MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIALIZED

EDUCATION OF REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

Andizhan State University named after Z.M.Bobur

Department of Grammar and Practical Course of the English Language

Alijonova Madina

Group 404

THEME: EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING THE

SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES IN MODERN ENGLISH AT UZBEK

SCHOOLS

Graduation paper

Scientific supervisor: doctor of philology, professor

G.M.Hoshimov

Andizhan – 2013

1

CONTENTSIntroduction ………………………………………………………………….4-8

1. Actuality of the topic of the graduation paper…………………………..……….52. Aim of the research………………………………………………………………….53. Tasks of the research……………………………………………………............5-64. Object of the research ………………………………………………………………65. Subject matter of the research……………………………………………………..66. Methods of the research…………………………………………………………….67. Scientific novelty of the research………………………………………………….68. Materials for the research………………………………………………………….79. Methodology of the research……………………………………………………….710. Theoretical value of the research………………………………………………….711. Practical value of the research………………………………………………….…712. Field of application…………………………………………………………….……713. Structure of the graduation paper………………………………………….…..7-8

Chapter 1: Theory of adjectives in Modern Linguistics…………………..…9-36

1.1. Theory of adjectives in Modern Linguistics…………………………....9-26

1.2. Theory of the substantivized adjectives in Modern

Linguistics…………………………………………………………………...27-36

Chapter 2: Comparative study of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek for

linguadidactic purposes………………………………………37-59

2.1 Types of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek…37-54

2.2. Isomorphic and allomorphic features of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and

Uzbek……………………………………………….…55-59

Chapter 3: Effective strategies for teaching the substantivized adjectives in Modern English at

Uzbek (higher) schools…………………………………..60-81

3.1. Effective strategies for teaching the substantivized adjectives in Modern English at Uzbek

(higher) schools…………………………............................60-77

3.2. System of exercises on the substantivized adjectives for

drilling………………………………………………………………….……...78-81

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………....82-89

Bibliography……………………………………………………………….....90-92

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INTRODUCTION

During the 21 years of independence an enormous number of successful reformations

have been carried out by our government under the leadership of the president of our republic

Islam Abduganievich Karimov. Although this is a rather short period of time for a young state to

develop, our motherland has been able to overcome many difficulties and began to prosper again

in many fields of life. Today Uzbekistan is a world-known mighty and peaceful country that

stands at the same rank with the world’s independent democratic nations. We think that the

following data can illustrate the practical evidence of our opinion:

Over the 21 year period of time our economy has grown 3.7 times, the life expectancy

rates have increased to 7 years, monthly wages have grown nearly 18 times and the number of

families owning a car has tripled as a contrast to the years before independence when only a

tenth of Uzbek families had their own car.

Moreover, it is an amazing fact that today, Uzbek economy has proved to be growing for

around 8 per cent over the last 7 years whereas literally all the developed countries have been

suffering from world economic crisis since the latter started. [2]

The educational system of the republic of Uzbekistan is also advancing at a high speed.

“As far as spirituality and enlightenment enter the number of major factors of the people’s

upbringing, we must display the state’s care of the matters in this sphere and create all necessary

conditions for their development” [1, 52] – that is how our president expresses his intensive care

of educating the youth of our republic. Our government allocates more than the half of the state

budget every year for cultivating the system of education. At present, Uzbekistan is among the

leading countries of the world where 99% of the population is literate and 12 years of education

including primary and secondary general schooling, vocational and academic education is

compulsory and is under state financing.

Educating the young generation has always been a top priority and the cardinal focus of

social development in our republic. Our Constitution ensures that every citizen of Uzbekistan

receives equitable education irrespective of their nationality, sex, language, age, ethnic origin,

religious views, cultural background and social status.

Along with that, the National Program of Personnel Training is an all-important factor in

the realization of the republic’s educational goals. Improved system of academic lyceums and

vocational colleges which are indispensable in further development of 9 th formers can be

regarded as efficient outcomes of the work fulfilled by the above-mentioned organization and the

laws on education.

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In due course, training highly qualified specialists is in the centre of attention in

Uzbekistan. Referring to the following data one can realize how tremendous efforts our

government puts in on improving the system of higher education of the youth of Uzbekistan:

there are 59 institutions of higher learning function 39 of which are teacher training institutes.

Since the independence of the republic, the number of such institutions has grown by 30 per cent

to date. [2]

Furthermore, the Department of Organization of Education and Improvement of

Educational Skills has made it possible for young teachers of Uzbekistan to enhance their skills

by cooperating with the world’s prominent organizations such as DAAD (Germany), JICA

(Japan), CNOUS (France) and a multitude of other recognized universities.

Besides, educational programs supported by the embassies of English speaking countries

in Uzbekistan have positive implications on teaching the English language. English ACCESS

Micro-scholarship Program, for instance, has given the chance to underprivileged schoolchildren

to learn English extensively. The English speaking countries’ embassies in Uzbekistan organize

teacher training programs, which is, assuredly, very advantageous for training language teaching

specialists. Obviously, the cooperation is and will be of long-term benefit for the development of

our young pedagogues.

It goes without saying that in strengthening the bonds of friendship and in building

mutually beneficial diplomatic ties with foreign states, languages, the English language in

particular, has a vital role to play. With this regard, our republic has made notable attempts to put

the emphasis on developing the techniques of teaching foreign languages. In the very recent

Decree by President I. A. Karimov on December 10, 2012 it is stated that from the upcoming

year on English would be taught to schoolchildren as early as when they are in their first form

and that the salaries of English language school teachers in urban areas would be increased by 15

per cent and that of village school teachers by as much as 30 per cent. [23]

This Decree has been a great stimulus for all the English language learners and teachers

to work diligently and do their best to contribute to the well-being of the people of our young

independent country. Being a potential teacher of English to Uzbek students, I have resolved that

I will conduct my research on one of the provocative topics of grammar– the theory of adjectives

and the substantivized adjectives in Modern Linguistics.

Actuality of the topic of the graduation paper: The study of the substantivized

adjectives is important for a number of reasons: This topic has been learned by several linguists,

they gave different definitions on it. However, after having studied the existing data on this

topic, we have found out that our knowledge on the comparative analysis of the substantivized

adjectives in the Uzbek and English languages is largely based on the very limited data, the

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hypotheses regarding the substantivized adjectives appear to be disputable and modern

techniques to teach the theme have not yet been established. Consequently, there arises the need

for in-depth research into this topic.

Aim of the research: The aim of the research is to work out an effective methodology

for teaching the English substantivized adjectives at Uzbek schools on the basis of comparative

study of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek for linguodidactic purposes.

Tasks of the research: The present paper seeks to identify and justify the actuality of the

topic of the research, to further broaden the current knowledge of the chosen topic, to disclose

similar and dissimilar features of the substantivized adjectives in the compared languages and to

create cutting-edge methods of teaching them to Uzbek learners.

Object of the research: The research focuses on structural-semantic features of the

substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek for purpose of creating effective

strategies for teaching the English substantivized adjectives at Uzbek schools.

Subject matter of the research: The subject matter of the research is to create effective

strategies for teaching the English substantivized adjectives basing on the comparative linguistic

study of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek for linguodidactic purposes.

Methods of the research: The methods we have put forward to conduct a detailed

research into our chosen topic are as follows:

i. Comparative method;

ii. Oppositional method;

iii. Parts of sentence method;

iv. Distributional method;

v. Contextual method;

vi. Statistical method;

vii. Componential method;

viii. Transformational method;

ix. Method of modeling, etc.

Scientific novelty of the research : The paper sheds a new light on a number of problem

areas on current theory of the substantivized adjectives in Modern linguistics: In this study we

tried to summarize the definitions given in the subject area, to carry out the linguodidactic

comparison of the phenomenon in Modern English and Uzbek, to work out a detailed qualitative

and quantitative analysis of the substantivized adjectives in the compared languages and to offer

useful strategies and methodological recommendations for teaching the substantivized adjectives

in English at Uzbek schools.

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Materials of the research: In order to back-up the theories of the research we have

employed a number of works on methodology of teaching based on solid empirical examples of

the substantivized adjectives from fiction and non-fiction works by Uzbek and English writers.

Methodology of the research: The data we have collected from the well-known linguists

listed below have been indispensable in performing our research: Abdurahmonov G. A. [3],

Barhuadarov L.S. [5], Brown G. [8], Buronov J. [9], Eastwood J. [13], Hoshimov G., M. [14],

Siddiqova M [22], Kaushanskaya V.L. [18], etc.

Theoretical value of the research: This research has gone some

way towards enhancing our understanding of the comparative analysis of the substantivized

adjectives in the two non-related languages. Along with that, the certain helpful methodological

recommendations for teaching the subject at Uzbek schools we have worked out could,

conceivably, represent a further step toward the development of studying this special field of

linguistics.

Practical value of the research: The end result of this research work can be conducive

to teaching the special area of linguistics, in the theory and practice of translation processes, and

in giving lectures on theoretical grammar. Additionally, these observations have several

implications for extensive research into the other various aspects of the chosen topic.

Field of application: We believe that our marginal findings present promising

applications in the process of teaching the substantivized adjectives at secondary schools,

lyceums, colleges and universities. Besides, our research can be taken advantage of in translation

processes as well.

Structure of the graduation paper: The graduation paper consists of the following

sections: introduction, 3 chapters, conclusion and the list of the used literature.

In the introductory part, the timeliness and the actuality of our research are pointed out,

the reason why we have chosen the special topic is explained, the practical and the theoretical

value of the research, the field of application as well as several other crucial points are presented.

The first chapter is devoted to the theory of adjectives and the substantivized adjectives

in Modern linguistics. Here, we have summarized the given theories on the adjective and the

substantivized adjective and offered our own theories as an addition.

In the second chapter, we have had a look at types and the isomorphic and allomorphic

features of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek.

The third chapter concentrates on the effective strategies for teaching the

substantivized adjectives in Modern English at Uzbek schools.

The outcome of our research which is the comparative analysis of the adjective and the

substantivized adjective in Modern English and Uzbek as well as methodological

6

recommendations and several applicable strategies for teaching the adjective and the

substantivized adjective are presented in the concluding part of our research paper.

1. THE THEORY OF THE ADJECTIVE AND THE SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVE IN

MODERN LINGUISTICS

1. 1. The theory of the adjective in Modern linguistics

The importance of languages in people’s lives is so great that it does not need much

explanation. From very early ages, mankind has tried to learn about languages and made

contributions to their development at every stage of life. Although language was perceived to be

the way of only speaking and listening in the past, after the invention of letters, its significance

doubled: there are now spoken and written types of language. In our age, much headway has

been made so far in the sphere of linguistics. As language learning is an ongoing process,

linguists will continue to investigate various aspects of Modern linguistics.

One of the integral parts of linguistics called grammar attracts special attention of almost

every linguist. According to Gould Brown, “Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing

and speaking correctly. As an acquisition, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is

the practical science which teaches the right use of language.” [8.144]

Modern linguists divide grammar into two subgroups: morphology and syntax.

Morphology deals with the study of word forms and word classes, i.e. parts of speech, whereas

syntax deals with phrases and sentences. As our research is devoted to the study of one of the

parts of speech, we found it preferable to give some explanations to the other parts of speech as

well in short details. The division of parts of speech by grammarian professor G. M. Hoshimov

7

seems to be well-supported and complete. As the professor suggests, there are the following

parts of speech in Modern English theoretically:

1) Noun;

2) Pronoun;

3) Adjective;

4) Verb;

5) Numeral;

6) Adverb;

7) Modal word;

8) Word of category of state;

9) Interjection;

10) Article;

11) Particle;

12) Conjunction;

13) Preposition,

14) Responsives (yes/no);

15) Requestive (please);

16) Approximative.

In the first place, it is advisable to define what, adjective, itself is in Modern English and

Uzbek.

According to the definition given by Kaushanskaya and others the adjective in Modern in

English is a word expressing a quality of a substance. It has the following morphological

characteristics:

Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative

degree. Some adjectives have no degrees of comparison (they are called non-gradable

adjectives).

The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality and the superlative degree

denotes the highest degree of a quality.

The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics: In a sentence the adjective

may be used as an attribute or as a predicative.

A little fat chap thrust out his underlip and the tall fellow frowned.

(Mansfield) (Attribute)

Laura was terribly nervous. (Mansfield) (Predicative)

The air was motionless... (Mansfield) (Predicative) [18. 46]

Structurally, adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.

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1. Simple adjectives are adjectives which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are

indecomposable: e. g. good, red, black.

2. Derivative adjectives are adjectives which have a root/stem + derivative elements, suffixes or

prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant.

Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems.

The main types of compound adjectives are as follows:

(a) noun-stem + adjective-stem: snow-white.

(b) noun-stem + participle-stem: life-giving, smoke-dried.

(c) adjective-stem + adjective-stem: deaf-mute.

(d) adjective-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: cold-hearted.

(e) noun-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: lynx-eyed.

(f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: four-wheeled.

