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Ministerio de Educaci6n."Sintesis de Resultados: SIMCE 2011 :· La.st modified October 2012. htq,:l/www.simce.cVfileadmin/Documentos_y _archivos_SIMCE/ lnformes _ 20 I 0/Folleto _ Sintesis _WEB_ 20 12.pdf.

The New York Times. "Student Protests in Chile." Accessed April 2, 2016. htq,:/lwww. nytimes.com/slideshow/20 I I /08/05/world/americas/OSchile-7 .html.

OECD. "Chile Key Facts, Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2012:' Accessed March 29, 2016. http://www.oecd.org1edu/EAG20 I 2%20-%20Key%20Facts%20 -%20Chile.pdf.

Regimen de Jornada Escolar Completa Diurna. "Ministerio de Educaci6n Publica:· Santiago de Chile ( 1997).

Rocha.Alvarado, and Viviana Liseth."Genesis de la Revoluci6n de los Pingiiinos y su incidencia en la reforma educativa en Chile:· (20 I 0).

Torche, Florencia."Privatization Reform and Inequality of Educational Opporwnity:The Case of Chile." In Sociology of Education.Vol. 78 (2005) 322.

World Bank. Development Research Group."GINI index." Accessed March 28, 2016. htq,://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI.

World Bank, UNESCO lnstiwte for Statistics. "Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)." Accessed March 29.2016.

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170 TU South 8end. Undergmduate Research Journal

Inattention or Invention? Examining ADHD through a Culture and Personality Perspective

Author: Eman Alkotob Subject: Anthropology/ Psychology

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a worldwide condition with diverse approaches toward defining, diagnosing, and treating. This variance is explained through a country's perspective of ADHD and whether it is a biological disorder or a manifesta-tion of cultural conditioning and interpretation of behavior. Following the anthropolog-ical Culture and Personality perspective, this paper analyzes ADHD through a lens that considers sociaVenvironmental influences. To investigate ADHD through this lens, both on line and print resources were used. Additionally, two interviews were conducted to observe whether culture influences ADHD diagnosis, treatment, and further manifesta-tion. Overall, this paper does not claim that ADHD is not real, but it simply wishes to examine the disorder through a Culture and Personality perspective.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental condition observed world-wide and characterized by distraction, recklessness, and impulsivity. There is much de-bate concerning whether ADHD is a biological disorder spread through genes or if the disease is a manifestation of cultural conditioning and interpretation of behavior. When looking at ADHD as a whole, one might notice how the disorder is most prevalent in the United States where an estimated 6.4 million children are diagnosed (Molland, 2013). When considering these statistics. one has to wonder why Americans are diagnosed with ADHD more than any other nation. One could reason that the American lifestyle promotes the diagnosis of ADHD, whereas other countries tend to characterize the same symptoms Americans see as deviant as normal behavior.When examining societies through the relationship between culture and personality, this is defined as taking on an anthropological Culture and Personality perspective. By examining society in this way, it allows a different perspective on how and why cultures differ when it comes to the prevalence of mental disorders such as ADHD. Anthropologists who investigate these social influences are the Culture and Personality theorists since they take into consider-ation the varying environmental influences which form rituals, behaviors, and culturally specific beliefs. From a Culture and Personality perspective.ADHD could be viewed as a societal disorder rather than a biological defect since a specific culture's practices may influence the prevalence of the mental disorder in their country. Whether it is from the interpretations of ADHD behaviors, parenting styles, nutrition, or school environment, different cultures approach ADHD differently and it is possible that the United States is structured in such a way as to heavily diagnose ADHD based on the American lifestyle. Therefore, a proposition from a Culture and Personality theorist would be that ADHD

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is influenced by social and environmental factors rather than by genetic predisposition. In order to study ADHD through the Culture and Personality lens, both online and print resources were usedi these resources included journal articles, websites, and books. In addition, I conducted two interviews with an American with ADHD and a Moroccan with ADHD in order to observe whether culture influences diagnosis, treatment. and further manifestation.

