TheMiniFarmingGuidetoVegetable

GardeningSelf-SufficiencyfromAsparagustoZucchini

BrettL.Markham

SkyhorsePublishing

Copyright©2012byBrettL.MarkhamAllRightsReserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanymannerwithouttheexpresswrittenconsentofthepublisher,exceptinthecaseofbriefexcerptsincriticalreviewsorarticles.AllinquiriesshouldbeaddressedtoSkyhorsePublishing,307West36thStreet,11thFloor,NewYork,NY10018.

SkyhorsePublishingbooksmaybepurchasedinbulkatspecialdiscountsforsalespromotion,corporategifts,fund-raising,oreducationalpurposes.Specialeditionscanalsobecreatedtospecifications.Fordetails,contacttheSpecialSalesDepartment,SkyhorsePublishing,307West36thStreet,11thFloor,NewYork,NY10018orinfo@skyhorsepublishing.com.Skyhorse®andSkyhorsePublishing®areregisteredtrademarksofSkyhorsePublishing,Inc.®,aDelawarecorporation.

Visitourwebsiteatwww.skyhorsepublishing.com

10987654321

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataisavailableonfile.

ISBN:978-1-61608-615-2

PrintedinChina

Contents

AcknowledgmentsandDedication

Foreword:WhyGrowYourOwnVegetables?

Chapter1:SoilandFertility

Chapter2:Asparagus

Chapter3:Beans

Chapter4:BeetsandChard

Chapter5:Cabbage,Broccoli,andCauliflower

Chapter6:CarrotsandParsnips

Chapter7:Corn

Chapter8:Cucumbers

Chapter9:Greens

Chapter10:Herbs

Chapter11:Melons

Chapter12:Onions

Chapter13:Peas

Chapter14:Peppers

Chapter15:Potatoes

Chapter16:Squash

Chapter17:Tomatoes

Chapter18:Turnips,Rutabagas,andRadishes

Chapter19:PermaculturewithPerennialVegetables

IndexofRecipes

AlphabeticalIndex

AcknowledgmentsandDedication

Whenyouwork a full-time job doing something other thanwriting, the timeyou do spendwriting necessarily takes away from other activities. And thoseother activities usually involve other people: friends, family, colleagues, andlovedoneswhosacrificeaccesstoyourtimeandattentionsoyoucanwrite.ToomanypeopletolisthavesacrificedsothatIcouldwrite,sohereIwouldliketoacknowledgemythanksandappreciationtoeachandeveryoneofthemfortheirkindnessandforbearance.

Ihavealsoreceivedalotofencouragementfromadiversegroupofpeoplewho would certainly seem strange bedfellows at first glance, but beneath thesurface share important commonalities. I have received encouragement frompeople interested in self-sufficiency, people concerned about the environmentandpeakoil,nutritionactivists,permaculturists,politicalactivistsencompassingeverythingfromanarchistsandlibertarianstothefarrightandmore.Inthelongrun,allhumanlifestartsfromthesoil,soit isn’tsurprisingthatsuchadiversegroupofsincerelycaringpeople,despitesuperficialdifferences,wouldshareacommonunderstandingoftheimportanceofourbondtothesoilandthevalueoffoodself-sufficiency.IappreciatealloftheencouragementIhavereceivedfromallofthesefinepeople.

Skyhorse Publishing took a big financial risk in puttingmy ideas to print.Printingbooksisanexpensiveenterprise,andtheriskofholdinguntoldnumbersofunwantedbooksisquitereal.Youcangotomanyjob-lottypestoresandfindtensof thousandsofunsoldbooksmarkeddowntounderadollar—wellunderthecostofprinting—just toget ridof them.It iseasy toforget, lookingat thephenomenalsuccessthatMiniFarminghasbecome,thatpublishingitinthefirstplacewas to some extent an act of faith in an unproven author.And to somedegree,Skyhorse’swillingness topublish thisbookaswell isa risk.ThoughIrealizeitisariskthatholdsthepotentialforthecompanytomorethanrecoupitsinvestments, I am nevertheless appreciative of the fact Skyhorse continues topublishmywork,andespeciallyforthefactthecompanygivesmecarteblanche

withouttryingtomicromanagemysubjectmatter.TherearemanymorepeopleIcouldandperhapsshouldacknowledgeforthe

role theyplayorhaveplayed inmaking thisbookandmyotherspossible.Nomanisanisland,andtovaryingdegreesweallreflecttheinfluencesofothersinourlives.Butbecausethisisadown-and-dirty,nuts-and-boltsbookaimednotatthetheoryofminifarmingbutatitsactualpractice,Iwouldliketodedicatethisbooktoaveryspecialgroupofpeople:ThoseWhoDo.

Foreword:WhyGrowYourOwnVegetables?

Accordingtoan article in theJournal of theAmericanMedicalAssociation,1medicalerrorsarethethirdleadingcauseofdeathintheUnitedStates.Deathsresult from unnecessary surgery, dose-dependent adverse drug reactions,superbug infections, and more. So even though I am not a medical doctor, Ibelieve I am sufficiently qualified to reiterate ourmothers’ collectivewisdomthatwe ought to eat our vegetables, if for no other reason than to prevent asmuchcontactaspossiblewiththemedicalcommunity.