(g) adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix -ed: over-peopled. [47]

Semantically, adjectives fall under two classes: (1) qualitative adjectives, (2) relative

adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to

another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, and qualities of

general estimation:

Below is the list of examples for qualitative adjectives provided in Collins Cobuild English

Grammar:

active

angry

anxious

appropriate

attractive

bad

beautiful

big

brief

bright

broad

busy

calm

careful

cheap

effective

efficient

expensive

fair

familiar

famous

fast

fat

fine

firm

flat

frank

free

fresh

friendly

lovely

low

lucky

narrow

nervous

new

nice

obvious

odd

old

pale

patient

plain

pleasant

poor

silly

simple

slow

small

soft

special

steady

strange

strong

stupid

successful

suitable

sure

surprised

sweet

9

clean

clear

close

cold

comfortable

common

complex

cool

curious

dangerous

dark

dear

deep

determined

different

difficult

dirty

dry

easy

frightened

funny

good

great

happy

hard

heavy

high

hot

important

interesting

kind

large

late

light

likely

long

loose

loud

popular

powerful

pretty

proud

quick

quiet

rare

reasonable

rich

rough

sad

safe

sensible

serious

sharp

shocked

short

sick

significant

tall

terrible

thick

thin

tight

tiny

tired

typical

understanding

useful

violent

warm

weak

wet

wide

wild

worried

young

Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials

(silken, woollen, wooden), to place (Italian, Asian), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action

(preparatory, rotatory). The term “classifying adjectives” is also common.

Here is a list of classifying adjectives:

absolute

active

actual

agricultural

alternative

annual

apparent

available

basic

central

chemical

double

due

east

eastern

economic

educational

electric

empty

external

female

financial

industrial

inevitable

intellectual

internal

international

legal

local

magic

male

medical

mental

official

open

original

personal

physical

political

positive

possible

potential

private

professional

rural

scientific

separate

single

social

solid

sooth

southern

standard

straight

sufficient

10

civil

commercial

communist

conservative

cultural

daily

democratic

direct

domestic

foreign

free

full

general

golden

historical

human

ideal

independent

military

modern

moral

national

natural

negative

north

northern

nuclear

proper

public

raw

ready

real

religious

right

royal

theoretical

traditional

urban

west

western

wooden

wrong

Some adjectives can be either qualitative or classifying depending on the meaning that we

want to convey. For example, in 'an emotional person', 'emotional' is a qualitative adjective

meaning 'feeling or expressing strong emotions'; it has a comparative and superlative and it can

be used with submodifiers. Thus, a person can be 'very emotional', 'rather emotional', or 'more

emotional' than someone else. However, in 'the emotional needs of children', 'emotional' is a

classifying adjective meaning 'relating to a person's emotions', and so it cannot be submodified.

Here is a list of adjectives frequently used both as qualitative adjectives and as classifying

ones:

academic

conscious

dry

educational

effective

emotional

extreme

late

modern

moral

objective

ordinary

regular

religious

revolutionary

rural

scientific

secret

similar

When we want to say what colour something is, we use a colour adjective.

Here is a list of the main colour adjectives:

black

blue

brown

cream

green

grey

orange

pink

purple

red

scarlet

violet

white

yellow

If we want to specify a colour more precisely, we can use a submodifier, such as 'light',

'pale', 'dark', 'deep', or 'bright', in front of a colour adjective.

...light brown hair.

...a pale green suit.

...a dark blue dress.

...deep red dye.

...her bright blue eyes.

These combinations are sometimes hyphenated.

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...a light-blue suit.

...her tight, pale-green felt cape. [11]

Submodifiers such as 'light' and 'dark' are not used to submodify the colours 'black' and

'white', because we cannot have different shades of black and white.

If we want to talk about a colour which does not have a definite name we can

• use a colour adjective with '-ish' added to the end:

...greenish glass.

...permed yellowish hair. [11]

Here, we have to add the information that this adjective forming suffix –ish has the

following 3 meanings as is stated in Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary:

1. used to form adjectives and nouns which say what country or area a person, thing or

language comes from. Spanish dancing (= dancing from Spain.

Are you English (= someone from England)?

I've always liked the Irish (= people from Ireland).

Do you speak Swedish (= the language of Sweden)?

2. used to form adjectives which say what a person, thing or action is like.

foolish, childish.

3. used to form adjectives to give the meaning to some degree; partly; quite.

He had a sort of reddish beard.

She was oldish - about 60, I'd say.

We'll start at sevenish (= about 7 o'clock). [11]

Interestingly enough, the first example in point 3 represents exactly the same usage of the

adjective forming suffix –ish in the Uzbek language as well. That is, the suffix –ish, when it

means more or less of a certain colour, is identical in the two compared languages both in form

and meaning. For example:

In English:

blue-bluish, brown-brownish, yellow-yellowish, pink-pinkish, red-reddish, etc.

in Uzbek:

ko’k-ko’kish, sariq-sarg’ish, oq-oqish, qizil-qizg’ish, etc.

This is a striking similarity between Uzbek and English as the two languages are not

related.

• combine two colour adjectives, often with '-ish' or '-y' on the end of the first one

...greenish-white flowers.

...a greeny blue line.

...the blue-green waves. [11]

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We can mix colours in these ways to produce whatever new colour we are trying to

describe. This is a productive feature of English.

Colour adjectives such as 'blue' and 'green' occasionally have comparatives and superlatives

ending in '-er' and '-est'.

His face was redder than usual.

...some of the greenest scenery in America. [11]

The colours can also be headwords, i.e. substantivized, and the main colours can also be

plural headwords.

The snow shadows had turned to a deep blue.

They blended in so well with the khaki and reds of the landscape.

...brilliantly coloured in reds, yellows, blacks, and purples.

We generally use an emphasizing adjective only when the noun indicates our opinion about

something. Because they are used to show strong feelings, these adjectives are called

emphasizing adjectives.

Here is a list of emphasizing adjectives:

absolute

complete

entire

outright

perfect

positive

pure

real

total

true

other

A small group of adjectives ending in '-ing' are used in very informal spoken English for

emphasis, usually to indicate disapproval or contempt.

Everybody in the whole stinking town was loaded with money.

The flaming car's locked.

Here is a list of adjectives used informally for emphasis:

blinking

blithering

blooming

blundering

crashing

flaming

freezing

piddling

raving

scalding

stinking

thumping

thundering

whopping

The word 'very', which is normally a submodifier, is sometimes used to emphasize a

noun, in expressions like 'the very top' and 'the very end'.

...at the very end of the shop.

...the very bottom of the hill.

These molecules could have formed in the seas of the earth at the very beginning of its history.

There is a small group of adjectives which are used in a very similar way to determiners

to make the reference more precise. These are called postdeterminers, because their place in a

noun group is immediately after the determiner, if there is one, and before any other adjectives.

...the following brief description.

13

...certain basic human qualities.

...improvements in the last few years.

...further technological advance.

He wore his usual old white coat.

...the only genuine Russian prince he ever met. [11]

Here is a list of adjectives which are post determiners:

additional

certain

chief

entire

existing

first

following

further

last

main

next

only

opposite

other

particular

past

present

previous

principal

remaining

same

specific

usual

Some of these adjectives can also be ordinary classifying adjectives.

He had children from a previous marriage.

There are two main reasons for this.

Here is a list of postdeterminers which can also be classifying adjectives:

additional

chief

existing

further

main

other

particular

past

previous

principal

remaining

specific

Adjectives which are used to indicate the position of something are also used for precise

reference.

...the middle duff on of her black leather coat.

...the top 100 British companies.

Here is a list of adjectives sometimes used to indicate the position of something as well as

for precise reference:

left

right

upper

lower

lop

bottom

middle

end

front

back

Most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively but there are some which

can only be used in one position or the other.

There are a few adjectives which are always or almost always used in from of a noun and

are never or rarely used as the complement of a link verb. These adjectives are called attributive

adjectives. Examples are 'atomic' and 'outdoor'. We can talk about 'an atomic explosion', but we

do not say, 'The explosion was atomic'. We can talk about 'outdoor pursuits', but we do not say

'Their pursuits are outdoor'.

Here is a list of qualitative adjectives always used attributively:

14

Adoring

belated

chequered

choked

commanding

fateful

flagrant

fleeting

knotty

paltry

punishing

ramshackle

scant

searing

thankless

unenviable

Most adjectives which can only be used attributively are classifying adjectives. Here is a

list of classifying adjectives used attributively:

Atomic

bridal

cardiac

countless

cubic

digital

east

eastern

eventual

existing

federal

forensic

indoor

institutional

introductory

investigative

judicial

lone

maximum

nationwide

neighbouring

north

northern

occasional

orchestral

outdoor

phonetic

preconceived

remedial

reproductive

smokeless

south

southern

subterranean

supplementary

underlying

west

western

woollen

There are no colour adjectives that are restricted to the attributive position. Emphasizing

adjectives are usually used attributively. Some adjectives are normally used only as the

complement of a link verb and not in front of a noun. These adjectives are called predicative

adjectives. For example, we can say 'She felt glad', but we do not normally talk about 'a glad

woman'.

Here is a list of adjectives usually used predicatively:

afraid

alive

alone

apart

asleep

aware

content

due

glad

ill

likely

ready

safe

sorry

sure

unable

unlikely

well

Here, we take into account the fact that the word ‘asleep’ can also be used attributively as

in the phrase “a fast asleep boy”.

Because their meaning would otherwise be unclear or incomplete, some adjectives are

usually followed by a prepositional phrase. For example, we cannot simply say that someone is

'accustomed'. We have to say that they are 'accustomed to' something.

There are a few adjectives which are followed by the preposition 'to' when they are used

predicatively.

I was allergic to the serum they used.

He was impervious to fact or logic. [11]

15

Here is a list of adjectives which are usually or always used predicatively and are

followed by 'to':

accustomed

adjacent

allergic

attributable

attuned

averse

close

conducive

devoted

impervious

injurious

integral

prone

proportional

proportionate

reconciled

related

resigned

resistant

similar

subject

subservient

susceptible

unaccustomed

There are a few adjectives which are followed by the preposition 'of' when they are used

predicatively.

He was aware of the danger that faced him.

Here is a list of adjectives which are usually or always used predicatively and are

followed by 'of':

aware

bereft

capable

characteristic

desirous

devoid

fond

full

heedless

illustrative

incapable

indicative

mindful

reminiscent

represents

There are a few adjectives which are followed by the preposition 'with' when they are

used predicatively.

His surprise became tinged with just the smallest suspicion of disbelief.

The plastic has to be compatible with the body tissues that make contact with it.

This way of life is fraught with danger. [11]

Here is a list of adjectives which are usually or always used predicatively and are

followed by 'with':

compatible

consonant

conversant

Tilted

fraught

riddled

tinged

Some adjectives are followed by other prepositions when they we used predicatively.

These ideas are rooted in self-deception.

Didn't you say the raid was contingent on the weather?

Darwin concluded that people were descended from apes. [11]

Here is a list of adjectives which are usually or always used predicatively and are

followed by the preposition indicated:

contingent on

descended from

inherent in

lacking in

rooted in

steeped in

swathed in

unhampered by

In some cases, there is a choice between two prepositions.

16

Many of their courses are connected with industry.

Such names were arbitrarily given and were not connected to any particular event.

Here is a list of adjectives which are usually or always used predicatively and which can

be followed by the prepositions indicated:

answerable for

answerable to

burdened by

burdened with

connected to

connected with

dependent on

dependent upon

immune from

immune to

inclined to

inclined towards

incumbent on

incumbent upon

insensible of

insensible to

intent on

intent upon

parallel to

parallel with

reliant on

reliant with

stricken by

stricken with

To complete the meaning of some adjectives which are used predicatively, we need to

follow with a clause beginning with a 'to'-infinitive. For example, we cannot just say 'He is

unable'. We have to add a clause beginning with 'to'-infinitive such as 'to do': 'He is unable to do

it'.

They were unable to help her.

I am willing to try.

We are liable to find ourselves in a mild state of conflict.

I am loath to dwell so long on the poor fellow.

Here is a list of adjectives always or nearly always followed by 'to'-infinitive clauses:

able

bound

doomed

due

fated

fit

inclined

liable

likely

loath

prepared

unable

unwilling

willing

We can also use a clause beginning with a 'to'-infinitive after many other adjectives to

give more information about something.

I was afraid to go home.

I was happy to see them again.

He was powerless to prevent it.

I was almost ashamed to tell her.

The path was easy to follow.

When adjectives which refer to someone's beliefs or feelings are used predicatively, they

are often followed by a 'that'-clause. The subject of the 'that'-clause is not always the same as the

subject of the main clause, and so we need to specify it.

She was sure that he meant it.

He was frightened that something terrible might be said.

I'm aware that I reached a rather large audience through the book.

17

Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison. Some qualitative adjectives such

as greenish, darkish, incurable, unsuitable, chief, principal, have no degrees of comparison.

Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison. They do not usually form adverbs with

the suffix -ly. They have certain typical suffixes, such as -en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical: wooden,

Italian, socialist, synthetic, analytical.

Relative adjectives are chiefly used as attributes.

...she was a fair example of the middle American class... (Dreiser)

(Attribute)

She had noticed a pretty wooden chain upon Gretel’s neck. (Dodge)

(Attribute)

“Certainly,” answered Hilda, looking kindly into the two earnest faces, and wishing from her

heart that she had not spent so much of her monthly allowance for lace and finery. (Dodge)

(Attribute)

The morning was windy and sharp. (Saxton) (Predicative) [18.45-48]

As Gould Brown suggests “An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and

generally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book. You two are diligent.” In his point of

view, adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, common, proper, numeral, pronominal,

participial, and compound.

I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation; as good,

bad, peaceful, warlike, eastern, western, outer, inner.

II. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name; as American, English,

Platonic, Genoese.

III. A numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite number; as one, two, three, four,

five, six.

IV. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or

represent it understood; as, "All join to guard what each desires to gain."--Pope. That is, "All men

join to guard what each man desires to gain."

V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting

the idea of time; as, "An amusing story”, "A lying divination."

VI. A compound adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together, either by

the hyphen or solidly: as nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike, lovesick.

[8.297]

Here we should point out that his division bears some drawbacks, such as “numeral

adjectives” and “pronominal adjectives” cannot be accepted as correct because there already are

some parts of speech in Modern English which are called “numerals” and “pronouns”.