To better understand ADHD from a Culture and Personality perspective, it is important to summarize the basics of the discipline's theories. Tied with Psychological Anthro-pology, Culture and Personality Anthropology examines a culture's social structure to see how it shapes the humans within a given society. To these theorists, socialization creates personality patterns and shapes a person's thoughts; these shaped thoughts are formed by the believed norms that fit society's standards (Petr ina et al., 2009). Different socialization practices garner different human behaviors and this is what makes societies variable. S<:holars are unsure when this branch of anthropology first appeared, but many credit Sigmund Freud as one of the founders due to his adherence to environmental influences on personality. Besides Freud, other key figures include Ruth Benedict, Mar-garet Mead, Cora DuBois, and Robert A Le Vine who all expanded this subcategory of anthropology and detailed how intertwined culture and personality are as they influence human behavior. Ruth Benedict states it well in her 1934 text, Patterns of Culture, where she explains that behavior is not due to biological determinism, but rather behavior is formed by the physical environment. She writes, "The life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community. From the moment of his birth, the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can talk. he is the little creature of his culture" (Benedict, 1934). As encompassed in Benedict's writing, humans are a product of their culture and from the moment of their birth they are molded to become part of that society. In turn, their society influences how they grow and what cpnditions they adopt through their formative years. Hence, a main idea in Culture and Personality theory is that society and personality go together as humans are formed by their envi-ronment rather than strictly their genetics.

From a Culture and Personality perspective, ADHD is a byproduct of society where both the history and its diagnosis are influenced by the environment.ADHD has a long history and seemingly different societies have their own history of both diagnosis. treat-ment, and understanding. When looking at the ADHD timeline, the disorder's charac• teristics were first written about in 1798 when Sir Alfred Crichton, a Scottish physician, wrote in his book, On Attention and its Diseases, that the individuals he observed had varying levels of attention (Lange et al., 20 I 0). Crichton perceived that the distractions varied and he did not think the distractions were created by mental processes. Crichton wrote chat the reasons for distractions were influenced by the environment and the type of education the child received. It is quite interesting how in the earliest mention of ADHD, Crichton took into consideration environmental factors and its relationship to behavior.Approximately I 00 years later in 1902, the disorder transitioned to be thought as more of a biological defect rather than an environmental conditioning where British pediatrician Sir George Still described the symptoms of ADHD as an "abnormal defect of moral control in children" (Hollandi and Higuera, 2015). Since Still observed ADHD

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children as having an abnormal defect, he was thus comparing the believed normal chil-dren of his society to judge each child's behavior. This idea of normal is important when examining ADHD since each society takes on their own perspective of normal. Since ADHD behaviors were not seen as normal to Western societies, it grew to become a widespread mental disorder and treated as such. In 1968,AOHD was officially published in the second edition of the Diagnostic and Statisti<:ol Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) where it was coined "hyperkinetic impulse disorder" (Lange et al., 20 I 0). Around this time,medicacion to treatADH D also became marketable as both Benzedrine and Ritalin were FDA approved. Both of these medications were created by American doctors who noticed children's performance in school vastly improved once on these medications.As ADHD became better understood, another 1987 edition of the DSM finally revised the disease and officially renamed it "Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder." The most recent edition, the DSM-IV, describes ADHD as being divided into two categories of inattention and hyperactivity. In both conditions, the patient has "impulsivity that include behaviors like failure to pay close attention to details, difficulty organizing tasks and activities, e.xcessive talking. fidgeting, or an inability to remain seated in appropriate sit-uations" (American Anthropological Association, 2013). To be diagnosed, the child must exhibit at least six symptoms while those over the age of 17 must exhibit S symptoms. In both conditions, the behaviors of impulsivity, inattention, and excessive talking categorize ADHD as a deviation from the American norm. Hence, Culture and Personality theo-rists might claim that the concept of ADH D as a disorder is created due to the formative beliefs that these behaviors are deviant and hereditary rather than environmental.

