la rgest Br it ish radar labora tory, the Telecom-municat ions Research Establishment , in Malvern , England, in 1943.Though much of the effor t of th is labora tory was devoted to render inghelp to the United Sta tes forces in Europe, a major resu lt of it s act ivitywa s t he st ill closer lia ison bet ween Brit ish a nd Amer ica n r ada r scient istsand engineer s .The impor tance of the contact s between the two count r ies was dra-

mat ica lly illust ra ted as ear ly as J une, 1941, when an ear ly model of theRadia t ion Labora torys AI equ ipment was installed in an airplane sup-plied by the Royal Canadian Air For ce and sent to England, accom-panied by Dr . D. R. Corson, for techn ica l and opera t iona l t r ia ls.These tr ia ls showed the Amer ican equipment to be infer ior in per -

formance to the Br it ish equipment as fa r as the receiver techniques werecon cer ned, but also sh owed th at t he Amer ica n t ra nsm it ter equipment wa smore powerfu l than the Br it ish . By combining the best fea tu res ofBr it ish and Amer ican sets, a set which ou tper formed either was puttogether.It would requ ire many pages even t o list the ot her examples of a fru it fu l

ou t come of Br it ish and Amer ican collabor a tion . The Br it ish labora tor ieswer e a cont inua l source of new ideas and new techn iques which weregenerously shared with the Amer icans and which were prompt ly incor-por at ed in to Amer ica n pr act ice. The Radia t ion Labora tory on ly hopedtha t by the t ime the war was ended its own cont r ibu t ions, par t icula r ly inthe field of radar engineer ing, had eventua lly made the exchange aneven on e.The Radia t ion Labora tory a lso owed much to, and collabora ted

ext en sively wit h, ot her Amer ica n agen cies. Befor e t he Radia tion La bo-ra tory was sta r ted, t he U.S. Naval Resea rch Labora tory and the U.S.Signal Corps Labor ator ies a lready had pract ica l radar equipment in pr o-duct ion . Though these and other milita ry labora tor ies concent ra tedla rgely on longer wavelength radar equ ipment , while the Radiat ionLabora tory devoted most of its a t tent ion to microwaves, t he collabora-t ion wit h t hese la bor at or ies became ver y ext en sive a nd mut ua lly va lu able.The design and engineer ing of radar componen ts and set s even tua lly

involved lit er ally h undr eds of manu fact ur ing compa nies, ma ny of whicheither had or acquired impor tant research and engineer ing act ivit ies.With all these the Radia t ion Labora tory kept in closest con tact and eachof them cont r ibuted in many impor tant ways to the development of thear t .Specia l ment ion should be made of the la rge and very impor tant con-

t r ibut ions of the Bell Telephone Labora tor ies and the Western Elect r icCompany in r esea rch , developmen t, design , en gin eer in g, a nd pr odu ct ion .The cont r ibut ion of the Bell Labora tor ies in magnet ron development ,


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xxiv RADIATION LABORA TORY SERIESvacuum-tube development , development of r eceiver and antenna tech-niques, and many other fields was par t icu lar ly impor tan t to the wholeUnited Sta tes effor t . Tne Radia t ion Labora tory bor rowed generouslyfrom the work of these labora tor ies as well as from the work of ther esea rch la bor at or ies of t he Gen er al E lect ric Company, t he West in ghou seElect r ic and Manufactur ing Company, and a host of others. The abovecompanies, together with the Philco Radio Company and the RaytheonManufactur ing Company, were the chief producers of microwave radar ,and close collabor at ion with th em on developm en t and engineer in g pr ob-lem s oft en gr ea tly expedit ed pr odu ct ion sch echdea .Fin@ly, it must never be forgot t en tha t the Radia t ion Labora tory was

an integra l pa r t of the program of the Nat ional Defense Research Com-mit t ee and the Office of Scient ific Resea rch and Development , and it wasat the same t ime a par t of the Massachuset t s Inst itu te of Technology.It was the NDRC-OSRD organiza t ion which set the basic policies andprovided the framework of organ iza t ion and funds within which all it ssepara te units opera ted. The Radar Commit tee (init ia lly dubbed theMicrowave Commit tee) was an agent of NDRC in administer ing thesepolicies and programs in the radar field. This Commit t ee served in asense as the Board of Trustees of the Labora tory. To this Commit tee,and especia lly to its genia l and fa r-sigh ted chairman, A. L. Loomis, theRadia t ion Labora tory owed as much as a child owes to it s pa ren ts for wiseguidance and con trol combined with wisdom and confidence in allowingn ecessa ry fr eedom of a ct ion .To M.I.T. the Radia t ion Labora tory owed all it s physica l facilit ies and