18

Ilyish affirms that the only morphological problem concerning adjectives is that of

degrees of comparison. He thinks so because English adjectives are not as complicated as those

of French, German or Russian in which case, number and gender bear a lot of difficulties for

learners. As to the degrees of comparison, he points out that the two degrees, comparative and

superlative, are made up in three ways, by adding –er, -est to the stem as in monosyllabic and

disyllabic words (basic form), adding more and most to polysyllabic words (analytical

formation) and changing the stem of the adjective which is called suppletive formation of

adjectives: good-better-the best. He also touches upon the problem of degree of comparison in

relative adjectives in his book “The Structure of Modern English”.

We can see that the English and the Uzbek linguists define the adjective in much or less the

same way: the adjective is an independent part of speech that indicates the quality, colour,

size, shape, taste, character and feature, measure, smell and relations with time and space

of the substance in Uzbek. Semantic types, main peculiarities, denotative and connotative

meanings of the adjective are widely studied in the Uzbek language as well. Adjectives may

define the quality and features of a substance from different angles; these features may belong to

people, animate or inanimate things. [25.62]

The adjective in the Uzbek language answers the questions What? What kind of? Which?

Adjectives may be used in different degrees: yahshi (good), yahshiroq (better), eng yahshi (the

best); there are also non-gradable adjectives: sariq (yellow), sarg’ish (yellowish).

One peculiarity of Uzbek adjectives is that they define not only the noun, but also the

verb in the sentence, for example: Sobir rus tilida yaxshi gapira oladi. (Sobir can speak well in

the Russian language). In such a case, adverbs are used instead of adjectives in the English

language, i.e. good-adjective, well-adverb.

There are the following semantic types of adjectives in the Uzbek language:

1. Adjectives denoting character and feature: badjahl (bad-tempered), toshbag’ir (cruel),

dabdabali (luxurious), ajoyib (wonderful), chidamli (tolerant).

2. Adjectives denoting physical and emotional state: go’zal (beautiful), soqov (dumb),

baquvvat (robust), sergak (alert), badavlat (wealthy), iliq (warm).

3. Adjectives denoting colour: oq (white), qizil (red), qora (black), yashil (green).

4. Adjectives denoting size and shape: dumaloq (round), tekis (straight), qiyshiq (slant).

5. Adjectives denoting measure: keng (wide), tor (narrow), uzun (long), chuqur (deep), yirik

(large).

6. Adjectives denoting taste/flavour nordon (sour), sho’r (salty), achchiq (bitter).

7. Adjectives denoting smell: hushbo’y (fragrant), qo’lansa (stinking).

19

8. Adjectives denoting relations between time and space: tonggi (of dawn), kuzgi

(autumnal), avvalgi (previous).

9. Adjectives denoting weight: og’ir (heavy), yengil (light). [22.51]

Structurally, Uzbek adjectives are also divided into simple, derivative and composite

types.

The syntactical functions of adjectives in the Uzbek language are as follows:

ATTRIBUTE: Shodon qiyofada kirib keldi. (He came in with a happy expression on his

face).

ADVERBIAL MODIFIRE: Yahshi bola yahshi o’qiydi. (A good boy does well at school).

PREDICATE: Eshik ochiq. (The door is open)

When substantivized, adjectives also function as:

SUBJECT: Dono bir joyda, dangasa har joyda. (The wise man is at one place, the lazy

man is everywhere).

OBJECT: Yomnonni ko’rmaguncha yaxshining qadriga yetmaysan. (It is when you meet

the bad that you appreciate the good). [26]

Having analyzed the theories of the above mentioned grammarians, we can summarize

their main points on the types of adjectives and say that adjectives in English and Uzbek are

divided into two groups semantically:

Qualitative adjectives (small- kichik, bright- yorqin, difficult- qiyin, etc) and Relative adjectives

(social- ijtimoiy, western- g’arbiy, professional- kasbiy, etc).

As the structural classifications by the grammarians differ in several ways, we have

worked out one that is equally applicable for both the English and the Uzbek languages.

Structurally, adjectives are divided into three groups:

Simple (one word, e.g. void, able, good, etc),

Derivative (stem + affix, e.g. joyous, deserted, interesting, accused, etc) adjectives and

Composite adjectives (two or more words). Composite adjectives, in their turn, fall into

the following 3 subgroups:

Compound adjectives, they contain words of equal rank, e.g. a primary part of speech +

another primary part of speech, or a secondary part of speech + another secondary part of speech

(nut-brown, laughter-loving, ice-cold, all-round, poverty-stricken, terror stricken, panic-

stricken, high-profile, low-budget ,blue-green, ice-cold, greenish-white, etc).

The second subgroup is called Complex adjectives; they contain two or more parts of

speech one of which may not be equal to the other, e.g. a primary part of speech + a secondary or

vice versa (drive-by, in-service, in-depth, in-store, switched on, tie-in, built-in, odds-on, on-

screen, on-board, bound-up, beat-up, fed up, dial-up, etc).

20

The third one is the mixed type in which there may be two or more primary pats of

speech and a secondary, or two or more secondary parts of speech and a primary part of speech

(down-at-heel, tongue-in-cheek, just-in-time, in-your-face, one-to-one, fly-by-night, blow—by-

blow, part-of-speech (characteristics), fly-by-wire, face-to-face, etc).

The data we have provided on the theory of the adjective in Modern linguistics will be

helpful to continue our research with the next important paragraph that is devoted to the theory

of a set of adjectives which are called the substantivized adjectives.

21

1. 2. The theory of the substantivized adjective in Modern English and Uzbek

Substantivization is the process of forming nouns from other parts of speech. That is,

parts of speech such as numerals, pronouns, verbs, participles, adjectives, etc. act as nouns in

certain cases. Substantivization is a universal linguistic phenomenon. In English, as well as in

Uzbek and many other languages, the adjective is the part of speech that is most frequently

substantivized. Up until this time numerous grammarians have investigated the process of

substantivization of adjectives and came up with their conclusions. Here, in this paragraph, we

shall have a look at the findings of English and Uzbek linguists on the substantivization of

adjectives in the Uzbek and English languages.

Sometimes adjectives function just like nouns in the sentence, and this process is generally

called substantivization of adjectives. Substantivization of adjectives is regarded as adjectives

functioning as heads of noun phrases in ‘A University Grammar of English’ and ‘A Reference

Grammar for Students of English’.

In ‘The Structure of Modern English’ it is stated that the process in which adjectives

become nouns under certain circumstances is called substantivization of adjectives. [15. 63]

As Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English states some adjectives can serve as

the head of a noun phrase. As the examples below illustrate, this conversion from adjective to

noun is not complete, in that the adjective head does not ordinarily take a plural –s inflection,

even when it has plural reference. In addition, as with adjectives (but not with nouns) these

forms can be modified by adverbs, as in 3 below. However, example 6 illustrates how they can

also be premodifiers typical of nouns. Definite determiners are the norm for adjectives as noun

phrase heads, although 5 illustrates an exception, where the determiner is a quantifier.

1. Everyone picks on the Welsh, don’t they? (Conv)

2. Why he was in Panglin with the lazy and the lame, the fat, the indifferent, the leaning

and the halt. (Fict)

3. I think the contrast between the very rich and the very poor in this country is

disgusting. (Fict)

4. But in politics the unlikely can happen. (News)

5. the policy which would require many unemployed either to find a job or to accept full-

time training or higher education.(News)

6. These people may be the real working poor, the elderly, the very young, the

unemployed or the transient. (Acad)

22

In most cases, as these examples show, the adjective headed noun phrase generically refers

to people with the characteristics named by the adjective, thus the elderly refers to ‘elderly

people in general’.

T.A. Barabash, in his book ‘English Grammar’, points out that the substantivization of

adjectives is one of the forms of conversion when the adjective loses its peculiarities and

expresses the full or partial features of the noun. [6.87]

According to the statement given in ‘English Grammar’ by J. Boronov and others,

adjectives becoming nouns as a result of change in their adjectival meaning into that of nouns, is

called substantivization of adjectives. [9.55]

We have also applied internet sources on the substantivization of adjectives in order to

make our research more informative. Here are what we gained by the help of those materials:

There are two types-of adjectives that can function as nouns. The first type includes

adjectives that refer to groups of people by specifying some quality, including nationality, that

they have in common, e.g.:

The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.

This wing of the hospital is reserved for the critically ill.

The British and the French do not always understand each other. [37]

These adjectives functioning as nouns always have generic reference, do not inflect for

number or the -s genitive, and require a singular verb.

There are other cases where adjectives may be said, function as nouns at a superficial level,

but it would be more accurate to say that they represent or substitute nouns (i.e. as pronouns),

e.g.:

Do you prefer Irish coffee or Turkish (coffee)?

We ordered mashed potatoes, but he served us boiled   (potatoes).

The red dress is prettier, but the green (dress) suits her better. [37]

The noun head in such sentences is elliptic, i.e. retrievable from context (most often in the

preceding clause); it can have specific or generic reference and be singular or plural. These cases

of ellipsis can thus be distinguished from the adjective-nouns described above. With the first

type, referring to groups of people, only a noun such as people or human beings could be

inserted:

Rich people get richer and poor people get poorer.

This wing of the hospital is reserved for people who are critically ill.

British people and French people do not always understand each other. [37]

With the second type, although it is sometimes possible to insert a vague word like thing,

there is often no corresponding noun:

23

The best (thing) is yet to come.

In science one sometimes has to distinguish the unknown (facts, things) from

the unknowable (facts, things) but

It's not always good to venture into the unknown.

He went from the sublime to the ridiculous. [37]

Merriam-Webster editor Neil Serven gives an explanation on the substantivization of

adjectives in this way:

The words poor and sick are easily recognizable as adjectives:

We were too poor to afford a car.

He was sick with a head cold.

As with most adjectives, poor and sick can be used before a noun to modify that noun:

poor artists, a sick patient

But what happens when such an adjective is preceded by the but not followed by a noun?

She gives money to the poor. Nurses care for the sick.

The words poor and sick here are used to refer to poor people and sick people, respectively,

with the nouns they modify omitted. While they function like nouns here, they are not defined as

nouns because they do not meet any of the other criteria that typically distinguish a word as a

noun.

A lot of adjectives are used this way, many referring to classes of people: a shelter

for the homeless a word

to the wise the meek shall inherit

the earth tax breaks for the insure. [30]

A lot of these kinds of adjectives can

be found in titles of works. The title of Norman Mailer’s novel The Naked and the Dead contains

two adjectives that are essentially functioning as nouns. The same goes for Stendhal’s The Red

and the Black and F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Beautiful and the Damned. Besides, the Martin

Scorsese film The Departed or the American TV soap opera The Young and the Restless are also

vivid examples for adjectives functioning as nouns. [30] Gould Brown treats

some substantivized adjectives as “proper adjectives” and expresses his opinion in the following

way: “The Proper Adjectives are, in many instances,

capable of being converted into declinable nouns: as European, a European, the Europeans;

Greek, a Greek, the Greeks; Asiatic, an Asiatic, the Asiatics. But with the words English, French,

Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish and in general all such as would acquire an additional syllable in

their declension, the case is otherwise. The gentile noun has frequently fewer syllables than the

adjective, but seldom more, unless derived from some different root. Examples: Arabic, an Arab,

24

the Arabs; Gallic, a Gaul, the Gauls; Danish, a Dane, the Danes; Moorish, a Moor, the Moors;

Polish, a Pole, or Polander, the Poles; Swedish, a Swede, the Swedes; Turkish, a Turk, the Turks.

When we say, the English, the French, the Dutch, the Scotch, the Welsh, the Irish, meaning, the

English people, the French people, and many grammarians conceive that English, French, etc are

indeclinable nouns. But in my opinion, it is better to reckon them adjectives, relating to the noun

men or people understood. For if these words are nouns, so are a thousand others, after which

there is the same ellipsis; as when we say, the good, the great, the wise, the learned. The

principle would involve the inconvenience of multiplying our nouns of the singular form and a

plural meaning, indefinitely. If they are nouns, they are, in this sense, plural only; and, in

another, they are singular only. For we can no more say, an English, an Irish, or a French, for an

Englishman, an Irishman, or a Frenchman; than we can say, an old, a selfish, or a rich, for an old

man, a selfish man, or a rich man. Yet, in distinguishing the languages, we call them English,

French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish; using the words, certainly, in no plural sense; and preferring

always the line of adjectives, where the gentile noun is different: as, Arabic, and not Arab;

Danish, and not Dane; Swedish, and not Swede. In this sense, as well as in the former, Webster,

Chalmers, and other modern lexicographers, call the words nouns; and the reader will perceive,

that the objections offered before do not apply here. But Johnson, in his two quarto volumes,

gives only two words of this sort, English and Latin and both of these he calls adjectives. [8.298]

As it has been suggested by most of the

grammarians, proper nouns are also substantivized when they denote nationality. The table

below illustrates how country names, their adjectival forms and substantivized adjectives differ

from one another:

COUNTRY ADJECTIVE NOUN

Africa African an African

America American an American

Argentina Argentinian an Argentinian

Austria Austrian an Austrian

Autralia Australian an Australian

25

Bangladesh Bangladesh(i) a Bangladeshi

Belgium Belgian a Belgian

Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian

Britain British a Briton/Britisher

Cambodia Cambodian a Cambodian

Chile Chilean a Chilean

China Chinese a Chinese

Colombia Colombian a Colombian

Croatia Croatian a Croat

the Czech Republic Czech a Czech

Denmark Danish a Dane

England English an Englishman/Englishwoman

Finland Finnish a Finn

France French a Frenchman/Frenchwoman

Germany German a German

Greece Greek a Greek

Holland Dutch a Dutchman/Dutchwoman

Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian

26

Iceland Icelandic an Icelander

India Indian an Indian

Indonesia Indonesian an Indonesian

Iran Iranian an Iranian

Iraq Iraqi an Iraqi

Ireland Irish an Irishman/Irishwoman

Israel Israeli an Israeli

Jamaica Jamaican a Jamaican

Japan Japanese a Japanese

Mexico Mexican a Mexican

Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan

Norway Norwegian a Norwegian

Peru Peruvian a Peruvian

the Philippines Philippine a Filipino

Poland Polish a Pole

Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese

Rumania Rumanian a Rumanian

Russia Russian a Russian

27

Saudi Arabia Saudi, Saudi Arabian a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian

Scotland Scottish/Scotch a Scot/Scotch

Serbia Serbian a Serb

the Slovak Republic Slovak a Slovak

Sweden Swedish a Swede

Switzerland Swiss a Swiss

Thailand Thai a Thai

The USA American an American

Tunisia Tunisian a Tunisian

Turkey Turkish a Turk

Vietnam Vietnamese a Vietnamese

Wales Welsh a Welshman/Welshwoman

Yugoslavia Yugoslav a Yugoslav

Here, we should keep it in mind that the nationality adjectives given in the table above

which end in –ss, -iss, -sh, -ish, -ch, -tch and –ese do not accept the plural affix –s. Instead, they

are always preceded by the definite article: The Irish, the Scotch, etc.