There is no dietary component with a greater effect than vegetables. Themore vegetables in your diet, the longer and more healthy your life, and thefewerthevegetablesinyourdiet,theshorterandlesshealthyyourlife.It’sreallythatsimple.Studyafterstudydemonstratesthatvegetablescontainhundredsofimportant compounds to fight or prevent practically all chronic diseases, andlinks vegetable consumptionwith lower incidence of disease even in cases inwhichotheradverselifestylepracticesarepresent.

Unfortunately, it isn’t that simple in daily practice for two reasons.Vegetablesareexpensivebecausetheyarelabor-intensivetoproduce,andquiteoftentheyaretastelessordownrightunappealingwhenavailablebecauseoftheresultsofmodernagriculturalpractices.

At first glance, fresh (or at least not cooked) vegetables don’t look thatexpensive. You can get broccoli florets for $4 per pound, cabbage for $3 perhead, and tomatoes for $1.69 each. These prices don’t look so bad until yourealizejusthowmanyvegetablesyoushouldbeeating.

Even when the USDA nutritional guidelines were five half-cup servings(about two pounds) of vegetables daily, fewer than 10 percent of Americansconsumedthatmanyvegetables.Inaddition,thoseguidelinesarebasedupontheUSDArecommendeddailyallowance(RDA)forvariousnutrients.TheRDAfor

nutrientsissufficienttoavoidobvioussymptomsofdeficiency,butaccordingtomany researchers and scientists, is insufficient to convey optimal health orpreventchronicdiseases.2

Though it is possible to augment nutrient intake with vitamin pills, it iswidely recognized thatvitaminpillsare inferior to foodsourcesbecause foodsconvey the vitamins along with a wide array of other nutrients that can’t beduplicatedinapill.Theseothernutrientsaugmenttheeffectsofthevitaminsandalsoprovidetheirownuniquebenefits.Inordertoobtainalevelofnutrientsforoptimalhealth,you’dhavetoeattenhalf-cupservingsofavarietyoffruitsandvegetablesdaily.Thisamountstofourpoundsofvegetables.

If you have four people in your family and each requires a modest threepoundsadayofvegetables,thatcomesouttotwelvepoundsadayoreighty-fourpounds a week. Even at $4 a pound for conventionally farmed produce, thatcreates a$336/weekgrocerybill forvegetables alone.This is one reasonwhynutritional levelsaresobadinpoorercommunitiesandwhyevenmiddle-classAmericansconsumevegetablesmoreasanafterthoughtorasanadjunctthanasaprimary food source.Vegetables arenutrient-dense, but they arenot calorie-dense.Calorieforcalorie,vegetablesaresubstantiallymoreexpensivethanothercommonfoods.

Compare, for example, sirloin steak at $7 per pound and 74 calories perouncetocabbageat$1.69perpoundand6.4caloriesperounce.Withsteakyouget168caloriesperdollar,whereaswithcabbageyouget60caloriesperdollar.Steak and cabbage are both healthful foods, butmatters get evenworsewhencomparing unhealthful foods such as candy or snack chips to vegetables.A 31/4-ouncepackageofapopularcandycostsonly89centsbutpacks240calories,providing270caloriesperdollar.Thiscomparativecostpercalorieisonereasonwhy vegetables provide fewer than 10 percent of the calories in the averageAmerican’sdiet.Eventhoughorganicvegetablesaremorehealthfulandtastyfora variety of reasons, they are even less likely to providemany calories in theaveragedietbecausetheyaremoreexpensivethanconventionalvegetablesonaper-caloriebasis.

When you grow your own vegetables, you can grow them far lessexpensivelythantheycanbepurchased,therebymakingitmuchmorefeasibletofollowourmothers’advice.

Anotherreasonwhypeopledon’teatenoughvegetables,Iamsadtosay,isbecause most vegetables you can buy at the supermarket are unappetizing.Humanshave a natural evolutionarydesire to consume themost calorie-densefood available in order to avoid starvation. To a degree, this can explain our

preference for snackcakesover rutabagas.Butanother important ingredient inthatequationis that industrialagriculturehas turnedwhatshouldbeaculinarydelight into something so tasteless and useless that it can’t be consumed inquantitywithoutadiporsaucetodisguiseitsblandcharacter.

Modernfarmingisasclosetoanindustrialprocessaspracticable.Likeanyother commercial enterprise, especially one whose products are traded on acommoditymarket,thedriveistogetproducetomarketwiththelowestpossiblecosts.Humanhealthandnutritionarenotfactors.

IamremindedofarecenttriptoanautodealershipwhereItradedinatruck.Ihadrecentlyinvestedinanewsteeringbox,hadalwaysusedsyntheticoil,andhadoverallmaintainedthetruckflawlessly.Itranwell,anditshouldhave.Butasatrade-inonthecommoditymarketofusedvehicles,itwasworththeexactsamepriceasif itwouldn’trun, ithadbeenpoorlymaintained,andtheenginehadbeenremoved.Iamexaggeratingabitforeffect,butthat iswhatgoeson.So,given that,what ismymotivation toputseriousmoney intomaintainingatruck when it is treated identically to much more poorly maintained vehicleswhentradedin?

Well,mymotivationisstraightforward:thetruckwasprimarilyformyownuse,andassuchmyowncomfortandsafetyhingedonkeepingthetruckingoodrepair.Thecardealershipdealsinacommodity.Anyextravalueaddedtowhatyou place on the product is lost because everything is priced to the lowestcommondenominator.Butwhenitisforyourownuse,thatvalueisneverreallylostbecauseofthevalueyoupersonallyderivefromtheinvestment.