its framework of opera t ion . The Labora tory was a par t of the M.I.T.organiza t ion, though a large and somewhat separa ted par t to be sure.But the Labora tory could not have exist ed except as a par t of some suchorganiza t ion and it was for tuna te indeed to be a par t of M. I.T. Theflexibility of it s administ ra t ive organ iza t ion , t he kin dly and wise lea der -ship of P resident Compton and Vice-P residen t (now President ) Killianwer e vita l fa ct or s in t he Labor at orys opera tion and success.In conclusion , I wish to pay a personal t r ibu te to the men and women

of the Labora tory it self. They const itu ted a superb group, cer ta in ly oneof the finest ever assembled. Only in a t ime of nat ional cr isis would ithave been possible t o assemble such a magnificent a rray of ta lent . Thetask of the Dir ector was made a simple one by the loyalty, in telligence,and cooper at ive spir it of this splen did gr ou p of people.


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Preparation of the Radiation LaboratorySeries

By Louis N. Ridenour

With the publica t ion of th is Ser ies Index, the Radia t ion Labora torySer ies is complete. It has seemed appropr ia te to include in th is volumesome shor t h istor ica l accoun ts of the work which gave r ise to the Ser ies.Dr . Va nn eva r Bush, wa rt ime Dir ect or of t he Office of Scien tific Resea rchand Development , the par en t orga niza t ion of the Radia t ion La bora tory,has con t r ibu ted a F or ewor d for th is volume which repla ces t he F or ewor dby Dr . L. A. DuBr idge tha t appears in the other volumes of the Ser ies.Dr . Kar l T. Compton, who led the Division of the Nat iona l DefenseResearch Commit tee tha t established the Radia t ion Labora tory, has

given an account of the Labora torys founding. Dr . DuBr idge, Directorof t he Ra dia tion La bor at or y du rin ,g it s 62 mon th s of exist en ce, ha s wr it tena verY br ief accoun t of it s organ iza t ion , its growth , and its work . Herefollows a shor t sketch of how the Ser ies was pr epar ed for publicat ion .

Dr . I. I. Rabi, then Associa te Director of the Radia t ion Labora tory,proposed the or iginal idea for the Ser ies in the fall of 1944, when it beganto appear tha t t he war in Europe was near ing its end. Preliminary ou t -lines for the work were made at tha t t ime, contempla t ing only the prepa -ra t ion of books dea ling with the b=ic microwave theory and techn iqueswhich had been developed dur ing the war t ime work on radar . Work onthe planning of the Ser ies was la id aside when the bit t er fight ing of thewint er of 19441945 in Europe made it clear tha t the war was not yet over .Work was resumed in the la te spr ing of 1945. The Editor -in-Chief of

t he Radia t ion La bor ator y Office of Publica t ions was a ppoin ted in May oftha t year , and actua l work began abou t J une 1, 1945. P rogress was slowa t fir st , sin ce most of t he La bor at or ys st aff m ember s wer e u nder st an da blym or e concern ed with the fu r t her pr osecu t ion of their technica l wor k thanwith the prepara t ion of repor t s on work a lready done. Dur ing the ear lydays of the Office of. Publica t ions, inva luable help and encoura gementwer e offered by Dr . George B. Collins, who became Deputy Editor -in-Chief; by Char les Newton, who, as Product ion Manager , handled all the

xxv


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RADIATION LABORATORY SERIEStechnica l mat ters concer ned with typing, draft ing, photography, and theprocessing of manuscr ipt and illust rat ions; and by Dr . Geor ge E. Valley,who was the .iir st Radiat ion Labora tory staff member to join the Officeof Publicat ions.At the outset of the work of prepar ing the Ser ies, it was necessary topr oceed in two gen er al dir ect ion s. Out lines for the var ious volumes hadto be worked out , authors and editor s chosen and induced to under takethe work, draft ing and typing facilit ies set up, and the actua l t ask ofwr it in g begu n. This, a lt hou gh difficu lt , wa a a r ela tively st ra igh tforwa rdjob. The second par t of the workthat of making the formal ar r ange-m ent s for t he publicat ion of t he Ser ies-wa s fa r mor e t rou blesome, mainlybecause no pat tern existed for what was being at tempted.Since the Radiat ion Labora tory had been maintained by cont ract withthe OSRD, an agency of the Federa l government , it was necessary toobtain the approval of the Government Pr int ing Office for the ar range-ments made to publish the Ser ies. With the help of Dr . J ohn E. Bur-chard, then Chairman of the OSRD Commit tee on Publicat ions, and ofDr . Carroll L. Wilson, then assistant to Dr . Bush, discussions with theGovernment Print ing Office were under taken . It was determined by theGPO that publica t ion of the Ser ies would be accomplished most expe-dit iously if the job wer e handled by a commercia l publisher .The leading techn ica l publishers of the count ry wer e then approached