The list of the nationality names that end in –ese, -ss, -ish, -sh, -tch, -ch which are used

always used with the definite article “the” in the plural when substantivized:

-ish -ss -sh

Turkish Swiss Welsh

English

Spanish

28

Polish

British

Finnish

-ese -ch -tch

Japanese French Scotch

Vietnamese Dutch

Taiwanese

Beninese

Chinese

Burmese

Congolese

Gabonese

Guyanese

Lebanese

Maltese

Marshallese

Portuguese

Senegalese

The same definitions on the substantivization of adjectives apply in the Uzbek language.

Uzbek linguists define substantivization as the process in which the noun of the sentence is

ellipted and, as a result, the syntactic functions of it pass on to the adjective. Substantivization of

adjectives is very frequent in Uzbek. As mentioned in Uzbek Practical Grammar, most of the

Uzbek national proverbs contain substantivized adjectives. Unlike English, there is still

considerable uncertainty with regard to substantivization of adjectives in Uzbek. Many of the

books which are dedicated to the study of morphology fail to explain the reason why

substantivization of adjectives occurs in our speech. However, if we examine Uzbek

substantivized adjectives, we can get to know the fact that this process is less complicated in our

language. For instance, there is no usage of the definite article before the substantivized

adjectives, because we do not have any article in Uzbek at all. Besides, the plural ending –lar

can be added to whichever adjective that is substantivized. Examples are:

Yaxshi bir tavba qilar, yomon yuz.

(A good person repents once only, but a bad person repents a hundred times)

Yaxshining nasihatiga kirmagan, yomonning yo’liga yurar.

29

(Those who do not heed advice of the good follow the way of the evil)

Yaxshining tilagi ham yahshi, yomonning niyati ham yomon.

(A good person has a good will, and a bad person has an evil will)

Qari bilganni pari bilmas

(The old are wise). [26.31-36]

Another example is the name of a popular Uzbek show “Quvnoqlar va Zukkolar” in

which two qualitative adjectives become nouns and take the plural form with the suffix “-lar”.

As it can be seen from the examples, Uzbek substantivized adjectives have acquired

almost all the features of nouns. What is more, all of the adjectives in Uzbek can be

substantivized.

Summarizing the above given definitions, we can say that substantivization of adjectives is

the process in which adjectives function as nouns. The question why adjectives get

substantivized can be answered by the following reasons: Substantivization of adjectives

emerges under the influence of language economy and with a purpose of adding more stylistic

effect to our speech. As a well-known grammarian O. Jespersen puts it “The substantivization of

adjectives is a necessity of language usage. “You are a dear" is more affectionate than "You are

dear," which is hardly ever said. The explanation is obvious: these substantives are more

vigorous because they are more special than the adjectives, though seemingly embodying the

same idea”. [16.77]

Now that we have been introduced to the theory of the substantivized adjectives in

Modern English and Uzbek, we found out that the English substantivized adjective bears much

striking resemblance to that of Uzbek. Further information on similarities and dissimilarities of

the substantivized adjectives in the two compared languages will be given in the following

chapter.

30

2. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES IN MODERN

ENGLISH AND UZBEK FOR LINGUODIDACTIC PURPOSES

2. 1. Types of the substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek

There are various cases in which different types of the substantivized adjectives are used in our

speech. A number of grammar books we referred to treat the types of the substantivized adjective

in their own way.

J. Boronov divided the substantivized adjectives into the following two groups:

1 Substantivized kernel adjectives (blind, blunt, blue, bitter, black, dark, dear, grey, brown, red,

wild, white, fat, best, cold) and

2 Substantivized derivative adjectives (aboriginal, absorbent, academic, acting, beloved,

bimonthly, dependent, demonstrative, designing).

Substantivized derivative adjectives can function both as adjective and noun at the same

time.

He distinguished the following semantic types of substantivized adjectives:

1) Words denoting certain quality, feature or concrete object: bimonthly, grey, white, blind.

Не was afraid to look at the eyes. They were hideous now, only the whites showing, and the

blood running to them (D. H. Lawrence):

2) Substantivized adjectives expressing abstract notions: boring, bitter, dark, abstract.

3) Words denoting persons: individual, dear, beloved, academic. For this type, these examples

are given:

It was a crowd and a big, a busy, and a funny one of clearly differentiated individuals (W'.

Caitie). Individual after individual passed him, nearly all well dressed almost all indifferent (T.

Dreiser). A little strip of sunshine ran along the breast from a chink between the legs. The

orderly sat by it for a few moments (D. H. Lawrence).

4) Words expressing representatives of nationalities, countries, continents, parties or groups:

Canadians, Americans, Conservatives, Liberals, natives, Asiatics.

The Egyptians were an ancient race of Caucasians residing in one of the northern sections of

Africa. The latter as we all know is the largest continent in the Eastern Hemisphere.

31

5) Adjectives denoting nationalities that end in –sh, -ish, -ch, -tch: the English, the French, and

the Irish. The singular form of these adjectives are formed by them a singular noun, e.g. An

Englishman, A Frenchman.

6) Adjectives ending in –ss, -ese: the Japanese, the Sudanese, the Swiss, the Vietnamese. Words

like ‘Chinese’ and ‘Japanese’ express not only the nationality of the country, but also the

language.

7) Substantivized adjectives: collective nouns: drinkables, eatables, foods, greens, sweets,

vegetables. These are the nouns of pluralia tantum.

8) Certain grammatical and judicial terms: the passive (voice), the past (tense), the accused (man).

Famous grammarians Kobrina and Korneeva’s approach to the types of substantivized

adjectives is based on substantivized adjectives’ meaning and the nominal features they possess.

According to their theory some substantivized adjectives have only the singular form. They

may have either the singular or plural agreement, depending on their meaning. These are:

a) substantivized adjectives denoting generalized or abstract notions.

They are used with the definite article and have singular agreement:

The fabulous, the unreal, the invisible:

The fabulous is always interesting.

There are, however, certain exceptions. Substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions

may sometimes be used in the plural. Then no article is used:

There are many variables and unknowns.

b) substantivized adjectives denoting languages are used without a determiner, but are often

modified by a pronoun. They also have singular agreement.

My Spanish is very poor.

He speaks excellent English.

We should also note the following exceptions in such cases as

(1) It is a translation from the English (the French etc.), (2) What is the English (the French

etc.) for …?

The definite article is used if the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute:

The English of America differs from the English of England.

When the noun language is mentioned the definite article is used: the English language, the

German language. [18.42]

c) substantivized adjectives denoting groups of persons or persons of the same nationality are

used with the definite article the and admit only of plural agreement the old, the poor, the rich,

the blind, the dumb and deaf, the mute, the eminent, the English.

He did not look an important personage, but the eminent rarely do.

32

The poor were robbed of their lands.

Some substantivized adjectives have the category of number, that is, they can have two

forms - the singular and the plural. These are:

a) substantivized adjectives denoting social rank or position, military ranks, party, creed,

gender, nationality, race, groups of people belonging to certain times or epochs, etc. In the plural

the use of the article is not obligatory: nobles, equals, superiors, inferiors, commercials,

domestics, privates, regulars, ordinaries, marines, Christians, primitives, moderns, ancients,

contemporaries, liberals, conservatives, Europeans, Asiatics, Eurasians, Indians, Easterns,

blacks, whites, etc.

When denoting an individual such words are used in the singular and are preceded by the

indefinite article: a noble, a private, a regular, an ordinary, a Christian, a primitive, a liberal,

etc.

There were a few deads missing from the briefing.

- How many have you killed?

- One hundred and twenty two sures. Not counting possibles.

He’s been working like a black.

b) substantivized adjectives denoting animals and plants: evergreens, thoroughbreds

(about horses).

3. Some substantivized adjectives have only the plural form. These are:

a) substantivized adjectives denoting studies and examinations. They have either the

singular or plural agreement depending on whether they denote one notion or a collection of

notions: classics, final (final examinations), midsessionals, etc.

Finals were approaching.

b) substantivized adjectives denoting collection of things, substances and foods. Some of

these admit either of both the singular and plural agreement (chemicals, movables, necessaries,

valuables, eatables, greens), others admit only of a singular agreement (bitters).

c) substantivized adjectives which are the names of the parts of the body are used with the

definite article the and admit of the plural agreement: the vitals, the whites (of the eyes).

d) substantivized adjectives denoting colours are used in the plural without any article: greys,

reds, purples, greens.

B. Ilyish also underlines that the substantivisation of adjectives is a very common case in

English. He suggested that one should find the answers to the following questions so as to be

able to elicit whether an adjective is substantivised or not.

(a) what criteria should be applied to find out if an adjective is substantivised or not?

(b) is a substantivised adjective a noun, or is it not?

33

“As to the first question, we should recollect the characteristic features of nouns in

Modern English and then see if a substantivised adjective has acquired them or not. These

features are, (1) ability to form a plural, (2) ability to have a form in -'s if a living being is

denoted, (3) ability to be modified by an adjective, (4) performing the function of subject or

object in a sentence. If, from this point of view, we approach, for example, the word native, we

shall find that it possesses all those peculiarities, e. g. the natives of Australia, a young native,

etc.

The same may be said about the word relative (meaning a person standing in some degree of

relationship to another): my relatives, a close relative, etc. A considerable number of other

examples might be given. There is therefore every reason to assert that native and relative are

nouns when so used, and indeed we need not call them substantivised adjectives. Thus the

second of the above questions would also be answered.

A familiar example of a different kind is the word rich. It certainly is substantivised, as

will be seen, for example, in the title of a novel by C. P. Snow, "The Conscience of the Rich". It

is obvious, however, that this word differs from the words native and relative in some important

points: (1) it does not form a plural, (2) it cannot be used in the singular and with the indefinite

article, (3) it has no possessive form. Since it does not possess all the characteristics of nouns but

merely some of them, it will be right to say that it is only partly substantivised. The word rich in

such contexts as those given above stands somewhere between an adjective and a noun.

The same may be said of the poor, the English, the Chinese, also the wounded, the

accused (which were originally participles), and a number of other words. We might even think

of establishing a separate part of speech, intermediate between nouns and adjectives, and state its

characteristic features as we have done for parts of speech in general. However, there would

appear to be no need to do so. We shall therefore confine ourselves to the statement that

these words are partly substantivised and occupy an intermediate position.

Sometimes the result of substantivisation is an abstract noun, as in the following

examples: The desire for a more inward light had found expression at last, the unseen had

impacted on the seen. (Forster) Her mind was focused on the invisible. (Idem) Nouns of this type

certainly have no plural form.” [15.63-64]

A Reference Grammar is rather brief in the division of the substantivized adjectives. The

first type is a small set of adjectives with the meaning ‘class of people’. To this belong some

adjectives like the blind, the injured, the young, the sick, etc.

The second type includes a few adjectives referring to abstractions: the evil, the good, the

unexpected, the unknown.

Another small group of adjectives are the English, the French.

34

Besides, additional cases of the usage of adjectives as nouns are also given. They are the

cases of ellipsis of particular nouns, which occur mainly in informal speech: medical

(examination), possible (candidate), spare (tyre).

I’m having my medical tomorrow.

John is a possible.

Have you got a spare? [12.165]

‘A University of Grammar of English’ also has a clear approach as to the types of

substantivized adjectives:

Adjectives having personal reference: the old, the young, the wise, the rich.

Adjectives denoting nationalities: the English, the British, the Dutch, the Swiss.

The Irish (who live) in America retain sentimental links with Ireland. The Polish, who are very

rebellious, resisted strongly.

Adjectives having abstract reference (mainly superlatives): the latest, the best, the

unknown, the sublime, the ridiculous.

Moreover, as it is stated in the book, the substantivized adjectives may be found within

some set phrases like “for good”, “to the full”, “in short”. [20.111-112]

As to the opinion expressed in A Grammar of the English Language by Kaushanskaya

and others, the following decision of substantivization of adjectives is reached: Substantivized

adjectives have acquired some or all of the characteristics of the noun, but their adjectival origin

is still generally felt.

Substantivized adjectives are divided into wholly substantivized and partially

substantivized adjectives.

Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns, namely the plural

form, the genitive case; they are associated with articles, i. e. they have become nouns: a native,

the natives, a native’s hut.

Some wholly substantivized adjectives have only the plural form: eatables, valuables,

ancients, sweets, greens.

Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the noun;

they are used with the definite article. Partially substantivized adjectives denote a whole class:

the rich, the poor, the unemployed. They may also denote abstract notions: the good, the evil, the

beautiful, the singular, the plural, the future, the present, the past.

Substantivized adjectives denoting nationalities fall under wholly and partially

substantivized adjectives.

Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian — Russians, a German — Germans.

Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English, the French, the Chinese. [18.49]

35

What deserves a special remark in this book is the fact that the general division of

substantivized adjectives into fully substantivized and partially substantived types offers

perceptive insights into the knowledge of substantivized adjectives.

Below is information on the substantivization of adjectives that we gained from internet

sources: When

adjectives are used as nouns, the specific cases are: Ellipses of Noun Phrases: Ellipsis is

the shortening of a phrase or a sentence. In this case, here, we specifically look at noun phrases.

Adjectives can act as nouns and can be a subject, object, or complement in a sentence.

'The intelligent are not arrogant'

‘The meek shall inherit the earth.'

‘The old and the young were evacuated from the building.’

‘The rich are privileged.’

‘The rich’, the intelligent’, the meek’, ‘the old’, and ‘the young’ are adjectives acting as nouns.

The full noun phrases could be:

‘The intelligent (people) are not arrogant’.

'The meek (humans) shall inherit the earth.’

‘The old (men) and the young (children) were evacuated from the building.’

‘The rich (people) are privileged.’

In the examples illustrated above, the adjectives acting as nouns form a part of the subject.

Further using the above examples as objects:

‘He is a lover of the intelligent’.

‘She has an eye for the rich’,

‘He is a veteran amongst the young.’ [44]

The complete sentences could be:

‘He is a lover of the intelligent (being)’.

‘She has an eye for the rich (men) ’,

‘He is a veteran amongst the young (students).’ [44]

The definite article ’the’ is combined with these adjectives so that they can be used as nouns.

These adjectives are always plural and take a plural verb.

Nouns Formed by Conversion

Adjectives can be used as proper nouns, common nouns, and abstract nouns. When a word is

used as a different part of speech without introducing any change to the form of the original

word it is known as conversion. Let us look at some examples:

36

‘He kept the fast for a week.’ (Noun)

‘Reena and Sheena are fast friends’ (Adjective)

‘This is my right!’ (Noun)

‘He is the right man for this position.’ (Adjective)

‘Mahatma Gandhi is his ideal.’ (Noun)

‘The ideal king is expected to be wise and generous. [44]

The above sentences make it clear how the same word can be used as a different part of speech.

Other Cases

Proper nouns like Indian, American, and

African are words that can act as adjectives as well as nouns. It totally depends on the usage of

the word that is whether it is in the plural form or the singular form. If the word is in the plural

form it is acting as a noun and in the singular form it could be acting as an adjective or a noun.

Let us look at some examples:

'The Indian brass work is popular in the west.' (Adjective)

'The Indians are going for elections.' (Noun)

'The African nations are taking cogent steps to fight apartheid'. (Adjective)

'The Africans are hardworking people'. (Noun)

'The American tourist visited the museum.' (Adjective)

'The American shopped in the market.' (Noun)

Words like Indian and African have been used in the sense of ‘of India, of Africa. The

usage of the word determines what part or speech the word belongs to. [44]

Substantivized adjectives which are

always preceded by the definite article “the” may have two meanings:

1) They may indicate a class of persons in a general sense

(e.g. the poor = poor people, the dead = dead people, etc.) Such adjectives are plural in meaning

and take a plural verb.

e.g. The old receive pensions.

The young are always romantic, aren’t they?

The blind are taught trades in special schools.

If we wish to denote a single person we must add a noun.

e.g. The old man receives a pension.

37

If we wish to refer to a particular group of persons (not the whole

class), it is also necessary to add a noun.

e.g. The young are usually intolerant.

The young men are fishing.

Some adjectives denoting nationalities (e.g. English, French, Dutch) are used in the same way.

e.g. The English

are great lovers of tea.

There were a few English people among the tourists.

2) Substantivized adjectives may also indicate an abstract notion. Then they are singular in meaning and take a singular verb.

e.g. The good in him overweighs the bad.

My mother never lost her taste for extravagant. [37]

The division of substantivized adjectives according to their semantical types by T. A.

Barabash in ‘English Grammar’ seems to be well-grounded.

Having divided adjectives into 2 big groups - fully substantivized adjectives and partially

substantivized adjectives, he suggested that there existed the following types of substativized

adjectives in the English language:

1. Fully substantivized adjectives:

o Words classifying people into certain groups (a native, a conservative, a relative, a

criminal, a black, a white, a revolutionary).

o Name of natioalities (a German, a Russian, an American, an Uzbek, a Czech).

o Words denoting periodical edition (a daily, a monthly, a weekly, a bimonthly, etc).

2. Partially substantivized adjectives:

o Words describing a group of people (the good, the rich, the sick, the poor, the dead, the

living, the injured, the wounded).

o Name of nationalities (the French, the Scotch, the Irish, the Welsh).

o Words expressing abstract notions (the good, the beautiful, the inevitable, the opposite,

the unexpected, the unknown, the impossible, the unlikely).

o Words of ‘pluralia tantum’ (goods, sweets, valuables). [6.87-88]

38

We have focused our attention on the substantivization of adjectives. In many languages

including English and Uzbek, the opposite phenomenon also exists. That is, likewise, nouns can

also be used as adjectives, and this process is called “adjectivization of nouns”.

A noun may stand before another noun and modify it: speech sound, peace treaty, business

contract. The observation that these nouns lose the ability of forming plural and have articles

proves that they possess the features of adjectives. They also have the meaning of property, not a

substance, and they function as attributes. This can also be illustrated by the difference between

such combinations with proper nouns as “Moscow’s theatres”, “Repin’s pictures” and Moscow

region, the Tretyakov Galery. The second type clearly lost their substantival features.

In Collins Cobuild English Grammar, adjectivized nouns are called “noun modifiers”. Nouns

can be used as modifiers in front of other nouns when we want to give more specific information

about someone or something.

Sometimes, when nouns are used like this they become fixed expressions which are called

compound nouns.

When the nouns used in front of other nouns are not in fixed expressions, they are called

noun modifiers.

the car door.

tennis lessons.

a football player.

cat food.

the music industry.

a surprise announcement. [11]

We normally use the singular form of a count noun as a noun modifier, even when we are

referring to more than one thing. For example, we refer to a shop that sells books as 'a book

shop', not 'a books shop', even though it sells a large number of books, not just one.

Many plural nouns lose their '-s' endings when used in front of other nouns.

my trouser pocket.

pyjama trousers.

paratroop attacks. [11]

However, some plural nouns keep the same form when used in front of other nouns.

arms control.

the arms race.

clothes pegs. [11]

39

If we want to be even more specific, we can use more than one noun modifier. For example,

a 'car insurance certificate' is a certificate which indicates that a car has been insured, and a 'state

pension scheme' is a scheme that is run by the state and concerns workers' pensions.

a Careers information Officer.

car body repair kits.

a family dinner party.

a school medical officer.

If we want to give more information about a noun that has a modifier in front of it, you can

put adjectives in front of the noun modifier.

a long car journey.

a new scarlet silk handkerchief.

complex business deals.

...this beautiful morning sunlight.

...the French film industry. [11]

Proper nouns can also be used as noun modifiers. For example, if we want to show that

something is connected with a place, organization, or institution, we put the name of the place,

organization, or institution in front of all other noun modifiers. We also put them in front of

classifying adjectives.

Brighton Technical College.

the Cambridge House Literacy Scheme.

As the above mentioned examples demonstrate, the use of noun modifiers in English is

very common indeed. And the use adjectivized nouns is one of the productive features of English

just like the use of substantivized adjectives.

In order to make a comparative analysis of substantivized adjectives, we continue our

research with studying the work done on substantivization of adjectives in the Uzbek language.

As is stated in Practical Uzbek Grammar, in our speech the process of substantivization, i.e.

adjectives becoming nouns is very common. This is most often the case with proverbs: Yahshi

topib gapirar, yomon qopib.

Yoshni mehnat, qarini ovqat saqlaydi. (Labour saves the young, food saves the elderly).

When substantivized, adjectives function as

Subject: Yahshilar ko’paysin. (May the number of good people increase);

Object: Eskisini kiyib ol. (Put on the old one);

Attribute: Bahilning bog’i ko’karmas.(Greedy people never succeed?)

40

Adjectives function as attribute, predicate and adverbial modifier in the sentence: Shahrimizda

ulkan binolar, go’zal istirohat bog’lari, tarixiy yodgorliklar ko’p. (There are a lot of high

buildings, beautiful amusement parks and historical monuments in our city).

Shahrimizning ko’chalari juda go’zal. (The streets in our city are very beautiful).

U gimnastika mashqlarini yahshi va chiroyli bajaradi. (She does gymnastic activities well and

beautifully).

Adjectives can also function as other parts of sentence when they are substantivized:

Subject - Yahshilar hamma joyda el hurmatiga sazovor bo’ladi. (Good people gain respect from

public everywhere).

Object - Ilg’orlarga mukofotlarni topshirish uchun hokim tashrif buyurdi. (The city council came

to award the leaders).

Attribute - Yahshinng sharofat tegsa, yomonning kasifati tegadi. (Good people bring happiness,

bad people bring gloom).

Direct Address - Yahshilar, bechoralarga yordam qilishni unutmang. (Good people, do not

forget to do good to the poor). [43]

Grammar of the Uzbek Language points out that it is most often the case that adjectives

function as the subject of a sentence when they are substantivized: Mard maydonda bilinadi

(Proverb). When substantivized, the adjectives acquire the grammatical characteristics of the

noun and modify the thing or the person denoted by their quality. Yaxshi – yaxshi, a’lo – a’lo.

[3,125]

Here are some more examples for the substantivized adjectives from Uzbek national

proverbs:

Bir yaxshi bilan bir yomon kelishar, ikki yomon kelishmas.

(A good person gets along well with a bad person, but not with two)

Dutorsiz baxshi bo’lmas, yomonsiz yaxshi.

(There is no musician without an instrument, no good people without bad people)

Yomon bilan yaxshi qotishmaydi.

(The good cannot blend with the evil)

Yomonni yuborsang, bildirib kelar,

Yaxshini yuborsang, tindirib kelar.

(Send a good person; he will fulfill the job,

Send a bad person; he will expose you)

Yomonning yaxshisi bo’lguncha,yaxshining yomoni bo’l.

(It is better to be the bad among the good, than to be the good among the bad)

Yomonga bosh bo’lguncha, yaxshiga yo’ldosh bo’l.

41

(Better being a friend to the good, than being a leader to the bad)

Yomonga tun ham, kun ham qorong’u.

(Both day and night are dark for the bad)

The studies by the grammarians regarding the types of the substantivized adjectives have

suggested that there are fully substantivized and partially substantivized adjectives. While

many grammarians would agree on this division, unfortunately, their theories neglect to explain

the reason for calling certain adjectives fully substantivized, and some others – partially

substantivized. Basing on the opinions of B. A. Ilyish and V.L. Kaushanskaya we have worked

out the following criteria for an adjective to become fully substantivized. To get fully

substantivized an adjective must:

1. have all the functions of the noun (subject, object, predicative, adverbial modifier,

attribute, and parenthesis).

2. be able to form plural.

3. be able to be modified by determiners such as adjectives, articles, pronouns, etc.

4. be able to accept the possessive form with apostrophe s.

The word criminal meets the above given criteria, and thus considered to be a fully

substantivized adjective. For instance:

1. Many of the country's toughest criminals are held in this prison. (Subject);

Many people argue that allowing a criminal to go free is better than imprisoning an innocent

person. (Object);

Today's problem child may be tomorrow's criminal. (Predicative);

He saw fear in the criminal’s eyes (Adverbial Modifire); [11]

… deeds of the criminal (Attribute)

“Criminals, you will soon be arrested!” (Direct Address)

2. a criminal – criminals.

3. a lot of criminals/ that criminal/ a criminal/ the criminal/ an old criminal.

4. criminal’s confessions.

We hope that it is now made clearer why the adjectives like a German, a republican, a

relative, a native are called the fully substantivized adjectives as a contrast to the adjectives like

the opposite, the wounded, goods, the Welsh that have acquired only some of the features of the

nouns are considered to be partially substantivized.

As far as the semantic classification is considered, the substantivized adjectives can be of

the following types:

Monosemantic substantivized adjectives: the educated, the old, the weak, etc.

Polysemantic substantivized ajectives:

42

Greens 1-food; 2-things green in colour;

Bitter/bitters 1- a strong bitter alcoholic drink made from spices and plant products that is mixed

with other alcoholic drinks; 2- (UK) a type of dark brown beer with a bitter taste a pint of bitter.

Sweet 1- candy; 2- any food with a lot of sugar in it.

Blues 1- a type of slow, sad music, originally from the southern US, in which the singer

typically sings about their difficult life or bad luck in love; 2- things blue in colour;

The dark/be in the dark 1-a place with little or no light; 2-not to know about something that

other people know about.

Polysemantic substantivized adjectives may have metaphorical meanings, as in the

second meanings of the words ‘blues’, ‘the dark’.

The works that are dedicated to the study of the substantivized adjectives maintain that

adjectives, in the same way as nouns, may be pluralia tantum or the singularia tantum when they

are substantivized. We have developed this hypothesis and created a new classification of

adjectives in this research of ours. The scheme below illustrates these types of the substantivized

adjectives. The term ‘substantivized adjectives of the singularia tantum’ means the

substantivized adjectives that are used in the singular form only. And the ‘substantivized

adjectives of the pluralia tantum’ refers to those that are always plural in form. We have also

divided the two groups into proper and improper types; Proper singularia tantum adjectives are

the ones that agree with the main verb of the sentence in the singular, and the improper ones

have plural agreement. The same rule applies to the substantivized adjectives of the pluralia

tantum proper and improper.