As seen through the publication of ADHD in the DSM-IV, the behaviors associated with ADHD are not seen as normative in American society. Behaviors such as hy-peractivity, restlessness, and inattention are characterized as abnormal and this is an impetus towards the widespread diagnosis of ADHD within America. From a Culture and Personality perspective,ADHD is prevalent due to the stigmas surrounding hyper-active behavior and inattention in certain settings such as school or work. Due to set norms, the cultural attitudes of Americans contribute to the negative interpretation of ADHD behavior.Although ADHD affects individuals worldwide, the United States remains the forerunner in diagnosis with 1/3 of children being diagnosed before the age of 6 (Zimmerman, 20 IS). These diagnoses are first proposed by family members (64.7 percent) or school/daycare personnel (30.1 percent) as these people observe a disruptive child and refer them to a doctor to get tested for ADHD.When diagnosed, there are no blood tests or X-rays. but the diagnosis is based on multiple obser-vations of the child; hyperactivity and frequent distraction are the key markers for ADHD diagnosis. Someone who does not live in America might view hyperactivity as a normal part of childhood or as immaturity, but in America there seems to be the understanding that hyperactivity goes against the cultural norm and must be treated as a mental disorder. Hyperactivity becomes institutionalized and anthropologist Robert A LeVine writes about culture specific institutions in his 1982 text, Culture, Behavior, and Personality. LeVine explains that, "When a pattern of behavior, belief or commu-nication is accorded such legitimacy in a population as to assume the status of a rule recognized by all, it is instiwtionalized. This means performance in accordance with the rule is recognized as correct (given positive social sanction), while deviations from it is recognized as incorrect and may bring other negative social sanctions" (LeVine,

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1982). LeVine reasons that there are institutions set by society which are recognized as correet and those who go against that norm are termed deviant. In ADHD, behav-iors of hyperactivity and inattention are not viewed as adhering to social norms so it goes against American institutions. Hence, from a Culture and Personality theorist perspeetive, ADHD is institutionalized based on the believed patterns of normative behavior in a given social environment. Since ADHD behavior is abnormal to American institutions, it is recognized as incorrect and deviant and thus given more attention than other countries whereADHD may be seen as immaturity or adolescence.

Since ADHD is viewed as abnormal in American society, many Americans are proned to recognize when a person Is displaying disruptive behaviors associated with the men-tal disorder. Particularly in schools, ADHD specific behavior is coded as abnormal and recognized as deviant by teachers who make note of disruptive students and then refer them to ADHD specialists. A study done by Moon (20 I I) compared teacher's cultural perspectives of ADHD in Korea and the United States and found that the interpretation of ADHD differed immensely between instructors.Although ADHD is diagnosed in Ko-rea. there are not many swdents diagnosed as class sizes are smaller and their cultural practices of respect and Confucianism create an environment that stresses respect.. Even if there is a child who is disrupting the class, the Korean teacher views the student much differently than the American teacher. When Moon interviewed both American and Korean teachers, she found that American teachers saw the hyperactive student as a disruption to the class while the Korean teacher saw the disruption as a reflection of her teaching inadequacies.The American teacher tended to bring in a third party to diag-nose the child in order to prevent future disruptions while the Korean teacher evaluated her instruction methods in order to regain control of her classroom.As Moon details, "US teachers do not consider students' interruptive behaviors during class to reflect negatively on the teacher [but] Korean teachers emphasized their responsibility for dis-ciplining students, so that when (students with ADHDJ interrupted, teachers<took it as an offense to their authority" (Moon, 20 I I). In both instances, the cultural perspective influences interpretation of behavior and the way to treat it. Moon's example stress-es the Culture and Personality theory that society creates behaviors. Since American teachers view and deal with ADHD differently than Korean instructors, this exemplifies that there are varying culwral understandings of behavior. Therefore, from a Culture and Personality perspective, the interpretation of hyperactivity and disruption are key factors in the manifestation of ADHD diagnosis.

Along with interpretation of hyperactivity and disruption as deviant and biological, the cultural interpretations of ADHD influence the given treatment within that soci-ety. In the United States, the treatment for ADHD relies on prescribing medication such as Ritalin or other strong amphetamines. Since the 1960s, specialists medicalized ADHD and viewed the behaviors as a biological abnormality which led to treating the imbalances with medication. When viewing the ADHD brain, the neurotransmitter1 dopamine and norepinephrine are proposed to have abnormal levels compared to the non-AD HD brain (Gregoire, 2014). The imbalance in dopamine and norepinephrine hinder reward responses and create distraction. Since there are imbalances in the brain, the prescribed medication aims to stabilize the needed neurotransmitters. Al-though prescribed medication is noted to help 80 percent of patients, the remaining