Theagribusinesssector isnodifferent.Youcango toacommoditymarketandplaceabidforbushelsofcorn,porkbellies,ortomatoes.Thereisn’taplacetoputyourbidon “Brett’s vine-ripenedorganic tomatoes lovinglygrown in asoilrichinmicronutrients.”Mytomatoesarefarbettertastinganddramaticallymorehealthfulthanthosetradedonthemarket,butifIamgoingtogetpaidthesamefor themas if Ihadslathered themwithpoisonandgrownthemin toxicwaste, from a purely dollars and cents perspective, it is most economicallyefficientformetouseslavelabor,growthemintoxicwaste,andcoatthemwitheverypoisonunderthesun.

As a result, the vegetables that are available for you to purchase at thesupermarket are overwhelminglyhorrible. Its nowonder that nobodywants toeat them! Even worse, their nutrient levels have declined dramatically. Forexample,broccolihas37percentlesscalciumthanitdidin1950,andsquashhas52 percent less riboflavin. This same pattern repeats for a variety of nutrientsacrossaspectrumofforty-threegardencrops tested.3Vegetablesarestillmore

healthfulthansnackcakes,buttheyarealotlesshealthfulthantheyusedtobe.IgrewupinruralsouthwesternVirginiainanareamostwouldconsider“the

middleofnowhere.”Asaresult,homegrownvegetableswerethenorm.WhenIlefthomeandmovedtotheNortheast,Iwasseriouslyshockedathowhorriblemostvegetablestasted.Ihadnoideathatthefoodavailableinsupermarketswasofsuchpoorquality.Ohsure, it isvisuallyappealing,but tastebudsreveal theillusion.

YoumayhaveheardofLinux.LinuxisacomputeroperatingsystemthatislicensedundersomethingcalledtheGNUPublicLicense(GPL).ThefirstLinuxkernelwasdevelopedbyLinusTorvalds in1991,andreleasedunder theGPL.Today,themajorityofserversontheInternetarerunningsomevariantofLinuxandagreatdealofthecoreinfrastructureusessoftwarereleasedundertheGPL.TheGPLwas invented by Richard Stallman, who founded the Free SoftwareFoundation.TheideabehindGPLwastomakesoftwarethatanyonecouldworkon andmodify in order to enhance its capabilities or fix bugs. This stood incontrast to theexistingproprietarysysteminwhich theusersofsoftwarewereutterlydependentonthesuppliers.

RichardStallman’smotivation in creating theopen source ideawas, in hiswords,tocreate“softwarethatdoesn’tsuck.”Now,ifyousearchforthatphraseonasearchengine,youwillgettensofthousandsofhits.Theideaofallowingtheenduserofsoftwaretomodifyittookoffandhasledtoincreasinglyfeature-rich and robust software.Open-source software has even created amotivationfor thecreatorsofproprietarysoftware to improve thequalityandopennessoftheirofferings.

To paraphrase Richard Stallman within the context of food, anotherimportant reason to grow your own vegetables is so you can grow “food thatdoesn’t suck.”When you grow your own vegetables, you can grow themosttastyvarietiesinnutrient-richsoils,andyoucanallowthemtoripennaturallysothey can be harvested at their nutritional peak. You have the power to growvegetablesthatyouandyourfamilywillactuallylookforwardtoeating,ratherthanhidingthemunderasauceorcookingthemtodeathjusttogetthemoutoftheway.

AndyoucanalsotakepartinagardeningversionofGPLbygrowingopen-pollinatedvarietiesofvegetablesfromwhichyoucansaveyourownseedsandbecome independent of some faceless corporation half a world away. In sodoing,youcanadaptvarietiestoyourownconditionsandneeds,therebymakingthemthebesttheycanpossiblybe.

Yet another reason to grow your own vegetables is amoral one. I am not

abouttostandonasoapboxandstarttellingyouhowtoliveyourlife.Rather,Iam already confident thatwe share certain basicmoral views, but that overallourmedia has done a very poor job of telling youwhat is going on today inagribusiness.AllIamgoingtodoisinformyouofcertainfacts.I’mcertainthatthiswillbesufficient.

I was a childwhenRonald Reaganwas president and he initiated the so-called“WaronDrugs.”Iamnotpersonallyabigfanof thewarondrugs,butsomethinghesaidinaspeechstuckwithmeandguaranteedIwouldnevereventry an illegal drug.He explained that at various places in the supply chain ofdrugstherewasacultureofheinousviolence,murder,andwantondisregardforhumanlife,andthatbypurchasingdrugsIwouldbecontributingtothatsystem.

Whetherornotdrugsshouldbeillegalorthereshouldbeawarondrugsatallisnotthepoint.Thepointisthatrightnow,asthingsstand,peopledieeveryday in violence tied to the traffickingof drugs; and if I buy those drugs I amcontributingtothatcultureofviolence.Ifyouwanttousethem,that’snoneofmybusiness,incidentally.I’mjustexplainingwhyIdon’t.

So why am I talking about that? Themedia has done a very poor job ofinformingyouthathumanslaveryissointimatelyinvolvedintheproductionoffruitsandvegetablesthatifyougobuyproduceatthesupermarket,itiscertainthatyourhandswilltouchproducethathastouchedthehandofaslave.