to learn their in terest in publishhg the Ser ies. The McGraw-HillBook Company, r epresen ted in these init ia l negot ia t ions by J ames S.Thompson, then President of the company, showed a keen interest in theproject from the very beginning. Proposa ls were ult imately submit tedby three publishers, and tha t of the McGraw-Hill Book Company provedto be the one most favorable to the government .Contractua l arrangements for the publicat ion of the Ser ies had toinclude the Massachuset ts Inst itu te of Technology as au thor of the

manuscr ipts, since the Inst itu te was the cont r actor mair ita in ing theRadia t ion Labora tory. This presented new problems, for the actualauthors of the manuscr ipts for which the Inst itu te was asked to becomecon tr actu ally r esponsible wer e in fa ct hun dreds of individuals, ea ch wit hhis own postwar problems of reloca t ion and readjustment . Nothingbeyond the good faith of the au thor cou ld be relied on as a guaran tee ofsa tisfa ct or y complet ion of t he wor k.Negot ia t ions for publishing the Ser ies cou ld readily have collapsedcompletely a t th is point , but the energet ic effor t s of Dr . J ames R.Killian, J r ., then Vice-Presiden t (now Pr esident ) of the Massachuset t sInst itu t e of Tech nology, and of Cur tis G. Benjamin, t hen Vice-P resident(now Presiden t) of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, surmounted everyobstacle, A cont ract for the publica t ion of the Ser ies was iinally signed


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PREPARATION OF THE RADIATION LABORATORY SERIES xxviion Nov. 14, 1945, la rgely as a resu lt of the vigor , good faith , and generouscooper at ion of Ben jamin a nd Killian.Unt il the end of 1945, the work of the Office of Publica t ions was

budgeted as a par t of the opera t ion of the Radia t ion Labora tory, but tha tlaboratory formally ended it s exist ence at the close of the year . Est i-mates of the addit iona l cost of prepar ing the manuscr ipts and illust ra -t ions for the Ser ies came to $500,000, and th is sum was set aside by OSRDto provide for the independent existence of the Office of Publica t ionsdur ing the fir st six months of 1946, in which t ime it was est imated tha tthe work could be fin ished. In recognit ion of the fact tha t the cost s ofprepar ing t he Ser ies had been met from t he Federa l t reasury, th e con tractwith McGraw-Hill for the publica t ion of the Ser ies provided that theusual au thors roya lt ies be retu rned to the t reasury of the United Sta tes.Up to J anuary, 1953, the sum of $132,367 had a lready been retu rned tothe governmen t in the form of roya lt ies on the Ser ies. There appears t obe a possibility tha t the en t ire direct costs of prepar ing the manuscr iptsand illust ra t ions of the Ser ies will eventually be retu rned to the govern-ment in the form of roya lt ies. The publisher assumed all the substan t ia lcost s of composing, pr in t ing, and binding the volumes. In the publicin terest , t he con tract with t he publisher a lso provides t hat McGraw-Hillwill hold its copyr igh t on each volume of the Ser ies for only ten yearsfollowing t h e da te of publica tion .The mechanical t ask of prepar ing in six months the manuscr ipts and

illust ra t ions for 27 technica l volumes was as formidable as the lit era rytask of wr it ing and edit ing them. P relimin ar y est ima tes, wh ich t ur nedou t to be surpr isingly accura te, indica ted tha t about a ton and a half ofcopy paper would be used, tha t about 75 typist s wou ld be needed, a t thepeak of act ivity, to prepare the var ious draft s of the manuscr ipts, andtha t about 100 draft smen would be required to prepare the line drawingsillust ra t ing th e Ser ies. Substant ia l phot ograph ic facilit ies wer e n eededto prepare the pr in ts used for half-tone illust ra t ions. Char les Newtonm an aged all t hese ar ra ngem en ts, an d su per vised t he ph ot ogr aph ic ser vicewhich he had previously opera ted for the Radia t ion Labora tory. MaryDolbeare was in charge of the typing cen ter , Vernon J osephson of thedr aft in g r oom .By the end of 1945, the prepara t ion of out lines for the work as a whole

had been substant ia lly complet ed, and actual wr it ing was well u nder way.To the volumes on basic t echniques tha t had been planned ear lier ther ewere added severa l books on systems problems, such as Vols. 1, 2, 3, and4; and books on specia lized techniques, such as Vol. 27. Every effor twaa made to achieve a maximum of technica l and stylist ic uniformity,with a minimum of confusing shift s in nota t ion , abbrevia t ions, and thelike. Dr . Leon Linford headed the group tha t was responsible for set t ing


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...Xxvl l l RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESthe technica l standards of style; he was grea t ly assisted by MonicaStevens, who was assigned by the McGraw-Hill Book Company to theOffice of Publica t ions as an exper t on style. Whatever uniformity isobservable in the books of the Ser ies was very largely con fer r ed upont hem by t he effor ts of Eliza beth Gile, n ow Edit or -in -Chief of t he McGr aw-Hill Book Company, Miss Stevens, and Dr . Linford and his group, whowen t so fa r as to prepare a Style Manual for the use of authors andedit or s, t her e being n o suit able t ech nica l m anua l in exist en ce.