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20 percent experience adverse symptoms such as "decreased appetite, weight loss, sleep problems, headaches, jitteriness, social withdrawal. and stomachaches" (Moon, 20 I I). Even with these symptoms noted. medication is still the primary treatment for ADHD in the United States. When looking at the pharmaceutical industry, one can reason that the medicated treatments for ADHD are influenced by the American pharmaceutical companies. The pharmaceutical industry promotes ADHD medication and is attempting to globalize their market which provides a thought that maybe American companies are bringing attention toADHD in order to make it marketable and generate profit. Since 1990,ADHD medication globalized to other countries who adopted the American treatment plan (Gregoire, 2014). Globalization of ADHD med-ication spread to the United Kingdom, Germany. France, Italy, and Brazil. Particularly in the United Kingdom, medical treatment for ADHD grew by almost 25 percent from the early 2000s to now. These rates are comparable to the United States, but the United States remains the most prevalent place for ADHD diagnosis. Culture and Personality theorists might examine how the United States sees ADHD as marketable and ascribe the diagnosis to be connected to cultural business practices.As reflected by their attempts at globalization, the pharmaceutical market influences promotion of ADHD diagnosis through pandering their medication as a first resource for treatment. This form of treatment differs from France which takes a more holistic approach to ADHD. The main treatment in France is not medication, but family counseling and psychotherapy (Wedge, 2012). France does not use the DSM to diagnose, but rather they use the Classification Fran,aise des Troubles Mentaux de L'£nfant et de L'Ado/escent (CFTMEA), which addresses the psychosocial factors concerning ADHD. Instead of viewingADHD as a biological chemical imbalance, France considers the social factors of hyperactivity and interprets the disease differently. In France, it is recorded that less than 0.5 percent of people are diagnosed with ADHD and a Culture and Person-ality theorist would observe that their culture does not promote ADHD. Also. these theorists would agree with France's treatment of ADHD as they consider the social influences on personality and use that to treat those who display hyperactivity. Since France does not medicalize ADHD, it seems that their culture does not condition them to diagnose it as abnormal or in dire need of medical treatment. Hence. the different interpretations of ADHD causation do appear to influence the prevalence of ADHD within a certain society.

Going deeper into Culture and Personality theory, we can examine the American cul-ture and lifestyle to better understand how it promotes ADHD diagnosis. Beyond the American view that ADHD is biological or that the hyperactive behavior is deviant. the American culwre seems to condition children for inattention and distraction. Due to the fast paced environment where people are in need of quick information, children are reared for impatience. Nowadays, children as young as toddlers are using apps on phones, watching television, or playing video games. Studies show that toddlers who watch television are more likely to develop attention disorders (Sharman, 2006). These activities are the gold standard of distraction, and if children grow up with these resourc-es, they will have a harder time paying attention in school or in other circumstances where attention is paramount. School is not fast paced and the transition from home life to a classroom can influence hyperactivity and therefore promote ADHD diagnosis. When children misbehave in class, this might be due to their inability to adjust to the

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slower pace.When studying the Amish who do not use technology or watch television, rcportS show that there are no children diagnosed with ADHD.WhenADHD specialist Michael Ruff studied 800 Amish families. he did not find one child with ADHD; it was only when he met with Amish families who emerged into modern society did he find that they developed ADHD (Ruff, 2005).

Other environmental factors that could influence ADHD diagnosis are the American diet and parenting styles. With the American lifestyle, often both parents are working and hence spend less time with their children. With busy parents. the children eat more convenience foods such as processed and fast food. It is thought that improper nutrition contributes to hyperactivity since, when not given sugary foods or those with artificial colors, children with ADHD are shown to better control their behavior (Wedge.2012). In France, one of the treatments for ADHD is controlling a child's diet. and this has been successful. as those children are able to focus without medication. When it comes to childrearing, French parents tend to prevent snacking and limit the amount of television their children watch. Although there is variation in parenting styles within America, on average children are allowed to snack and those ages 4 to IO watch approximately 16.3 hours of television per week (Morowatisharifabad et al .. 20 15). Another theory con-cerning why French children are not diagnosed with ADHD is because they are taught self-control early in their lives due to the limits their parents place on them. In France, spanking is a normal form of punishment and babies are reared through the "cry it out" method where parents allow babies to cry until they go to sleep (Wedge, 2012). Com-pared to American belief systems.spanking has more recently been seen as controversial where some classify it as child abuse. Also, depending on the parents, many Americans do not allow their baby to "cry it out" and instead tend to the crying babies. A main theory in Culture and Personality Anthropology is how childhood experience influences personality (Petrina et al., 2009), so it would make sense that differences in childrearing influences the diagnosis of ADHD. Factors that produce this seen diversity between cul-tures include:''genes, diet, early experience patterns, later learning experiences, or some combination, but they must be demonstrated to have a direct effect on developmental process in individuals rather than merely being associated with behavioral disposition at one point in time" (Le Vine. 1982). Since ADHD is primarily diagnosed during childhood, the formative years of youth. this is during the critical period of a person's life where their brains are growing and built from societal influences. A Culture and Personality theorist might suggest that the early experiences in a person's life influences their diag• noses of ADHD and hence these formative years create ADHD.