I amnot using the terms “slave” and “slavery” as hyperbole and I amnottaking literary license. I am not speaking of “slavery-like” conditions, poorwages,longhours,orbadhousing.Rather,Iamtalkingabouthonesttogoodnessslaveryinwhichhumanbeingsaresoldontheauctionblock,boundinchains,beaten if they are too sick towork, and even shotwhen they try to run away.AndIamtalkingaboutithappeningrighthere,intheUnitedStates.

Though the practices are ubiquitous, they are hard to prosecute in a realmwhereemployersare legallyallowed toemploy isolated,non-English-speakingmigrantlaboratlowwagesandhousetheminsubstandardconditions.Itcanbehard, also, to know who exactly is the slaveholder. There have been sevensuccessful prosecutions of agricultural slaveholders in Florida in just the pastfifteenyears.Unfortunately,itishardtoprove“whoknewwhatandwhentheyknewit,”sothoseprosecutedareusuallyunderlingswhoseconditionsarehardlybetterthanthoseoftheslaves.Evenso,ChiefAssistantU.S.AttorneyDouglasMolloyhasstatedthatthetomatogrowingregionofFloridais“groundzeroformodernslavery.”4

JournalistBarryEstabrook,inrecountinganinterviewwithDouglasMolloy

reportsasfollows:5

“When I askedMolloy if it was safe to assume that a consumerwho haseaten a tomato from a grocery store, fast-food restaurant, or food-servicecompany in the winter has eaten a fruit picked by the hand of a slave, hecorrectedmychoiceofwords.‘It’snotanassumption.Itisafact.’”

Soanothergoodreasontogrowyourownvegetablesistoreducetheleveloffinancialsupportyouprovide toasystemofmodernslavery.Slavery isdrivenby economic factors, and by reducing consumption of goods produced viaslavery,youreducetheeconomicincentiveforslavery.Inthepastdozenyears,policehavefreedmorethanathousandagriculturalworkersinFloridawhowerekeptcaptiveandthreatenedwithdeathiftheytriedtoescape.6Butthatisjustthetip of the iceberg, and by growing as much of our own produce as possible,peoplewithnopolicepowersatallcanhaveafargreatereffect ineliminatingslaveryonthiscontinent.

So,IbelieveIhavegivenyousomereallycompellingreasonsforgrowingyourownvegetables.Doingsois lessexpensiveandwill improveyourhealth,the vegetables you growwill be tastier and holdmore nutrients, and youwillhelpendslavery.

Thisbookisafollow-uptomyearlierbookMiniFarming:Self-Sufficiencyon ¼ Acre. In that book, I explain composting, the timing of planting andharvesting, establishing beds, canning, dehydrating, and much more. I evenexplaincovercropping,croprotation,howtomakeyourownorganicfertilizers,and how to make your own chicken plucker.Mini Farming contains a lot ofinformation, and in this book, I assume (hopefully correctly!) that you havealreadyreadthatbookorhaveacopyhandy.

AfterMini Farming was published, I started getting a lot of crop-specificquestionsviamywebsite. “Howdo Iprunean indeterminate tomato?”“Can Igrowwintersquashonatrellis?”Iwanttoanswerallofthosequestionsinthisbook.

Ihopemypublisherisn’tcringingtoobadly,butethicsareimportantinthisworld.Mostofthisbook,exceptingtheintroductionandthechapteronperennialvegetables,isexcerptedfromalongerandmoreinvolvedbooktitledMaximizingYourMini-Farm.Thatbookcontainsallofthesameinformationasyou’llfindinthis one, alongwith instructions onmaking a number of helpful garden tools,wine,vinegar,andcheese.IfyouareonlyinterestedinvegetablesthenthisbookisabetterchoiceforyouthanMaximizing.

Bothbooksareworthwhileinmyopinionandidealfortheirrespectivetarget

audiences, and I believe they will benefit their readers or I wouldn’t havebothered. But if I’m going to tell you how to save money, that can start byhelpingyoudecidewhattobuysoyoudon’tmakeaduplicatepurchase.

ThematerialinthisbookisdirectlyorindirectlytheresultofquestionsfromthereadersofMiniFarming.IwouldliketothankeveryonewhohasreadMiniFarming and also those who asked questions to help me clarify the thoughtsyou’llfindinthesepages.Happyfarming!

BrettL.Markham

NewIpswich,NewHampshire

September2011

Notes:1Starfield,B.(2000),JournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociationVol.284,July26,20002OrthomolecularNewsService,October30,2007,“DoctorsSay,RaisetheRDAsNow”3Davis,D.,Epp,M.,Riordan,H.(2004),“ChangesinUSDAfoodcompositiondatafor43gardencrops”JAmCollNutrDecember2004vol.23no.6669-682

4Estabrook,B.(2009),“PoliticsofthePlate:ThePriceofTomatoes,”Gourmet,March20095Estabrook,B.(2011),Tomatoland,AndrewsMcMeelPublishing,LLC6PBS(2009)Update:TomatoesofWrath,March13,2009

1

SoilandFertility

In Mini Farming: Self-Sufficiency on ¼ Acre, I spent several chaptersdiscussing soil and fertility in depth. The reason is because proper soilmanagement and fertility practices are the foundation upon which everythingelseisbuilttomakeminifarminganeconomicallyviableenterpriseratherthanmerely a hobby. Optimum soil leads to reduced problems with pests anddiseases, supports higher yields with greater density, creates more nutritiousfood,andallowsyoutospendlessmoneyandeffortongettingmorefood.