By no means all the techn ica l informat ion repor t ed in the Ser iesor igina ted in the work of the Radia t ion Labora tory. As the br iefh istor ies in this Index volume at test , the very not ion of establishing theRadia t ion Labora tory was a result of the Brit ish inven t ion of the mult i-cavity m agnet ron and the disclosure of this capital device t o repr esen t a-t ives of the United Sta tes. For ea r ly leadersh ip in the field and formany impor tant advances in radar , the fr ee wor ld is deeply indebted tothe Telecommunica t ions Research Establishment and the other Br it ishradar labora tor ies. The recen t Royal Commission award to Sir Rober tWatson-Watt , the acknowledged fa ther of rada r , haa come as welcomenews to those of us who took par t in the war t ime radar developmentprogram. In order to make sure tha t Br it ish work would be adequatelyr epor ted in the Ser ies, the Office of Publica t ions secu red the assignmentto the editor ia l sta ff of Dr . B. V. Bowden , then of the Br it ish Air Com-mission in Washington . Dr . Bowden was of grea t help in secur ingBr it ish documents, in making sure tha t impor tant Br it ish work waa notover looked, and in taking par t in the actual wr it ing.Apar t from the Radia t ion Labora tory, the main cen ter s of rada r

developmen t in this count ry were the technica l labora tor ies of the Armya nd t he Na vy, a nd t he developmen t la bor at or ies of t he pr incipa l elect rica lmanufacturers, the moa t impor tan t by far being Bell Telephone Labora-tor ies. Lia ison 05ces wer e mainta ined at the Radia t ion Labora tory bythe Army, the Navy, and the Army Air Forces; there were a lso groups ofengineers from most of the impor tant manufacturers. This made itpossible t o include in the Ser ies the pr incipa l resu lt s obta ined elsewh erein the count ry. In addit ion, Dr . M. J . Kelly, then Execu t ive Vice-President (now Presiden t ) of Bell Telephone Labora tor ies, was kindenough to ar range for members of Bell Labora tor ies to review and com-ment on manuscr ipts of the Ser ies pr ior t o publica t ion ; th is was veryh elpful in cor rect in g er ror s both of om ission and of commission.Before the publica t ion of any volume of the Ser ies, two sor ts of clear -

ance of the manuscr ipt and illust ra t ions had to .be secured. Despite theext en sive decla aa ifica tion of techn ica l m at er ia l a t t he en d of 1945, forma lsecunt y clearance had to be obta ined. This was managed in two steps.At the t ime the out lines for the volumes were being set t led, they were


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PREPARATION OF THE RADIATION LABORA TORY SERIES xxixdiscussed with a join t Army-Navy-AAF secur ity commit t ee especia llyappointed for this purpose, and all ou t line ent r ies of dubious clearancesta tus were either eliminated or else determined to cover unclassifiedmater ia l. When the manuscr ipts were in hand, this same commit t eestudied them to determine compliance with the or iginal judgments onsecur ity. Thanks la rgely to the effect ive work of this Service group, theusually t roublesome task of secur ity clea rance was accomplished with aminimum of difficulty. Members of the specia l secur ity panel wereCommanders J . E . Boyd, W. C. Hilgedick, and C. A. Smith, Lieu tenantCommander J . Weber , Major Max Hall, Capta in Hugh Winter (Army),Lieu tenant J . A. Rexroth (Navy), and W. J . Brown, of the Signal Corps.

The other clea rance required before publica t ion involved a review ofthe manuscr ipts to ensure that they did not jeopardize the in tegr ity ofgover nmen t-h eld pa ten ts, for example, by making in accu rat e st at emen tsabout dates or sources of invent ion. Capta in R. A. Lavender , thepr incipal pa tent advisor to the OSRD, was helpful in set t ing up themechanism for reviewing the manuscr ipts from the pa ten t standpoint .Most of t he act ual wor k of r eview was accomplished by J ohn C. Ba tch elor ,who was uniformly pat ien t and helpful.