When using the Culture and Personality theory, one might ask why everyone in the United States is not diagnosed with ADHD, if it is created through the shared environ-ment. The answer to this question is best explained by anthropologist Cora Dubois whose "modal personality structure" reasons that. variation within a culwre exists as each person has their own distinct personality, which favors the development of a par-ticular type or types (Fogelson, 2006). With ADHD. some people are more prone to developing the symptoms associated with the disorder while others are not. Even if biology is not viewed as a primary factor for development. genetic predisposition can still be acknowledged when using a Culture and Personality lens. Thus, not everyone will have a certain characteristic that is prevalent in the culture, even if the culture in-

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fluences the behavior, since there still remains individuality and integral brain processes that ultimately form personality predispositions. For example, when viewing the Amish who also reside in the United States, they do not develop ADHD due to their specific lifestyle which does not promote ADHD specific behavior (Shamran. 2006). Since their life differs from the typical American life, they exhibit the variation in one culture despite how prevalent a behavior might be to the whole nation. Examining these cross-cultural differences is essential to understanding ADHD through a Culture and Personality lens since this allows lurther revelations to the complexity of the disorder.As Le Vine ( 1982) perfectly states, "cross-cultural differences in personality are the true starting points for culture and personality study:•

In order to truly compare the culture and personality factors of ADHD, it is important to take part in ethnographic research and study different individuals with ADHD. Cultur-al and Personality Anthropologists compare two cultures through participant observa-tion, interviews1 and questionnaires in order to explain those they are swdying (Petrina et al, 2009).1 wished to employ the same methods as Culture and Personality theorists by comparing my American friend and my Moroccan friend who were diagnosed with ADHD. In order to take part in Cultural Personality theory, I conducted interviews with both friends in order to further investigate cultural factors in terms of ADHD diagnosis and treatment. Since we already gathered the American influences on ADHD diagnosis, I will first explain the experiences of my American friend, R. who was first diagnosed with ADHD as a child. R, who is now 34 years old, was first diagnosed with ADHD when her teachers told her mother that she needed to be tested. R's mother was a nurse so she was aware of ADHD and how medication was the main treatment, so she did not want her daughter to be prescribed and thus did not take her to get tested. R lived without medication while she joined the Navy, got a couple jobs, and then wished to go to col-lege. Once she started taking classes. she realized that she should officially get diagnosed for ADHD as she noticed how distracted she became whenever she began to focus on schoolwork.A therapist tested Rand after three sessions she prescribed her the proper medication which was covered by Medicaid. R's diagnosis was three years ago and she currendy takes Adderall Extended Release. She claims the pills help her focus, but only if she takes them consistently. Physically, the pills make it hard for her to sleep so she also takes sleeping pills in order to combat the repercussions of the Adderall.As exhibited by this case study, R was first encouraged by her teachers to be examined for ADHD. Once diagnosed, she was told to take medication, but her mother initially prevented her lrom taking the pills. Once R reached adulthood and wished to go to college, she got officially diagnosed and began taking the pills which helped her focus, but these pills garnered various symptoms such as trouble sleeping. When examining R.'s situation, this relates to the overall cultural inOuences in regard to ADHD as American culture has teachers recommend diagnosis.Also,asADHD is viewed as biological, the given treatment is med-ication rather than holistic approaches. Hence, R's account ol ADHD mirrors what we observed when examining American culture and their perspectives concerning ADHD as a mental disorder.