Inthischapter,Iamgoingtosummarizewhatyouneedtoknow,plusaddabitmoreinformation.Thissummaryshouldbeenoughtogetyoustarted,thoughit doesn’t substitute for the in-depth knowledge in Mini Farming: Self-Sufficiencyon¼Acre.

RaisedBedsIrecommendplantinginraisedbedsforanumberofimportantreasons.Raisedbedsthathavebeendouble-dugandenrichedwithfinishedcompostretainwaterwhileproperlydraining so thatoxygen levels in the soil areoptimal,nutrientsareboundina livingsymbioticmatrixforreleasetoplantsasneeded,andsoiltemperaturesallowforearlyworking.Furthermore,theclosespacingofplantsina raisedbed increasesyieldsoveruseof rowgardeningwhilegrowingcloselyenoughtogethertoshadeoutweeds.

Bedsarealsousefulforpracticingcroprotationonasmallscale.Everycrophasslightlydifferentrequirementsandplacesslightlydifferentdemandsonthesoil as well as enhancing it in different ways. Probably the single mostdangerousthingthatcanbedone,intermsofpestsanddisease,isgrowingthesamecrop in the sameplaceyear afteryear.Bydoing this, diseases andpestsbuildupuntil theyareultimatelybeyondcontrol.Rotatingcropsbetweenbedssubstantiallyreducespestanddiseaseproblems.

Ingeneral,bedsshouldbeplacedneareachother,butwithenoughspacetowalk between them. The space between the beds can be sod/grass, crushedstones, bark mulch, or practically anything else. Usually, sod/grass is not aproblem, and that iswhat is betweenmybeds.However, these can serve as areservoir for diseases such as botrytis and a breeding ground for wirewormswhileprovidingeasyaccesstoslugs;soifdiseaseproblemsareexperiencedorwireworms start doing serious damage, using (untreated) barkmulch or strawbetween the beds to suppress grasses may be wise. Also, if any grass isn’tmowedregularly,itcangrowoverintoabed.Thenextthingyouknow,you’llbepullinggrassoutofyourbedsbythehandful.

CompostingCompostingisthekeytopreservingandenhancingthefertilityofthesoil.Thelawof conservationofmatter says thatmatter cannotbe createdordestroyed.Withoutgettingintothephysicsofmatter/energysystems,inpracticaltermsthismeansthattheelementsinaplantcamefromthesoil,andunlessthoseelementsareputbackintothesoil,aminifarmerwillfinditnecessarytopurchaseoutsideinputs such as fertilizer. Thus, if the foliage of a tomato plant has takenphosphorusfromthesoilandthatplantissimplydiscarded,thephosphoruswillneed to be replenished from an outside source. But if, instead, that plant iscomposted,thephosphoruscanthenbereturnedtothesoilviathecompostandtherebyreducetheneedforanoutsidesourceofphosphorus.

Compost isacomplexandliterally livingsubstancemadefromtheaerobicdecompositionoforganicmatter.Otherthanvolatileelementssuchasnitrogen,alloftheessentialelementsaddedtothepileaspartofthecompostedmaterialsare retained.But, inaddition, theprocessofcompostingbreaksdownpoisons,destroysbothhumanandplantpathogens,generatesawidearrayofbeneficialsoilorganisms thathelpplantsget themost from thenutrients in the soil, andevenproducesantibioticsforcombatingdiseases.

Composting, therefore, is absolutely crucial from an economic perspectivebecauseofthewayitreducestheneedforfertilizers;italsoservestopassivelyprevent a whole host of pest and disease problems. The importance ofcompostingcannotbeoveremphasized.Youshouldbeaddingatleastfourcubicfeetoffinishedcomposttoevery4ft.x8ft.bedannually.

pHThepHisameasureofhowacidicoralkalinethesoilis.Itisimportantbecauseplantsgenerallyhaveacertain rangeofpHpreference foroptimalgrowthandbecausethepHofthesoilactivelyaffectswhichmicroorganismswill thriveintheenvironmentandhowreadilythenutrientscontainedinthesoilcanbeusedbyplants.ThepHismeasuredonascalefrom0to14.Zero(0)ishighlyacidiclikebatteryacid;14ishighlybasiclikelye;and7isneutral.

Many sources list a pH preference range for each plant, but these sourcesoftendifferinthedetails.Forexample,onesourcewilllistthepreferredpHfortomatoesas5.8to6.5,whereasanotherwilllistitas6to7.Thesimplefactisthatyoudon’tneedtobethatdetailed,aswithonlyaveryfewexceptions,plantsgrownforfoodingardenswillgrowwellwithapHrangingfrom6to7.True,a

cucumbercangrowatapHashighas8,butitwillalsogrowat6.5.Because pH corrections can take months to show results and because the

constantrotationofbedsbetweencropsmakesitimpracticaltocustomizethepHofabedtoagivencrop,itmakessensetotesteachbedindividually,andcorrectthebedstoauniformpHofbetween6and6.5.Theexceptionsarethatthebedsused for potatoes should have the pH lower than this, and the beds used forbrassicas (such as cabbage and broccoli) should have extra lime added to theholes where the transplants are placed. These practices will be specificallycoveredinthechapterspertainingtothoseparticularplants.