Much of the work of secur ing the formal clearance of the completedSer ies manuscr ipt s came a ft er t h e dissolu tion of t he Office of Publica tion s,and consequent ly fell on t he la te Dr . J . R. Loofbourow and J . L. Danfor th ,of the OSRD lia ison office at M. I. T., and on Dr. Eugene W. Scot t , J . H.Sole, and t he la te Cleveland Norcross, of t he Washington staff of OSRD.Th eir effect ive h elp in t his u nder ta kin g is gr at efu lly a ckn owledged.For those Radia t ion Laboratory staff members who remained with the

Of ice of Pu blica t ion s a ft er t he t ermina tion of t he Radia t ion La bor at ory,doing so often represent ed a substant ial sacr ifice in terms of postponingor for egoin g a cademic fellowships, pr ofessor ia l appoin tmen ts, or indus-t r ia l jobs. After the close of the Office of Publica t ions, ther e waa st illmuch work to be done in spare t ime, without any addit ional com-pensat ion except the reward inherent in a job well done. At best , t herewere proofs to be cor r ected; in many instances, ther e were substant ia ltasks of writ ing and edit ing st ill t o do. All this work was ult imatelydon e, and t he Ser ies is complet e.Dur ing the act ive life of t he Radia t ion Laborat orys Office of Publica-

t ions, it was planned that Dr . Leon Linford should prepare the genera lindex volume for the Ser ies. Unavoidable delays in the complet ion ofthe last few manuscr ipts, however , delayed the appearance of the Indexvery considerably. Meanwhile, Dr . Linford became so busy with hisprofessional dut ies that he was unable t o invest the substant ia l amount oft ime necessa ry to prepare an adequa te index. For tuna tely for the Ser ies,Keith Henney, of the McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, very gen-


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xxx RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESer ously a gr eed t o u nder ta ke t he difficu lt t ask of pr epa ring a unified In dexfor the ent ire Radia t ion Labora tory Ser ies. He has ca r r ied out th is jobwith vigor , skill, and success, and all users of the Ser ies are permanent lyin his debt .Those of us who helped prepa re the Ser ies sincerely hope tha t it iswor thy of the dedicat ion Dr . DuBridge has given it to the unnamedhundreds and thousands of . . . scient ists, engineers, and other s whoactua lly car r ied on the research , developm ent , and engineer ing wor k ther esults of which a re her ein descr ibed.


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Editors Introduction

The best per son to make a book index is the au thor . He knows whatis in his book, why it is there, and where a reader is likely to look for it .But it would be impossible to get the 53 au thors whose names appear onthe jacket s of the 27 volumes of the Radiat ion Labora tory Ser ies to com-pile the fina l volume-the master indexeven if they could agree upona n index st yle!This editor , therefore, assumed a job which at fir st sight seemed quite

simple. But closer look made it apparen t tha t an index of the individualindexes would not be very useful; and st ill closer scrut iny indica ted tha tthe fina l index could not be made by merely shuffling the en t r ies in the27 volume indexes. These individual indexes a re not un iform in mag-n itude, style, or in any oth er parameter . Some have au thor s names andother s do not . Som e indexes are sparse; other s a re voluminous. And inthe individual index an en t ry withou t qualifica t ion, amplifier , forexample, migh t be all tha t was necessary, but when included in the masterindex such an en t ry would be vir tually wor thless.The editor t ook a bold step. He eliminated all au thors names. He

eliminated all company and labora tory names unless the item refer r ed tohas rea l meaning at thk date. Many entr ies were eliminated becauset ime has nega ted their impor tance. Other en tr ies which cont r ibu te lit t leor no informat ion have been droppedthe mere ment ion of a 6SA7 tube,for example.

Qualifying adject ives have been added to many thousands of en t r ieswh ich n ow appea r in t he in dividu al volume in dexes wit hou t qu alifica tion .In this way the reader has a bet t er and quicker chance to find what hewants. Every a t tempt has been made to br ing together mat ters whichnatura lly belong togetherbeacons, for example, a re collected and notsca t t ered; antennas, for wha tever purpose, a re found under (an tenna . Some of the la rger individual indexes have been st reamlined; and inmany cases the slender indexes have been built up when the editor foundmater ia l which a presen tday reader would want .The editor cannot end this preface without saying someth ing about the

15,476 pages of the 27 volumes themselves. Throughout the job ofmaking this index it was a constan t tempta t ion to read paragraphs,

Xxxi


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Xxxii RADIATION LABORA TORY SERIESchapter s, or whole books to learn more about ma t ters which are st ill socur ren t and so impor tan t tha t the books might have been writ t en yester -day instead of from three to eigh t yea rs ago. There is an amazingamount of in format ion in this library, much of which is cur ren t ly being -applied to many scien t ific and engineer ing jobs which have no rela t ionwhatever to radar .

May the reader find this index useful in loca t ing wha t he wants whenhe wants it ; and may he remember tha t the Radia t ion Labora tory Ser iesexists on ly because of the vision of men like Bush, DuBridge, and Rlden-our and because of their unconquerable determinat ion in forcing theconten t s of these 27 volumes out in to the open where all can read andlearn. KE ITH HENNEYNEWYOEK,N.Y.

Februarg, 1953


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Radiation Laboratory SeriesIndex

Volume number s a ppea r in boldfa ce t yp e pr eced in g page-number r efer en ces.For names of per sons, companies, an d labora tor ies, plea se refer to the indexes int h e individua l volumes.