Substantivized Adjectives

Substantivized Adjectives of the

Singularia Tantum

Substantivized Adjectives of the Pluralia

Tantum

Substantivized Substantivized Substantivized Substantivized

43

adjectives of the

singularia

tantum proper

Abstract

notions: the

latest, the best,

the extravagant,

the unreal, the

extraordinary.

Language:

Spanish,

Turkish, Dutch,

German.

adjectives of the

singularia

tantum

improper

People: the poor,

the elderly, the

injured, the

super-rich, the

cautious, the

privileged.

Nationalities: the

French, the

Lebanese, the

Polish, the

Finnish.

adjectives of the

pluralia tantum

proper

Parts of body:

the vitals, the

whites.

adjectives of the

pluralia tantum

improper

Certain terms:

classics,

midsessionals,

drinkables,

movables, finals,

greens, bitters.

Another limitation in the theories formulated on the substantivized adjectives is the usage

of articles before the substantivized adjectives. In our research, we have addressed this issue as

well.

The Usage of Articles before the Substantivized Adjectives

The definite article “The”

The definite article is obligatorily used before the substantivized adjectives of singularia

tantum denoting

a. a class of people (the old, the young, the literate, the illlterate, etc).

b. abstract notions (the present, the extravagant, the ridiculous, etc).

c. nationality adjectives ending in –ss, -iss, -sh, -ish, -tch, -ese (the Chinese, the Dutch, the

Portuguese, the Benines, etc). The function of the definite article here is to generalize

the meaning of the people, nationalities and abstract notions. Hence, when we say ‘the

educated’- we mean educated people in general, ‘the good’ – goodness in general and

‘the Irish’ – people form Ireland in general.

Zero articles

44

We do not normally use any article before the substantivized adjectives of the pluralia

tantum. They are the collective nouns (eatables, goods, thoroughbreds, greens, valuables,

credentials, initials, etc), and colour nouns (greys, greens, reds, whites, etc).

The definite and the indefinite articles can be used accordingly in their usual functions

before the substantivized adjectives that are neither pluralia no singularia tantum. (an Indian, the

Indian, Indians, a conservative, the conservative, an individual, individuals, the individuals, etc).

2. 2. Isomorphic and allomorphic features of the substantivized adjectives in Modern

English and Uzbek

The following paragraph is devoted to the isomorphic and allomorphic features of the

substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek. Through our research, we have

discovered both similar and dissimilar features between the English and the Uzbek

substantivized adjectives. The two compared languages belong to different language families:

English – an Indo-European language, and Uzbek – a Turkish language. That is why it stands to

reason that the two compared languages differ widely in their structure and meaning. Besides,

the people speaking the compared languages have quite different world views. These two

reasons are the grounds for the discrepancies. Thus, they are the focal concern of our research as

they cause interlanguage interference. But at the same time, there are certain features of the

substantivized adjectives that are typical of both English and Uzbek. The similarities are

accounted for by the universal rules of language evolution. That is, however distant the

languages compared might be, they undergo the same processes of development.

Having studied the works carried out by the well-known grammarians on the

substantivized adjectives, we have summarized their opinions and achieved the following:

There are the following structural types of substantivized adjectives.

1. Substantivized kernel adjectives

2. Substantivized derivative adjectives

45

1) Substantivized kernel adjectives

blind (Noun: a cover for a window made of a single piece or strips of cloth, paper or plastic that

is pulled up or down by a string. a roller blind a Venetian blind),

blunt (describes a pencil, knife, etc. that is not sharp, and therefore not able to write, cut, etc.

well),

bitter (Noun: a type of dark brown beer with a bitter taste),

black (Noun: a black person)

dear (Noun: used to address someone you love or are being friendly to, not used between men.

Here's your receipt, dear. Would you like a drink, dear? Lovely to see you, my dear),

wild (Noun: an area which is far from where people usually live and difficult to get to, and that

is not considered easy to live in. She lives somewhere in the wilds of Borneo),

best (Noun: the most excellent in a group of things or people. He wanted the best for his children

- good schools, a nice house and trips abroad)

cold (Noun: a common infection especially in the nose and throat which often causes a cough, a

slight fever and sometimes some pain in the muscles. I've got a cold),

white (Noun: 1-a colour like that of snow, milk or bone. In some countries it is traditional for a

bride to wear white),

2-a person who has skin that is pale in colour The neighbourhood is populated mainly by

whites)

2) Substantivized derivative adjectives

aboriginal ( adj/noun: describes a person or living thing that has existed in a country or

continent since the earliest time known to people),

academic (1-adj: relating to schools, colleges and universities, or connected with studying and

thinking, not with practical skills.

2-noun: someone who teaches at a college, or who studies as part of their job),

bimonthly (happening or appearing every two months or twice a month),

dependent (1-adj: needing the support of something or someone in order to continue existing or

operating

2-noun: someone who depends on you for financial support, such as a child or family member

who does not work),

designing (1-adj: describes someone who tries to get what they want for themselves, usually

dishonestly.

2-noun: (the art of making plans or drawings for something). [11]

The similar substantivized adjectives in Uzbek:

Otlashgan tub sifatlar:

46

Ko’r (odam) - blind

Oq (ko’zning oqi, oq tanli odam) - white

Qora (qora tanli odam) – black

Achchiq (qalampir va h.k.) – bitter (pepper)

Yovvoyi (odam) - wild

Sovuq (iqlim holati) - cold

Haq (huquq) - right

Otlashgan yasama sifatlar:

Akademik (olim) - academic

Oylik (maosh) - monthly (wage)

Qaram (xalq) - dependent

Kanadalik (ayol) - Canadian

Shaharlik (qiz) - civic

Ichimlik (suv) -drink

Semantic types of substantivized adjectives.

Fully substantivized adjectives (they have all the features of nouns).

1. words denoting a class of people

a native, words a relative, a criminal, a black, a white.

2. names of nationalities

A German, a Russian, an Uzbek.

3. words describing periodical editions

A daily, a monthly, a weekly, a bimonthly.

Partially substantivized adjectives (they have some of the features of nouns)

1. words describing a group of people

the elderly, the poor, the rich

name of nationalities ending in –sh, ch, -ish, -tch, -ese, -ss.

2. abstract notions

the good, the unlikely, the enexpected

3. words of pluralia tantum

goods, sweets, valuables, greens

Semantic types of Uzbek substantivized adjectives

To’la otlashgan sifatlar:

1. Odamlar guruhini bildiruvchi otlashgan sifatlar: Konservativ, qora, oq (shahmat donalari),

yerlik (aholi), boylar, kambag’allar, tiriklar, yaxshilar, yomonlar.

2. Millatlar nomlari: Rus, nemis, ingliz, chex, fransuz, Amerikalik, Avstraliyalik, Avtriyalik.

47

3. Davriy nashriyotni bildiruvchi otlashgan sifatlar: Kunlik, haftalik, oylik.

Qisman otlashgan sifatlar (Partially substantivized adjectives) do not exist in the Uzbek

language.

Basing on the material provided above, we have worked out the following table which

compares the types of substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek:

Fully substantivized

adjectives

English Uzbek

1. denoting a class of people + +

2. name of nationalities + +

3. describing periodical

edition

+ +

Partially substantivized

adjectives

English Uzbek

48

1. describing a group of

people

+ -

2. name of nationalities + -

3. denoting abstract

notions

+ -

4. words of the pluralia

tantum.

+ -

3. EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES TO TEACHING THE SUBSTANTIVIZED

ADJECTIVES IN ENGLISH AT UZBEK SCHOOLS

3. 1. Effective strategies to teaching the substantivized adjectives in English at Uzbek

schools

One of the prerequisites of any teacher is the ability to adopt effective methods in

education. In our century, teachers have many options to choose from different teaching

techniques designed specifically for teaching foreign languages. We, as educators, should

manage enormous tasks of offering learning experiences to our students in the way that they

meet their needs. We should have the assurance that we put forward our best efforts to prepare

learning opportunities so that our students acquire the knowledge of the foreign language easily.

We should be flexible enough to a variety learning styles such as visual, kinesthetic, verbal,

logical and auditory. We should teach our students placing strong emphasis on the use of the

effective strategies to help them succeed.

This chapter considers a number of useful strategies to teach the English language.

49

In order for a language learner to be acknowledged as a successful student, the following

requirements should be met by him/her: 1) to use English to

communicate in social settings, 2) to use English to achieve

academically in all content areas, and 3) to use English in socially and culturally

appropriate ways. Several strategies are offered to develop competency in

social use of English. The use of seating arrangements (such as round tables or pairs) to

encourage social interaction is suggested. Teachers can also try to structure opportunities for

students to use English outside of the classroom. Cooperative learning encourages the use of

language in a social manner. Positive social interaction can help students perceive the classroom

as a comfortable and friendly place, where they will feel safe using their new language skills and

where they may find intrinsic motivation for communicating in English.

To enhance academic achievement, teachers can: create a language learning atmosphere

in the classroom; provide students with advanced technologies; label everything in the classroom

to build vocabulary and help students make connections to their native language; and have

different sources available for student use (books, magazines, newspapers, audio and video

tapes, computer software) to address different learning styles and also help build good

connections. To help students to use English in appropriate ways, teachers should teach what

language is appropriate in what conditions so that students can determine when to speak and in

what way to speak (for example, formal speech or slang). Teachers should also recognize

diversity and sameness in their classrooms and incorporate multicultural literature into the

curriculum in order for students to develop an understanding of and appreciation for others.

Another point to be considered in the sphere of teaching is the ways to

motivate students to learn and to encourage them to get involved in the activities. One possible

avenue to doing this can be achieved by the appropriate use of humour. Humour in educational

settings serves a variety of positive functions beyond simply making people laugh because it

builds group cohesion. Students respond more positively to each other and to the teacher when

humor is present. It brings them together and can facilitate cohesion by softening criticism. And

one thing about humor in learning is well-supported: Humor positively affects levels of attention

and interest. When students are interested, chances are they remember the information of the

lesson for a relatively longer period of time. Incorporating humour especially into grammar

lessons and lectures where teachers speak more than the students by explaining the rules, humour

will be a sure way to keep students engaged and involved in the course material.

Today various methods are used in different countries. It is worthy to

acknowledge the fact that the present teaching methods go to prove how much teaching has

changed over the years. Despite being old, the methods that proved to be right for certain

50

teaching conditions are still being applied in modern pedagogy. To get to know more about

teaching methods, we provide some information on several well-known methods that are used

worldwide. Grammar translation method: supposedly

the oldest language teaching method of the list, this would be rules-based, grammar focused,

vocabulary list language learning method. Wikipedia assures us that: “the goal of this method is

to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics… little attention was placed

on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language.” For years and years, the

Grammar Translation Method served as the primary means to teach a foreign language. Students

memorized vocabulary in isolated lists and grammar rules in order to translate sentences,

passages, and even larger amounts of text from the foreign language into their mother tongue.

Exactly as the title implies, translation served as the focus.

Audio-lingual method: similar to the direct method but with the emphasis on drilling

students in grammar rather than having them acquire more vocabulary. Oral recitation of target

drills, which are supposed to contain the sentence patterns and grammatical structures to be

learnt. Oral approach: a more formalized

version of the direct method which tries to take into account the idea that the majority of

language production uses a core vocabulary—a couple of thousand words—and a core set of

grammar structures. Teachers using this method first present the new material in context, then

lead a practice period before having the students try and produce their own phrases using the

structures and vocabulary learnt. It is

becoming increasingly clear that interactive methods suit present-day teaching very well.

Interactive methods comprise the following approaches to language teaching:

community language teaching,

direct method, language immersion, natural approach, proprioceptive language learning method, silent way, storytelling, suggestopedia, teaching proficiency through reading and total physical response (TPR).

Communicative approach: A focus on language production, aural comprehension, early

speech production and speech activities encouraging ‘natural’ language acquisition, “much as a

child would learn his/her native tongue”. Only use the target language in class, don’t correct

errors in speech. No deliberate study of grammar. This approach to language teaching is

51

becoming popular as it creates intriguing atmosphere for language learners and teachers. Below

are the characteristics of communicative approach listed in ‘An A-Z of ELT [45]:

purposefulness: speakers are motivated by a communicative goal (such as getting

information, making a request, giving instructions) and not simply by the need to display the

correct use of language for its own sake;

reciprocity: to achieve this purpose, speakers need to interact, and there is as much need to

listen as to speak;

negotiation: following from the above, they may need to check and repair the

communication in order to be understood by each other;

synchronicity: the exchange – especially if it is spoken – usually takes place in real time;

unpredictability: neither the process, nor the outcome, nor the language used in the

exchange, is entirely predictable;

heterogeneity: participants can use any communicative means at their disposal; in other

words, they are not restricted to the use of a pre-specified grammar item.

contingency: the speakers’ utterances are connected, both to one another, and to the context

(physical, social, cultural, etc)  in which they are uttered;

investment: the speakers have a personal commitment to the communication and are

invested in making it work. As John

Dewey, American philosopher and educational reformer once said, we should “give the students

something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand thinking;

learning naturally results”. We believe that the success of the interactive methods can be well

supported by the application of this suggestion in practice.

We have cited several out of many teaching approaches in this chapter. However, today

we live in such a condition that the best approach to any language teaching must be eclectic, i.e.

we should use a multitude of techniques choosing and adapting the materials to our own

classrooms. Particular students, particular classrooms, and particular schools vary too greatly for

one approach to be appropriate for every condition. For this reason, we think that it is wise to

incorporate elements from many different approaches to reach our aim of high quality teaching.