Inmostof thecountry, thesoilpH is too lowandneeds tobe raised tobewithinanoptimalrange.CorrectingpHusinglimecanbeproblematicinthatittakes severalmonths toact.Though thegardeningyear should start in the fallalongwithany soil corrections so the limehas time to reactwith the soil, therealityoflifeisthatthedecisiontostartagardenisgenerallymadeinlatewinterorearlyspring.Thus, the farmer is stuck trying tocorrectpHwithinweeksofplanting instead of months. However, with a bit of creativity and the use ofalternatematerials,bothshort-andlong-termcorrectionscanbemadetothepH.

There aremany limingmaterials available for this purposebut only four Iwould recommend: powdered lime, pelleted lime, dolomitic lime, and woodashes. Others such as burnt and hydrated lime act more quickly, but arehazardous to handle and easy to overapply. If you choose to use these latterproducts,pleasefollowpackagedirectionsclosely.

Pelletedlimeispowderedlimethathasbeenmixedwithaninnocuouswater-solubleadhesiveforeaseofspreading.Itactsnomoreor lessquicklythanthepowderedproductbutcostsmore.Limecan takeas longasayear to take fulleffect,butitwillremaineffectiveforaslongassevenyears.

Dolomiticlimecontainsmagnesiuminplaceofsomeofthecalcium.InmostsoilsintheU.S.(exceptingclaysoilsintheCarolinas),usingdolomiticlimeforup toonequarterof the limingisbeneficial tosupplyneededmagnesiumwithcalcium.Itisusedatthesamerateasregularlime,takesaslongtoact,andlastsaslong.

Wood ashes are a long-neglected soil amendment for pH correction. Theycontainawidearrayofmacronutrientssuchaspotassiumandcalciumbutalsocontain elements such as iron, boron, and copper. They act more quickly incorrectingsoilpHbutdonot lastas long.Woodashesareappliedat twice therate of lime for an equal pH correction but should not be applied at a rateexceedingfivepoundsper100squarefeet.So,ineffect,woodashesarealwaysusedinconjunctionwithlimeratherthanontheirown.

ThepHscaleisalogarithmicvalue,similartoadecibel.Assuch,theamountof limeneeded to raise thepH from4 to5 isgreater than theamountof limeneeded to raise the pH from 5 to 6. Furthermore, the effectiveness of lime isstrongly influencedby the typeof soil.So the following table reflects bothofthese factors. The numbers represent pounds of powdered limestone per 100squarefeet.Forwoodashes,doublethatnumberbutneverexceedfivepoundsper 100 square feet in a given year; so wood ashes can seldom be usedexclusivelyasapHmodifier.Rather,theyarebestusedwhenmixedwithlime.

One further note about lime: A lot of sources say you shouldn’t applyfertilizeratthesametimeaslimebecausethelimewillreactwiththefertilizerandneutralizeit.Tosomeextent,thisistrue.However,limestaysactiveinthesoilforaslongassevenyears,sothefertilizerwillbeaffectedanyway.Aslongasbotharethoroughlyincorporatedintothesoil,don’tworry.Inaddition,theseconcernslargelypertaintoinorganicfertilizerssuchasammoniumnitrate.Whenthe fertilizersareorganicandconstitutedofsuchcompoundsasbloodmealoralfalfameal,theadverseeffectofthelimeisconsiderablyreduced.

Thoughexcessivelyalkaline(e.g.,apHhigherthan6.5)soilsarerareintheUnitedStates,theyexistinafewplacessuchastheBlackBeltprairieregionofAlabamaorcanbeaccidentallycreatedthroughexcessiveliming.

Correcting an excessively alkaline soil can be done using a variety ofsubstances,includingelementalsulfur(knownasflowersofsulfur),ammoniumsulfate,sulfur-coatedurea,andammoniumnitrate.Theselattermethodsareseento be best practices in industrial agriculture, but they are excessivelyconcentrated and can hurt the soil biology, so they aren’t recommended for aminifarmaimingatsustainability.

Some authorities also recommend aluminum sulfate, but the levels ofaluminum, if the pH ends up changing, can be taken up by the plant and canbecometoxictobothplantsandanimals.SoIrecommendeitherstraightflowersof sulfur (if growing organically) or ammonium sulfate (if you don’t mindsynthetic fertilizers). In practice, the amount of ammonium sulfate required tolowersoilpHagivenamountis6.9timesasmuchassulfur,soyou’lllikelyusesulfurforcostreasons.

Sulfurworksbycombiningwithwaterinthesoiltocreateaweakacid.Thisacidreactswithalkalies in thesoil toformwater-solublesalts thatare leachedfromthesoilandcarriedawaybyrains.Becauseitcreatesanaciddirectly,itiseasy to overdo sulfur, so it should be measured and added carefully, andthoroughly incorporated into the soil. It takes about twomonths to reach fulleffectiveness,butresultsshouldstarttomanifestinaslittleastwoweeks.

PoundsoflimerequiredtoadjustthepHof100squarefeetofbedspace

Ammoniumsulfateworksbyvirtueoftheammoniumcationcombiningwithatmosphericoxygen tocreate twonitriteanions (negativelycharged ions), twomoleculesofwater,andfourhydrogencations(positivelychargedions).Thesehydrogencationsarethebasisforacidityandtheywillthenacidifythesoil.