AAbsorbin g ma ter ial for ra dia tion , 1, 69;

12, 560bandwidth of, 1, 71

Absor bin g mediums, t h eor y of, 26, 343-346Absorpt ion , a tmospher ic (see radio-wave,below)

coefficien t (see a lso At ten ua tion con -sta nt ), 19, 24, 647, 650

for oxygen , 13, 647, 651-656, 663measu r emen t s, 13, 654656, 665theory, 19, 648-656

r adia tion , 26, 266, 345for wa ter va por , mea su rem en ts, 19,

659, 666671theory, 1S , 656-664dielect r ic, X3, 24, 676-678r adio-wa ve (see a f.so At ten ua tion ), 1,

112; 2, 22; S, 53-56; 4, 131, 146;19, 641-692

by conden sed wa ter , 19, 671+92by fog or cloud, 1, 60, 62by h ailst on e, 13, 25, 687measurement , 18, 658, 661, 664671, 688-692by n it rogen, 2, 22

by oxygen , 1, 59; 2, 22; 1S, 26, 646-656, 663

by par ticles, 13, 23, 676-678by pr ecipit at ion , 2, 22; 19, 672, 673,676-680, 682-688, 691

1

Absorpt ion , radio-wave, by precip it a t ion ,measur emen t s, 13, 688-692

by r ain , 1, 61; 19,615,673, 67=685,691, 692

mea su remen t, 13, 688-692nonr esonan t , 1S , 643, 652-653

rela t ion to index of refract ion , 1S,641-646r eson an t, 13, 644, 646, 653by trees, 3, 438by uncondensed ga ses, 19, 646-664by wa ter dr oplet s, 1,60by wa ter va por , 1, 159; 2, 25; 1S, 26,312, 363, 646, 647, 656-664

A-c cha rging, d iode, 6, 414-416genera l ana lysis, 6, 380-386line-t ype prdser , 5, 386-416non r esonan t, 6, 381, 385, 393400wa ve shape for , 5, 399

r esonant , 6, 381, 385, 386-393t rans formers , 6, 400-407volta ge wa ve sh ape, S, 408

A-c d is cha rge, simila r it y p rincip le , 9, 239A-c r esist an ce, spa ce ch ar ge, 7, 130, 141A-c r eson an ce ch ar gin g, pu fse n etwor k,

9, 245Accelera tion , measurement , !41, 371ser vo, 21, 356, 398Accelerometer s , 21 , 77Ach r oma tic doublet s, 12, 410Acous tica l media , proper t ies, 19 , 755-757Acou st ica l wavea , pr opaga tion , 19, 757-

759


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2 RADIATION LABORATORY SERIESAcrylic p la st ic, 26, 37oAct ion fu nct ion , 6, 226Act uat or s, r ot a ry, 17, 495-497Adap ter s, for coa xia l connect or s, 9, 273type N, 9, 259, 261

Adder (compu t er ), ba r -lin ka ge, 27, 36s ta r -linkage, 27, 256

Add it ion , a gen t s, s em iconduct or , 16, 67,306-308, 364

as cir cu it oper at ion , 21, 32, 35wit h mecha nica l d evices, 21, 39pot en tia l, 19, 18of puls e coun t.9, 21, 40wit h ser ies sou rces, 21, 35wit h syn ch ros, 21, 36u sing par a llel impedance n etwor ks, 21,

32by va cu um -t ube cir cu it s, 21, 41volt age a nd cu rr en t, 19, 629

Addit ive (compu t er ) cells, 27, 6-12differ en t ia l, belt , 27, 10bevel-gea r , 27, 6 -7cylindr ica l-gea r , 27 , 7loop-beI t , 27 , 10-11scr ew, 27, 910with spir al gear , 27, 9spur -gea r , 27, 79

differ en tia l worm gea rin g, 27, 9, 11ADF, 2, 46, 53Adh esive in r adomes, 26, 282, 318Adia ba tic la pse r at e, 19, 194Ad ia ba tic p roces s, 19, 186, 193Adia ba tic t heor y, m agn et ron st ar tin g, 6,

357Adm it ta nce, ca vit y ga p, 7, 50, 68, 144ch aracter ist ic, m agn et r on system, 6,113, 461ch ar t, r ect an gu la r, 9, 72Sm it h, 6, 318, 707; 6, 73, 226; 9,60-67; 10, 10; 12, 29

use of, 9, 94cir cu it , 8, 84lumped -con st a nt , 7, 81r es on a tor , 7, 319

combin a tion s, 8, 70compu ta tion , 6, 77den sit y-modu la tion , 7, 50, 58, 68, 99elect ron st ream, 6, 214in ter act ion spa ce, m agn et ron , 6, 63, 84in tr insic, TE~ 8, 19mat rix, 8, 89, 140; 10, 106; 15, 114-124