There are quite a lot of

factors that ensure the success of teaching foreign languages. In our research paper, we would

like to suggest several strategies that are suitable for teaching the substantivized adjective

efficiently.

52

Explaining

Sometimes the experiences can also be shared as a part of knowledge that would work as

a source of inspiration for the students. While adopting this method the teacher should give an

introduction and a proper summary to the process of substantivization and make sure that the

information is clear to the students.

The explanation should be accompanied with suitable examples for the better

understanding of the students. For example, after explaining the usage of the definite article with

qualitative adjectives, it is advised to give such examples as “The old receive pensions”, “The

blind are taught trades in special schools”. The teacher can also ask students to make up their

own examples after the explanation. It is like a discourse on a particular subject or topic that is

for the entire class or public. Explaining can be accompanied with the modeling process to be

more effective and to have a long-lasting effect on the pupils’ memory.

Modeling 

Modeling is a type of visual aid for teaching as well as learning. It is a known fact that

human brain absorbs more and understands better when visual aid supports explanation. The

following models will probably be very efficient when teaching the substantivized adjectives:

Model

#1

The +

Adjective

The invisible, the underprivileged, the employed, the unemployed,

etc to mean a class of people.

Model

#2

The +

adjective

The unlikely, the unexpected, the inevitable, the good, the bad, etc

to mean abstract notions.

Model

#3

The +

adjectives ending in -ss, -iss, -sh, -ish, -ch, -tch, ese

The Finnish, the Welsh, the Chinese, etc, to mean nationalities.

Choral drills

Choral drills offer students the chance to listen to and practice accent, intonation, and the

lesson's target language. The teacher reads, for instance, a substantivized adjective and everyone

repeats the same word or sentence. Because choral drills focus on accuracy, it's important to aim

for a high standard. Poor pronunciation, for example, or incorrect use of the target language limit

the drill's effectiveness and purpose.

Too much listen-and-repeat activities can prove boring, repetitive, and require little

thought on the students' part. But choral drills remain an important part of language acquisition,

especially in the early stages of a lesson, with limited use, and when made meaningful. As well

53

as improving the students’ pronunciation, choral drills help them to remember well the grammar

rules concerning the theme of the lesson. For example, students repeat the most frequent

substantivized adjectives after the teacher. In this way, they get to know about the common

constructions and the ways that the substantivized adjectives are used.

Games

Properly selected games and activities are significantly helpful as they attract students’

attention immediately. And, at the same time, games allow students to practice language skills.

In this paper, as additional sources for teaching the English substantivized adjectives to Uzbek

students, we have presented some games such as ‘ball toss’ and ‘tic tac toe’ that are particularly

useful and enjoyable for students.

Before we get to the next section of this chapter, we would like to offer a lesson plan we

have conducted to teach the substantivized adjectives at Uzbek higher schools.

Lesson Plan

This lesson is designed to teach the English substantivized adjectives to Uzbek high

school students who have prior knowledge of the adjective.

Teacher: __________

Date: __/__/__/

Group: __________

Subject: English Grammar

Theme: The substantivized adjectives

Time: 80 minutes

Objectives of the lesson:

o To help students revise their knowledge of the adjective;

o To let students be creative and increase their vocabulary and use adjectives that they

normally do not use;

o To get students introduced to the substantivized adjectives;

o To raise students’ awareness of the different types of the substantivized adjectives;

o To encourage students to use the substantivized nationality adjectives and language

adjectives appropriately in their speech;

o To enhance students’ speaking and writing skills.

54

The equipment: world map, board, handouts, dictionary, pictures, soft ball, felt pens, sheets of

paper, scissors, computer and projector.

This lesson plan consists of language exercises and conditional and free speech activities.

The activities are to be performed successively and the teacher needs to monitor the participation

of each student.

The course of the lesson:

I. The preliminaries of the lesson:

a) Greeting

b) Calling the register

c) Checking up the homework

Written homework

Oral homework

Exchange of questions and answers on the homework

Assessment / Evaluation of the homework.

II. Presentation of the new material

1) Preactivities:

a) Revision of the students’ knowledge on adjectives: On a

piece of paper, I have students write words that describe them and their personality. It helps if it

requires students to come up with a specific number of describing words. For example, students

use 30 words to describe themselves as this requires the students to really involve some higher-

order thinking skills and be creative to find words that they may not use every day. I allow

students to decorate their shapes and allow them to make their project as representative of their

individuality as possible. Once the students are through with their project, they are asked to

present it to the group. The benefit of this activity is that it helps students revise their background

knowledge and easily get engaged in the main topic of the lesson - the substantivized adjectives.

b) Brainstorming on the substantivized adjectives: I

write sentences containing the substantivized adjectives in English on the board and ask the

students to give examples for the substantivized adjectives in Uzbek as well.

c) Presentation of the material, exchange of questions and answers, and reactions to them:

For this stage of the lesson, I use the following description as a slide show by the help of

a projector to teach the English substantivized adjectives more effectively in an illustrated way.

55

The substantivized adjectives are used:

(1) As Plural Nouns denoting a class of persons; as shown in the below slide:

(2) As Singular Nouns denoting some abstract quality; as shown in the below slide:

56

(1) Some Adjectives actually become Nouns, and are hence used in both numbers:-

(a) Those derived from Proper Nouns

(b) Some denoting persons

(c) A few denoting things generally

Some adjectives are used as Nouns only in the plural; as, valuables, eatables.

57

In certain phrases; as:

In general; in future; in short; in secret; before long; at present; for good.

58

The use of Nouns as Adjectives is very common in English; as shown in the below slide:

2)While (during) activities:

a) Drilling (exercising)

59

Language exercise:

I arrange students in pairs and hand out the following worksheet and ask them to fill in the gaps in

the sentences with appropriate substantivized adjectives from the box.

The young, the poor, The young, the good, The English, The rich, necessaries, The Indians,

classics, the bad.

Worksheet #1

1. He packed drinks, a map and a compass - all the __________for a day's walking in the

countryside.

2. __________ are usually intolerant.

3. _________ are great lovers of tea.

4. She studied __________ at Cambridge.

5. __________ are hardworking people.

6. __________are privileged.

7. _________in him overweighs 8. ________.

9. _________ are going for election.

10. The organization has set up a special fund for housing for __________.

Teacher’s key: 1. necessaries, 2. The young, 3. The English, 4. classics, 5. The Africans, 6. The

rich, 7. The good, 8. the bad, 9. The Indians, 10. the poor. Note: The substantivized

adjectives The English, The Indians and The Africans can substitute one another. At the

end students discuss their answers with the group.

SPEAKING

Speech exercise – “Hide the word”. This is a good game which aims at improving

students’ speaking skills by stimulating their imagination. For this activity students need to sit in

pairs and take turns to tell each other a free-form story about whatever topic they choose. In their

stories they should hide a substantivized adjective that I have earlier distributed to them. The

other person listening to their partner should guess the word, here a substantivized adjective, that

is hidden in the story.

3) Postactivities

1) Consolidating.

READING

a) Contextualizing the use of the substantivized adjectives. To improve the students’

reading, speaking and listening skills, jigsaw activities fit for purpose. I divide the class into

groups of three (A, B and C). Each group reads a separate extract from the text ‘The Ultimate

Intelligent Star – Leonardo da Vinci’. Then, the groups exchange the extracts so that everybody

60

reads the whole text. After that, group A prepares 4 questions for group B from extract #2,

Group B- for group C from their extract, and group C – for group A from extract #1. After

discussing the answers to the questions, I ask each group to identify substantivized adjectives

from their extracts.

Group A. Extract #1.

Leonard was astonishingly creative. He created immortal works of art, sculpture

and countless other original ideas. In addition to his artistic skills, Leonardo was

also an exceptionally accomplished musician. If you gave him any stringed

instrument, even one that he had not seen before, he could very quickly ‘work it

out’ and play both known and original music on it. Leonardo was known for

exuding a deep self-confidence. He loved his own company, and cared for and

looked after himself as only a best friend or lover would. He was masterful at

playing the fool, could mesmerize audiences with his story telling, and used his

vast musical ability to entertain his fellow guests -spontaneously composing and

playing songs while they stood amazed.

61

Group B. Extract #2.

Leonardo da Vinci is regularly given as the best example of the ‘all round

genius’; in other words, as the individual who has most dramatically

demonstrated the use of all his intelligences. Leonardo’s genius was so great that

some people rate him the greatest genius of all time in many of the individual

intelligences too. He was almost entirely self-taught, and provides a tremendous

example to us of just what someone can achieve with the determination to expand

and develop all of his intelligences.

Contrary to many assumptions, Leonardo was not from a wealthy, well-to-do

family, and his formal education was very basic. When he was a boy, he was

apprenticed to a painter/sculptor, in whose workshop he learned his craft of

drawing and painting.

Group C. Extract #3.

Leonardo particularly developed his sensual intelligence (obviously important to

an artist), and he used to exhort those around him to develop all of their senses too.

He developed his visual powers to such an extent that at times his observations

bordered on the miraculous. It is reported that he was the first person to see, with

his naked eye, the

moons of planet Jupiter, and in his Codex on the Flight of Birds, he

recorded details which remained unconfirmed until the invention of photography

350 years later proved him to be right!

b) Competitive activity.

LISTENING

62

Peer Correction: I distribute several sentences containing the substantivized adjectives in

separate strips of paper and divide the class into two teams on opposite sides of the room. I tell

the students that some of the words highlighted in the sentences are wrong. A student from the

first team comes to the front of the class and selects a strip, reads the strip aloud, and decides if

the sentence is correct. If it is incorrect, I tell the student he or she must correct it. If the sentence

is correct and the student says so, the team receives one point. If the sentence is incorrect and the

student correctly identifies it as such, the team receives one point. The team receives one more

point for correcting it. If the student/team identifies a sentence as incorrect but fails to provide an

accurate correction, the other team can “steal” a point by correcting the sentence. That team then

goes on to draw its own sentence.

For example:

He has dedicated his life to helping wretched of the earth. (Incorrect. Correct form-the wretched)

It is better for sicks to be cared for at home rather than in hospital. (Incorrect. Correct form-the

sick)

She developed an innovative system of microcredit for the needy. (Correct)

These cuts in services will particularly affect the old. (Correct)

When changed into passive, 'The dog chased the cat' becomes 'The cat was chased by the dog'.

(Incorrect. Correct form-the passive)

2) Merry moment

Tic Tac Toe

I make a tic tac toe grid on the board with expressions as adjective + noun form. Then I

ask teams to take turns coming to the board and writing in one substantivized adjective form

under the expression of their choice. If a student from team X writes a correct form, he/she then

marks a large X over that space. When team O writes a correct response, it marks a large O over

the space. The first team that succeeds in having three of its marks in a row is the winner.

Sample Grid:

63

Old people

The old

The best items

The best

Invisible things

The invisible

Beautiful things

The beautiful

Young students

The young

Meek women

The meek

Final exams

finals

Medical tests

medicals

Initial letters

Initials

Ball Toss

This is a whole class game aimed at practicing the special substantivized adjectives

denoting to nationality the plural of which is formed by placing the definite article ‘the’ before

the word. I have students stand in a circle and begin the game by tossing the ball to a student and

saying the plural nationality word. The student catching the ball must say the singular form of

the word. The student then throws the ball to another student and says a new noun.

Example: Me: the French

Student A: a Frenchman

the British

Student B: a Britisher/Briton

the Finnish

Student C: a Finn

the Dutch, etc.

3) Home task:

WRITING

I tell the students that for home work I want them to write an essay of 100 words on the topic

“People of the world”. In their essays they should try to include as many substantivized

adjectives as possible.

4) Assessment: I tell students the marks they scored.

At the end of the lesson I receive students’ feedback on the topic learned, thank them for

active participation and bade good bye. The

lesson plan we have presented above can be adapted to teaching many other grammar topics of

this kind as well; integration of the language skills and the various interaction modes in the

lessons may indeed improve the quality of teaching the foreign language at Uzbek schools.

64

3. 2. System of exercises on the substantivized adjectives for drilling

Exercise # 1. As it has

earlier been mentioned, the names of nationalities and languages are also substantivized. To

introduce new vocabulary on nationality and language adjectives to students I use the world map

or flashcards with people in national costumes. Example 1: "Look at the map. This is Italy.

Italians live in Italy. They speak Italian".

Example 2: "Look at this picture. This is Pedro. He is from Spain. He is Spanish. He speaks

Spanish". I stick flashcards on the board and write key words under it. In this way I introduce

both the spoken and the written form of the vocabulary.

Exercise # 2.

Pointing to different flashcards I ask the students to answer the questions. For example:

T: Where is this man from? S: He is from China.

T: What is his nationality? S: He is Chinese. 

65

T: What language does he speak? S: He speaks Chinese. T: What

are the people of China called? S: The Chinese.

Exerise # 3. I

ask the students to complete the sentences. For example:

They live in Madrid. They are …

These girls are from China. They are…

They are from Tokyo. They are …

My friends live in Russia. They are …

Exercise # 4. I

show the difference between the nationality adjectives and substantivized adjectives denoting

nationality and explain that we should use an indefinite article with a noun when we mean a

person. I also mention that substantivized nationality adjectives ending in –ss, -iss, -ish, -sh, -ch,

-tch and –ese are preceded by the definite article when we mean people. This is because it would

be odd to add plural affix –s at to them; the students understand that it would be incorrect to do

so when they try adding –s to such adjectives: Chineses, Japaneses, Englishes would sound

strange. It is also important to draw their attention to capitalization of these words in English, as

in Uzbek, such words are not capitalized. I divide the students into 2 groups and give them the

handout with such nationality adjectives and nouns. For example: Spanish –the Spanish, Swiss –

the Swiss, English-the English, Swedish – the Swedish, etc.