So, howdo youmeasure your pH?You can use a soil testing kit or a pHmeter.ThecostofpHmetersforhomeusehasdroppedconsiderablyinrecentyears,withaccurateunitssellingforaslittleas$13.Simplyfollowthedirectionsthatcomewithyourindividualmeterformeasuringeachbed.

MacronutrientsMacronutrients are generally defined as being nitrogen, potassium, andphosphorus, as these are the elements that are required in greatest quantity byplants.To these, Ialsoaddcalcium,magnesium,sulfur,carbon,hydrogen,andoxygen.Thelatterthreearesuppliedbywaterandtheatmospheresotheywon’tbe further considered here except to note that proper aeration of soils allowsbeneficial bacteria access to oxygen. Furthermore, avoid walking on beds toprevent the soil from being compacted. Raised beds in general, due to beinghigher than their surroundings, usually don’t have a problem with becomingwaterlogged, which helps keep water from forcing out the oxygen that thesebeneficialmicroorganismsneed.

Most soils in the U.S. are acidic and require lime for optimum growing.Addinglimealsoaddssufficientcalciumautomatically.Furthermore,thosefewsoils in the U.S. that are alkaline are usually made so by the high naturallimestonecontentofthesoil.So,ingeneral,calciumlevelsshouldbefine.

Themajor problemyouwill see that involves calcium is blossom end rot.Blossomendrotiscausedbyunevenuptakeofcalcium,usuallyduetoextremevariations in rainfall. Usually this can be avoided through properly thoroughwatering.Therearealsosomeeffectivecommercialpreparationsonthemarketthatcontainareadilyabsorbedcalciumsaltcalledcalciumchloride.

PoundsofsulfurneededtoadjustthepHof100squarefeetofbedspace.

Ingeneral,ifyouareusingdolomiticlimeforatleastaportionofyourlimeneeds,yoursoilwillnotbedeficientinmagnesium.However,thesoilchemistryofcompetingcationssuchasmagnesiumandpotassiumiscomplex,andaplantcouldendupdeficienteven though there is sufficientelementalmagnesium inthe soil.Magnesium can becomeunavailable if potassium is present in severeexcess or if the organic matter that forms the biological colloid that makesmagnesiumavailabletotheplantispresentininsufficientamounts.

Aclearsymptomofmagnesiumdeficiency isoftenobservable inseedlingsthat have been held too long in nutrient-poor starting mixes before beingtransplanted:interveinalchlorosis(thegreenturnsyellowishbetweentheveins)ofolder/lower leaves,oftencombinedwithcurling leafedges thathave turnedreddish brown or purple. If this symptom manifests, the deficiency can becorrectedintheshorttermbyaddingEpsomsalt(magnesiumsulfate)atarateofeightouncesper100squarefeet.Thisformofmagnesiumiseasilyabsorbedbyplants.However,thedeficiencyshouldbeaddressedinthelongtermbyaddingsufficientlevelsofcomposttothesoilandbyusingdolomiticlime.

BoththeRapitestandLaMottetestingkitswillprovidepH,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumlevelsaswellasrecommendations.

Sulfurisanimportantconstituentofaminoacids—thecorebuildingblocksofDNAandlifeitself.Assuch,theprimarysourceofsulfurinthesoilisorganicmatter. Soils rich in organicmatter through composting hold onto sulfur so itcan’tbeleachedout,andconvertittothesulfateformneededbyplantsalittleata time as needed. However, even the most meticulous composting won’treplenishallthesulfurlostbecausewhatweeatisseldomcomposted.Sosulfur,insomeform,shouldbeaddedannually.

Elementalsulfurisnotagoodchoiceforthistaskunlessitisalreadybeingused toalter thepHof thesoil. In itselemental form,particularly insoils thataren’t rich inorganicmatter, it isn’t available toplants as anutrient.Sulfur isbestaddedintheformofeithergardengypsum(calciumsulfate)orEpsomsalt(magnesiumsulfate). Itcanbeaddedat the rateof fiveouncesper100squarefeeteveryyearforeitherproduct.

Phosphorus isaconstituentof theenzymesessential forenergyproductionwithincells.Theprimarysourceofphosphorusinsoilisfromplantandanimalwaste,inwhichitexistsinanorganicformnotimmediatelyaccessibletoplants.Thephosphorus is convertedasneeded to an inorganicphosphate form that isusablebyplantsviamicroorganismsinthesoil.Thisis,overall,thebestmethodofmaintainingsoillevelsofphosphorusbecausemostofthephosphorusisheld

inreserveuntilneededandcan’tbeleachedoutofthesoilbyrain.Theprocessofmicroorganismsconvertingphosphorusintoausableformis

temperaturedependent,anditisnotatallunusualforspringtransplantstosufferfromdeficiencybecauseofthis,eventhoughthereisadequatephosphorusinthesoil.Thisisaconditionthatisbetterpreventedthancorrectedandcanbedonebysimplyusingagoodliquidfishfertilizerat thetimeoftransplantandeveryweekthereafteruntilsoiltemperaturesareconsistentlyabove55degrees.

You should also test your beds for phosphorus. Numerous test kits areavailable,andtheyallworkfinewhenusedaccordingtothedirectionsinthekit.Ifyoursoilisdeficient,youshouldaddphosphorusintheformofbonemealinpreference to rockphosphate.Bonemeal is brokendown slowly in the soil, soyou should test your soil and add it at least fiveweeks prior to planting.Theamount you’ll need to add depends on the results of your soil test; theinstructionswillbeinthetestingkit.