Adm it ta nce, m at rix, in t erms of m ea su r-a ble pa ramet er s, 16, 119124

mea su remen ts, 11, 476; 16, 352mixer-loss , 16, 367372

modu la t ion , den sit y, an d velocity, 7,114r es on a tor , a nnu la r -sect or , 6, 62

cylin dr ica l side, 6, 59r ect a ngu la r -s lot s id e, 6, 57

sca tt er , 16, 134-136, 168shor t -cir cu it , 9, 542side r eson at or , 6, 56s ingle -ve locit y, 7 , 103sou r ce, op t imum, 18, 639-641t ermin al, of wa vegu id e, 12, 366t ra nsforma tion r at io, 14, 27tran smiaeion-l ine (see Line)velocit y-modu la tion , 7, 50, 56, 69, 99

Advect ion fog, 13, 230Aeromet .eorographs, 19, 347Aer op sychogr a ph , 13, 272, 297, 298hou sing, 1S, 274, 275on PBY aircra ft , 1S, 276speed cor r ect ion , 19, 276280

+4FC, 16, 190-202, 290-351, 360; 20, 96,267; 23, 10, 27-78

absolu te fr equ en cy systems, 16, 294;23, 27, 7&78

amplifie rs, 3 , 274-276a tt en ua tor , 16, 196-199, 372bea con , 1, 456; 16, 190-202, 227-231,

234, 244, 287, 341 ; 23, 75r eceiver , S, 170172, 270278reflector modula t ion scheme, 16,342-347

for th er ma tly tu ned tubes, 16, 34i-351

con t rol cir cu it s, ga s-t u be, 2S, 56h ar d-t ube, 16, 326; 23, 64re flex oscilla t or , 2S, 34t h ermally t u n ed oscilla tor s, 23, 69

con tr ol r an ge, 29, 51con t rol volt a ge, 16, 296d -c amplifier -t yp e, 16, 313; 2S, 54d iiTerenc&frequency sys tems , 16, 295-

341diodc+t rans it ron, 16, 326-331discriminator, 9,271-274m odu la ted-cavit y sin gl=r ya ta l, 9,271

tw~rysta l sta ndin g-wave, 3, 272


35/192

INDEXAFC, dou ble-ba lan ced mixer , 16, 283-287double-m ixer , 16, 193-202, 300; 29, 17down -pu ll r at e, 16,318, 322, 325drift -in sys tem , 16, 314-331effect on r adome design , 12, 527, 538er ror volt age, 16, 295feedba ck loop, 16, 295following r at e, 16, 317, 318gaa -d is cha rge-t ube, 16, 315, 317-326,

345hold-in , 16, 295; 2S, 32h um pr oblem s, 16, 349hun tin g, 16, 295, 331absolute-frequency, 16, 341351lock ing, 16, 246,.292, 302

magn et ron , 6, 623m icr owa ve, 7, 18, 27, 384oscilla t or , 11, 58mixer t est s, 16, 372-374

Nibbe-Du ra nd, 16, 333, 337nonhun t iug syst ems, 16, 295, 312314on -off con t rol, 23, 70on-off p rincip le, 16, 294, 331over shoot , 16, 335pt dl-in r an ge, 16, 295; 23, 32pu lling, 16, 290, 317r ada r r eceiver , 1, 453457; 2, 143r equ ir emen t s, 23, 39res is tance-voltage graph , 2S , 347sea rch st opper , 16, 314, 317, 326sepa rate-channel, 16, 300sepa rate-mixe r, 16, 193202servomechanisms, 9, 276-278sideba nd, wrong, 16, 294, 314, 331, 332sys tems, cla ss ifica t ion , 16, 294difference-frequency, 23, 28-74t h erma l hunt ing, 16, 331341Wh it for d, 16, 332, 333, 337, 339wide-r ange tunable, 16, 331341

t ra nsm it ter sample, 16, 19&199, 296-299, 301

t uning coefficien t , 29, 24, 31UP-PU1lr a te, 16, 319, 322, 325

AGC, 20, 41, 279; 23, 241-248, 402-409ga ted, 20, 373gat ing circu it , eflect on stability, 2S,

243Lor an , 4, 394

Agit at ion , t herma l, 16, 10AI, 1, 200; 26, 165

AI, Mark IV, 1, 201Mark VI, 20, 334, 370a ut omat ic t ar get -select ion syst em ,20, 332

t im e discr im in at or a nd t ar get selec-t or , 20, 334Mark VI A, 20, 341

AIA, 1, 203Aided t r ack ing, 20, 200, 203, 206; 25,361wit h in termit ten t da ta , 20, 247-251mechan ica l, 19, 541rms-er ror cr it er ion in det ermin in g,

26, 363-368t ime con st an t , d efin it ion , 26, 362un it , 26, 361363velocit y ser vo for , 20, 250