When examining the situation with my Moroccan friend, H, her case is very different from R's experience. H is a 24 year old foreign exchange student from Morocco who attends Notre Dame.As a child, H was never suggested to be abnormal or hyperactive

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and thus she never got diagnosed with ADHD. Once H began college in America. she visited the doctor who suggested she get tested for ADHD due to her experiences with distraction and trouble focusing on schoolwork. The doctor referred her to a therapist who examined her case and attributed it toADHD. H related thatADHD does not exist in Morocco and they do not even sell medication like Ritalin or Adderall since there are such few cases, if any. Since her diagnosis last year in 2015, H takes the prescribed med-ication, but she experiences many symptoms. Since taking the medication, H has lost 20 pounds, has no appetite, and is often sick and tired. Her doccors claim the dosage is not right yet so that is w hy she is having trouble with the medication, but H is not so sure. When asked if she regrets being medicated for ADHD, she is still not sure. Since the diagnosis, she has changed in regards to her health and feels like a different person as the medication makes her change in regards to happiness and enthusiasm. From a Culture and Personality perspective. it might be said that H experiences the repercussions of ADHD medicatio n due to her cultural background. Since Morocco does not promote this type of t reatment for ADHD, H may not be dispositioned for the American treat-ment of ADHD or even need the medication in the first place. Since medical practices in Morocco are similar to France due to the French influence, they may view symptoms of ADHD as more of a psychosocial manifestation than what America views as biolog-ical and brain based. Just recently, in January 2016, The Moroccan Association of Child Psychiatry and Adolescent organization held a conference concerning education and training about ADHD based o n how France categorizes the disorder (Amault, 2016). In Morocco, there are no statistics of any children suffering from ADHD. but this can simply be due to lack of knowledge.The Moroccan understanding of AD HD is said to be diagnosed in children who have poor self-esteem, repeated failures, constant moving, and those who tend to interrupt conversations. Even though ADHD is now slowly being rec-ognized in Morocco. they do not wish to treat it through medication due to the worry of misuse or adverse risks. If medication is needed, people must go to Spain to receive some sort of amphetamine. Instead of medicating ADHD like America. Morocco takes a more holistic approach similar to France where they counsel children. By observing H's siwation as a foreigner in America, this adheres to the Culture and Personality theories which suggest each culture influences the people within it since H is negatively influ-enced by the American practices of medicating ADHD. Hence, culture and personality are interconnected and each person may not be conditioned for handling the standards created by societies other than their own.

This paper does not claim that ADHD is not real, but it simply wishes to examine the disorder through a Culture and Personality perspective. By looking atADHD in this way, we can better understand it through the psychosocial context. Whether one agrees that ADHD is social or biological, one must notice the over diagnosis of ADHD in America. With one-third of children diagnosed before the age of six. this is evidence for the obscurity when it comes to ADHD diagnosis. Dr. Leon Eisenberg. a prominent figure in ADHD understanding during the 1950s, claimed on his deathbed thatADHD is over diagnosed. During his last interview, the proclaimed father of ADHD revealed his views that. "ADHD is a prime example of a fabricated disorder ... The genetic predisposition to ADHD is completely overrated" (Grolle & Samiha.2012). Dr. Eisenberg contributed to the modern understanding and treatment of ADHD and with him stating thatADHD diagnosis exceeds normal amounts makes it clear that even experts in the field see

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the mass diagnosis as outrageous. Consequently, this sensationalizing of ADHD within America reflects the culture and in tum affects the people within it.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual o( mentaldisorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. New York, NY:American Psychiatric Publishing, Incorporated

Benedict. R. ( 1934). Patterns o( culture. New York. NY: Mentor Books.

Fogelson, B. (2006). Modal personality. Encyclopedia o( anthropology, 5( I), 1604-1605.

Gregoire, C.(2014, November 24). Worldwide ADHD rates are higher than ever, and it might be America's fault. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from http://www. huffingtonpost.com/2014/ I I /24/dle-global-explosion-of-a_n_ 6 I 86n6.html

Grolle, J and Samiha S.(2012,August 2). What About Tutoring Instead of Pills/De, Spiegel.

Hollandi, K. & Higuera,\/ (2015, February 26). The history of ADHD:A t imeline. Retrieved March 30, 20 16, from http://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/ history# 19022

Lange, K.W., Reichl, S., Lange, K. M.,Tucha, L, & Tucha, 0. (20 10).The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 2(4). 241-255.