Exercise # 5. Competitive activity

I divide the students into two groups and ask them to fill in this form categorizing the

substantivized adjectives into following groups:

The + a Substantivized Adjective for PEOPLE The + a Substantivized Adjective for

ABSTRACT NOTIONS

Example: the homeless Example: the supernatural

66

Exercise # 6. Substantivized Adjective Bingo (Substantivized Adjectives and their opposites)

Students review the selected substantivized adjectives and check their meanings in the

dictionaries and choose nine of the adjectives and write them on their bingo card.

The old/the young

The seen/the unseen

The best/the worst

The living/the dead

The visible/the invisible

The former/the latter

The educated/the uneducated

The rich/the poor

The likely/the unlikely

Then I randomly call out substantivized

adjectives from the list and write them down. If the student has the opposite of that

substantivized adjective, he/she can cross the word off their bingo card. The winner is the student

who gets three opposite adjectives in a row. The adjectives must be in a row vertically,

horizontally or diagonally. As soon as the winner has a winning sequence he/she shouts out

“Bingo!” I check the bingo card by going through their written down substantivized adjectives.

Many rounds can be played.

Exercise # 7. Grammar game: “What/who does it remind you of?”

I divide the students into groups of four and give each student a copy of the handout and

have everyone fill in the chart under “you” with a place, person, or thing that the adjectives

remind him/her of. And I have each student take turns asking the other three members of the

group what or who

the substantivized adjectives remind them of. The students then record this information on their

charts. Then we compare charts as a class by asking who had the same ideas in their group, who

gave an unusual or funny answer, etc. Sample worksheet:

a. For each substantivized adjective, write in a place, thing, or person that that the

substantivized adjective reminds you of.

b. Now, ask the members of your group and write in their answers.

Substantivized YOU STUDENT 1 STUDENT 2 STUDENT 3

67

ADJECTIVE

The dark

finals

The reds

The best

The passive

The unemployed

The future

Initials

greens

The above given exercises for drilling should be regarded as supplementary sources for

teaching the substantivized adjectives. When extension is needed, they can well be subsumed

into the lesson plan for teaching the substantivized adjectives we have offered earlier in the first

section of the chapter.

CONCLUSION

Our beloved independent republic of Uzbekistan is boldly facing any challenges of the

time as a sovereign successful state, equal member of the world community, having its own

model of economic, political and spiritual development and worthy place on the international

arena.

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Our republic is developing and prospering in various fields of life, and the educational field

is no exception here, for the latter is being paid special attention to by our President and the

Government of Uzbekistan in order to successfully meet the requirements of the world

standards of teaching various school and university subjects. In this connection, foreign

languages, especially English is made a special accent on as a key language to modern science,

technology, culture, etc. This is still more accentuated on in the recent decree of historical

importance by our President Islam Abduganievich Karimov “On the Measures for Further

Improving Learning Foreign Languages”

The ever-increasing demand for learning the English language in Uzbekistan is

demonstrative of the great need for comparative studies of the two typologically different

languages in contact (Uzbek and English) and creating effective methodologies for teaching

English at Uzbek schools.

My graduation paper is devoted to creating effective strategies for teaching the English

substantivized adjectives at Uzbek schools on the basis of the typologically relevant data of the

two languages in their subsystems of the adjectives.

Although the substantivized adjectives have been investigated separately in the two

languages, namely, English and Uzbek, the comparative analysis of the substantivized adjectives

which is useful to work out effective strategies for teaching them at Uzbek schools has not yet

been conducted. Thus, the topic of our research proves to be one of the actual ones in Modern

English and Uzbek linguistics and especially in methodology of teaching English.

In introduction to our research we have stressed the positive changes taking place in the

various fields of the life in our country, particularly, those in the educational system, here we

have also verified the actuality of the topic of our graduation paper and highlighted the

theoretical and practical value and several main, key points of our research work that surely

underlie the theoretical fundamentals and the strategy for the teaching we have targeted.

In the first chapter of our work we have concentrated our attention on the theory of the

adjectives and of the substantivized adjectives in particular. The substantivized adjective is a

very controversial but interesting linguistic phenomenon in both English and Uzbek. The

adjective, being one of the notional parts of speech, expresses the quality, quantity, degree, state

or a kind of other feature that nouns or other nominal parts of speech usually possess, whereas

the substantivized adjectives incorporate the features of only the nouns having the

abovementioned features.

In our research we have pushed off from the following definition worked out by us: A

substantivized adjective is a sometime adjective (of a simple or derivative, or composite

structure) which has become nominalized acquiring (all) the features of the nouns.

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The process of substantivization is a universal phenomenon and considered to be a

productive means of word-building, word-composition and even a word-coinage, thus enriching

the vocabulary of any language.

In our graduation paper we have analyzed the problem of the substantivized adjectives

being fully or partially substantivized.

In order for an adjective to become fully substantivized, that is, to become a noun the

following strict criteria should work:

1) Ability to form a plural;

2) Ability to have possessive form in -'s;

3) Ability to be modified by determiners such as adjectives, pronouns, articles, etc;

4) Ability to have all the functions of the noun (a subject, predicative, object (attribute,

apposition), adverbial modifiers (in combination with prepositions), tertiary parts of sentences,

that is, parenthesis (expressed by a substantivized adjective functioning as direct address, etc).

Depending on all those factors we have introduced the notions and terms of a:

1)substantivized adjective of the singularia tantum (always have a singular form);

2) substantivized adjective of the pluralia tantum(always have a plural form) in Modern

English. What concerns Uzbek it has all the substantivized adjectives that can have both singular

and plural forms. These are the most relevant typological features of the compared languages

which really might cause interlanguage interference. Such features are to be dealt with in

teaching English (or Uzbek), for they cause some typical mistakes in constructing sentences and

operating with them.

Structurally in the compared languages we have distinguished the following types of the

substantivized adjectives: 1) simple;

2) derivative;

3) composite (of compound and complex types);

4) mixed types of substantivized adjectives.

Adjectives having all the features of nouns are traditionally referred to as “fully

substantivized adjectives”, “wholly substantivized adjectives”, “nouns formed by

conversion or just nouns”.

In our view the most appropriate term for such adjectives is “fully substantivized

adjectives”. So, adjectives like lunatic, relative, conservative, native have acquired all the

morphological features of the nouns.

There is also another big group of the substantivized adjectives that do not bear all the

features of nouns; thus, they are called partially substantivized adjectives. Here by

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“partially” we don’t mean that they are not fully substantivized, they really are, but we mean

that they can’t demonstrate all the features of the nouns in their functions.

Semantically we distinguish such types and subtypes of the substantivized adjectives in

Modern English and Uzbek as the ones expressing:

1) abstract notions;

2) quality;

3) quantity;

4) state;

5) degree;

6) languages;

7) certain terms (of professional character)

8) nationalities, etc. (As there does not exist a complete list of such names of the

nationalities expressed by the substantivized adjectives in linguistics, neither have they been

presented in English and Uzbek grammar books, we found it useful to make up the list of such

(partially) substantivized adjectives that denote nationalities in the Target language (See p-34)

As we can see from the bulk of the examples provided for the substantivization of

adjectives, the use of articles in the English language needs to be given special attention to as it

may cause interlanguage interference, for Uzbek has no articles at all. Taking this into

consideration, we have worked out the cases that require the usage of a particular article in

Modern English that Uzbek never uses (see p-54).

In the second chapter, we have revealed the isomorphic and allomorphic features of the

substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek for linguodidactic purposes, that is, we

have discovered the typological data of the substantivized adjectives in the two compared

languages for creating an effective methodology of teaching the English substantivized

adjectives at Uzbek schools. Our findings have indicated that the adjectives and the

substantivized adjectives in Modern English and Uzbek bear certain similarities and

dissimilarities both structurally and semantically.

Isomorphic (similar) features exist in many languages of the world because of the

universal laws of language evolution and development. That is, human languages develop under

more or less the same circumstances and the same communicative needs. Here it is noteworthy

that the similarities between English and Uzbek are good because they facilitate easier language

acquisition by Uzbek students, whereas dissimilarities mainly cause typical mistakes.

As regards allomorphic features of languages, they represent divergent mindsets of the

speakers of different languages i.e. people of the world in general have contrasting outlooks and

attitudes to life which results in the dissimilar ways of expressing their thoughts in speech and in

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different vision of the world. The discrepancies between the two compared languages lead to

considerable language interference amongst learners. In our research paper, we have offered a

number of exercises specifically intended to eliminate such confusions and interlanguage

interferences.

This way the second chapter is a creative part of our research as this section has paved

the way for us to work out effective methodology of teaching the English substantivized

adjectives at Uzbek schools based on the relevant typological features of the substantivized

adjectives in the compared languages for linguadidactic purposes in the next chapter.

So, in the third chapter we have offered several effective strategies and methodical

recommendations for teachers of English to Uzbek learners, and more specifically, we have

made up a system of miscellaneous activities and exercises focusing our attention on the

integration of all the language skills and the use of interactive methods for teaching the topic

under study effectively.

The end product of our contrastive research offers the following perceptive insights into

the knowledge of the adjective and the substantivized adjectives in the languages compared:

The following features of the substantivized adjectives are typical of both the English and the

Uzbek languages ( they are the isomorphic features):

1. The adjectives are substantivized;

2. Structurally, there are simple, derivative and composite types of the substantivized

adjectives;

3. Semantically, there are monosemantic and polysemantic types of the substantivized

adjectives expressing;

4. The use of the substantivized adjectives as nouns is at times quite frequent because of the

communicative needs.

5. Interestingly enough, the suffix “–ish” is exactly the same both in form and meaning in

the two compared languages (Blue – bluish; ko’k – ko’kish, etc). This is regarded as a

coincidental similarity as the two languages are of different typologies and language

families, English being an Indo-European language, and Uzbek a Turkic language.

6. There is a whole system of the substantivized adjectives that are “nouns” expressing

abstract notions, qualities, quantities, states, degrees, nationalities, languages; and certain

notions and terms of professional character.

7. In both languages the substantivized adjectives have the same syntactical functions

(subject, object, predicative, adverbial modifiers (when combined with preposition (in

English) or postpositions (in Uzbek).

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The features of the English substantivized adjectives uncharacteristic of the Uzbek

substantivized adjectives (they are the allomorphic features);

1. There are the following types of the English substantivized adjectives: Substantivized

adjectives of the singularia tantum proper and improper, and the substantivized adjectives

of the pluralia tantum proper and improper.(see p-52)

2. Some English substantivized adjectives derived from participles(the expected, the unseen, the

injured, etc) are considered to be substantivized adjectives in English whereas in Uzbek

they are still regarded as substantivized participles (kutilgan(lar), jarohatlangan(lar),

o’qigan(lar, va hk.), although we are more inclined to think that any participle in any

language is only then substantivized, when it can function as a subject or an object or even

a predicative and take plural ending “- lar”.

3. Some names of the nationalities which became substantivized have only some of the features

of the noun, i. e. they are partially substantivized (Chinese, Vietnamese) in English,

whereas in Uzbek, such adjectives are fully substantivized (Xitoylikar, Vetnamliklar).

4. In English the names of the nationalities, though expressed by the substantivized adjectives

or not, are always capitalized. But in Uzbek they are not unless they are written at the

beginning of a sentence.

5. The majority of the English substantivized adjectives do not accept the plural -s while all of

the Uzbek substantivized adjectives totally accept the plural forming suffix –lar.

6. In English there exist some adjectives that can not get substantivized as against Uzbek in

which all types of the adjectives can be substantivized.

In the third chapter, which is the main creative one, there has been made an attempt by us

to create an effective strategy for teaching the English substantivtized adjectives at Uzbek high

schools. Departing from the knowledge we have obtained from the various methodical and

methodological research on teaching grammatical phenomena, we have created an effective

strategy fully based on communicative approach to teaching in general and English in particular

which presupposes the extensive use of interactive methods and modern technologies and

advanced means of teaching the language.

First and foremost, we have made a comprehensive and enlarged plan of one lesson as to

the curriculum of the second course of the Department of English in order to realize the strategy

we have worked out. And we have then acted the very plan that helped us to demonstrate our

strategy based on the integrated skills. The strategy offered here is the one that presupposes the

use of advanced methods and procedures in accordance with the requirements of the world

standards of teaching English as an international language, which strictly demands that such

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methods as interactive ones, requiring all kinds of effective ways of teaching, including

individual work, pair work, group work, team work , clusters, etc.

The whole procedure of applying the strategy worked out by us to the process of

teaching the English substantivized adjectives at Uzbek high schools is based on the three main

phases of any teaching , that is preactivities (brainstorming, warm-up, lead-in, etc), while/during

activities (presentation, acquisition or mastering of the material under study) and postactivities

(consolidation of the covered material by applying communicative approach) with a permanent

focus on the substantivized adjectives. The strategy under use is experimented through a system

of exercises (language, conditional speech and speech exercises) that mutually complete one

another in comprehensive learning of the grammatical material for purely communicative

purposes.

We hope that the strategy we have created in our graduation paper may tend to be useful

assets for working out effective methods and methodologies for teaching certain other

grammatical topics more or less related to the topic of our research work.

We also hope that our research will yield benefits to the comparative study of the Uzbek

and English languages, to the translation processes, and to the development of the theory of the

substantivized adjectives in the languages compared. More importantly, the teaching methods,

strategies and activities for teaching the substantivized we have worked out will hopefully be a

good manual and a methodical reference for the teachers of the English language at Uzbek

higher schools.

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