Air , con t r ol, h igh -per formance r ada r for ,1, 592-611dr y, den sit y, 13, 292equ ilibr ium, neu t ra l, 19, 195, 213, 223,

226, 238st able, 1S, 196, 220, 228, 234, 238fluctua t ions in , 19, 270-271shea r in , 19, 234-237

unst able, 13, 196, 220, 225, 235, 26gfluctua t ions , 1S, 268homogeneous, 1S , 193, 207la yer , 13, 221, 222, 226h or izon r ay, 19, 17mass bou nda ry, 13, 339-m ilea ge unit , Bendix, 20, 251molecu la r weigh t , 19, 292-pos it ion indica tor , 20, 251specific h ea t, 13, 188, 293su r veilla nce, h igh -p er formance r ada rfor , 1, 592-611-t o-a ir r endezvou s, S, 13-t o-sur fa ce s ea r ch , 12, 466Tr an spor ta ble Lor an , 4,35, 44,93, 413un st able, mod ifica t ion r at e, 1S, 226wa rm , over cold wa ter , 1S, 237-250

Air cr aft , a nt ennas, 12, 512cont rol by bran , 4, 115-116echoes , a ximut h va ria t ion , 1S, 543propelle r modula t ion , 1S , 532-541s low-fad ing, 13 , 543elect r ica l s yst ems, 1, 555gu n sight , AN/APG15, 26, 171

ins ta lla t ions , in ter fe rence e ffect s in , 12 ,515-519

in tercep t ion (see AI)


36/192

4 RADIATION LABORA TORY SERIESAir cr a ft , p sych r omet er , 19, 287, 288Air foil s ect ion , 26, 423Air pla ne det ect ion over wa ter , 2, 115Air y in tegr al, 19, 95, 149, 150a symptot ic expan sion , 1S, 150Ala rms, cir cu it -t rouble, beacon rece ive r s,9, 322

Alloys , r es is ta nce p roper t ies , 17, 70-72Aln ico V, 6, 542, 547, 548Alt er na tor , a ir bor ne, dir ect -dr iven (see

a ko Dyn amomet er ; Gen er at or ), 1,557-561

wa ve sh ape, 1, 557a ircra ft , 1 , 561-563a lt er n at ives t o d ir ect -d riven , 1, 560speed r egu la tor s, 1, 571578

engine -dr iven , S , 314-316induct or , p er formance, 1, 557st ar t ing cu r ren t , 1, 561563voltage regu la tor for (see Voltage

regulators)Alt im et er , AN/APN-l, 2, 136-141ba romet ric, 20, 163, 164frequency-modula ted, 136-141pu lsed a nd f-m , compa rison , 2, 141r a dio, 1, 143147; 2, 131142puls ed , SCR-718C, 2, 132-136

SCR-718, 20, 163, 219Alt it ude, cir cle, 12, 514det erm ina t ion , 2, 131-142

Alumin um , as addit ion a gen t, semicon -du ct or , 15, 67

ca th ode ga p (see Spa rk ga p, fixed)Ambipola r d iffu s ion , 14, 184A.M.E.S. h eigh t fin der , Type 7, 1, 186Type 13, 1, 190

Amper it e, cha r act er ist ics , 21, 501Arnplidyne, 2, 28; 21, 401; 22, 189; 26,

106; 26, 221, 233, 238gener a tor s, 21, 437

Amplifica t ion br idge (voltage regula tor ),21, 532

Amplified ba ck -bia e (AGC), 1, 459Amplifier s, 21, 37$386, 484a -c, 21, velocit y ser vo wit h, 487AFC, 9, 274-276d-c, 23, 54

for a nt en na m ea su rem en t, 12, 6W=Ymptot ic cha ra ct er ist ic, 16, 340a udio, 12, 605

Amplifier s , bandpasa, a lignment , 16,318-323

ga in con tr ol, 16, 290ga in va ria bilit y, 16, 291in pu t connect ion s, 16, 319mea su r emen t s, 16, 318-323over loa d, r ecover y fr om , 16, 290pu ls e r esponse, 18, 274-300r egen er at ion in , 16, 323r espon se t o pu lse of det un ed ca rr ierfr equency, 18, 329

syn chronous and st aggered singl&tuned h igh -fr equency, 18, 166-200

undes ir ed feedba ck effect s, 16, 323327ba ndwidt h, 18, 169, 322

inpu t cir cu it , met hod s of in cr ea sing,18, 690

m axim um possible atga in , 16, 173

noise, 16, 169over -a ll, obt a inablecir cu it s, 18, 289

ba sic pen tode, 16, 72bia s, 18, 353

-.given over-a l l

with var ious

bla ck ou t effect s, 18,329, 330; 2S, 187cancella t ion , 20, 498-511capacit y, e5ect of, bet ween in pu t a nd

ou tpu t, 2S, 96va r

mit radiaton lab series v28 index

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