Le Vine, R.A. ( 1982). Culture, behavior, and personolity:An introduction to the comparative study of psychosocial adaption. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers:

Molland,J. (2013, December 6).Why areADHD rates 20 times higher in the U.S. than in France/ Retrieved March 30, 2016, from http://www.care2.com/causes/why-are-adhd-rates-20-times-higher-in-the-us-than-in-france.html

Moon, S. (20 I I). Cultural perspectives on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder:A comparison between Korea and the U.S. journal o( lnu:rnational Business and Cultural Studies, 6( I), 1-1 I.

Morowatisharifabad, M.A., Karimi, M., & Ghorbanzadeh, F. (20 I 5). Watching television by kids: How much and why? journal of Education and Health Promovon, 4(36), n.p.

Petrina, K., Chao, X., Scruggs.A Lawrence, L, Mcghee-Snow, K. (2009). Culture and personality. Retrieved April 16, 2016 from http://anthropology.ua.edu/cultures/ cultures.php1culture=Culture%20and%20Personality

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Ruff, M. (2005).Attention Deficit Disorder and Stimulant Use:An Epidemic of Modernity. Oinicol Pediatrics, 44(7), 557-563.http:l/dx.doi. org/lO.l 177/000992280504400701

Sherman, C. (2006). Culture Vs. biology:What causes ADHD1 Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http://www.addiwdemag.com/adhd/article/ 1546.html

Wedge, M. (20 12, March 8).Why French kids don't haveADHD. Retrieved March 30, 20 16. From https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/suffer-the-children/201203/why-french-kids-dont-have-adhd

Zimmerman, R. (September 2015). CDC: O ne-third of children with ADHD diagnosed with the disorder before age 6. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http:// commonhealth.wbur.org/2015/09/children-adhd

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180 fU South Bend Undergraduate Research Joumal

"All the world is a-cryen": Gender Hierarchy, Capitalism, and Labor in Yonnondio

Author: Nargiza Amirova Subject: English/Women's & Gender

Studies Tillie O lsen's Yonnondio contains an argument for a woman's role in domestic labor and how patr iarchal and capitalist beliefs harm families, both physically and psychologically. Olsen's fictional work attempts to reclaim women's bodies from unpaid, domestic labor. The events depicted in the text criticize how women's roles seem entirely composed of domestic labor; taking care of the children, cooking, cleaning, and satisfying their hus-band's desires. The text simultaneously shows how capitalism, and the poverty it cre-ates, causes families to behave negatively to one another losing respect for each other because of how the value of money plays a critical role in the lives of the poor. Olsen's depictions of the impoverished family and a woman's role in it shows how, if a woman loses the strength in her body, she may be devalued by her husband because she is not the "same woman" and seems now like a useless object.At the same time, when a man loses his job, he will feel like less of a man because he is not following the society norms of properly taking care of his family.According to O lsen, people value each other based on what work they can do to support themselves and how they are beneficial to society through this work: the physical hard labor for men in the factory and domestic labor for women in the home. Yonnondio shows how Anna's and Jim's bodies are being used as objects or commodities for capitalists to extract profit from. It further shows the irony of how a husband and wife might fight constantly, but they both live in similar situations where their bodies and their work satisfy someone else's desires. For instance, men work for their boss in hope of a good income, and women provide free work at home in hope of their husband's support. Therefore, the text demonstrates, through its depiction of an impoverished family's struggles, how patriarchy and economy or co-constitutive and must be dismantled. Through this, we can understand both the gender and class hierarchy through Olsen's critique of capitalist relations in the text.

Historical Background

During the 20th c~ntury, in the United States, women were influenced by their environ-ment. where societal norms pushed women to stay home and take care of the house-hold because she is a woman, but this was acwally good for capitalism. In "Manufacturing Femininity,'' Mary Inman says, "To manufacture femininity, about one minute after a baby is born you determine whether it is male or female.Aker that has been established you are ready to begin, for there are already set up and operating two well-defined sets of rules to guide you" (304). This shows that women, r ight aker birth, are "manufacwred" With the position of housewife in mind. Her manufactured role makes her a worker whose job is taking care of her husband so he can keep working and produce more

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