The reasonwhy rockphosphate shouldbe avoided is because it is high inradioactivesubstancesthatcanbetakenupbyplants.Infact,oneoftheprimarydangersofsmokingistheradioactivityofthesmoke,whichisaresultoftobaccobeingfertilizedwithrockphosphate.Tobaccoispartofthesamefamilyofplantsaspeppers,eggplant, tomatoes,potatoes,andmanyothergardenedibles.So ifyou don’t want to be eating radioactive substances, rock phosphate is bestavoided.

Potassium is abundant in most soils, though usually in forms not readilyavailabletoplants.Theseunavailableformsareconvertedbythemicrobiallifein the soil into forms that plants can use as the plants require it. Thoughpotassium is required for life, its deficiency is not as readily noted as otheressentialnutrients.Plantsaresmallerandlesshardythantheywouldotherwisebe,butthismightnotbeevidentunlesscomparedsidebysidetothesameplantgrowninnondeficientsoil.Therefore,useatestkittodetermineifthereisanydeficiency.

Conscientiouscompostingpracticesthatreturncropwastestothesoilaretheprimarysourceofpotassiuminaminifarm.Thisis,however,inadequateasthepotassiumremovedincropsthatareconsumedorsoldcan’tbereturnedinthisfashion,soacertainamountofpotassiumwillneedtobesupplied.

Nearlyallplantmaterialscontainusablelevelsofpotassium,sooccasionallysupplementingyourcompostsupplywithanoutsidesupplyofcompostwillhelpmaintainproper levelsofpotassium.Alfalfameal, usuallyused as a sourceofnitrogen, also contains potassium.Wood ashes, discussed earlier as a way oflowering pH, also contain substantial amounts of potassium along with other

traceminerals.Greensand,amineraloriginallyformedontheoceanfloor,isalsoa source of potassium along with micronutrients. The same applies to kelp,seaweed,andfishmeal.Dependingontheresultsofsoiltesting,thesematerialscanbeused inanycombination to supplypotassium that is removed from thesoilbycrops.

NitrogenisaprimaryconstituentofaminoacidsandtheDNAwithinplantcells.Thoughweliveinanatmospherethatisroughly78percentnitrogen,thisform of nitrogen is inert and not useful to plants. In nature, the nitrogen isconverted into a usable form through a bacterial process known as nitrogenfixationthatisusuallydonebyrhizobiumbacteriathatliveinsymbiosiswiththeroots of legumes.This iswhy cover cropping is so important (as explained inMiniFarming:Self-Sufficiencyon¼acre).Apropercycleofcovercroppingandcroprotationcanreducetheneedandcostofoutsidesourcesofnitrogen.

Deficienciesinnitrogenshowthemselvesquicklyinthelossofgreencolor,startingwiththeoldestorlowestleavesontheplant.Becausetherateatwhichnitrogen in thesoilcanbemadeavailable toplants isaffectedby temperature,thisdeficiencyismostoftenseenearlyintheseasonwhensoiltemperaturesarebelow 60 degrees. Theremay be enough nitrogen in the soil, but the bacteriacan’tkeepupwiththedemandofthecrops.Itisbettertopreventthisproblemthantocorrectit,andearlyplantingsshouldbesupplementedwithaliquidfishfertilizer until well established and soil temperatures are sufficient to supportnaturalnitrogenconversion.

Justaswithmostothernutrients,compostingshouldbeyourfirstsourceofmaintaining soil fertility.Butbecauseyoucan’t compost crops that you eat orsellandbecausenitrogenlossesincompostingcanbeashighas50percent,youwill need to add nitrogen as it is removed by crops. Good crop rotationwithlegumesandlegumecovercropscanhelpaswell;sometimesthisisenough.Butoftennitrogenneedstobeadded,andasoiltestcantellyouhowmuchyouneed.

Sources of nitrogen include compost from an outside source, various fish,feather, alfalfa, cottonseed, blood and bonemeals, well-rotted manure fromchickensandotheranimals,etc.Ilikeusingdiversesourcesinordertoincludeas many other micronutrients as possible. Because we keep chickens, thechickenmanureaddedtoourcompostpiledramaticallyreducesouroverallneedforoutsidesourcesofnitrogen,buttoanextentthiscomesatthecostoffeedforthechickens.Intermsofdollarcost,however,thisworksinourfavorastheeggsaremorevaluablethanthefeed,sothemanureisfree.

MicronutrientsA large array of minerals has been identified as being essential for humanhealth, and more are being discovered all the time. So far, the following areknown to be needed: potassium, chlorine, sodium, calcium, phosphorus,magnesium, zinc, iron, manganese, copper, iodine, selenium, molybdenum,sulfur,cobalt,nickel,chromium,fluorine,boron,andstrontium.

These can only be acquired through the food we eat. We can get themthroughplants or through animals that have eatenplants.But, ultimately, theyhave to enter plants through the soil. Thus, deficient soils, even if the plantsseemperfectlyhealthy,ultimatelyleadtoproblemswithhumanhealth.

Because industrial farming doesn’t have human health as its goal, farmmanagementpracticeshaveledtoalong-termdeclineinthemineralcontentoffoods.Anumberofstudieshaveshownthatinjusta30-yearperiod,thecontentofvitaminsandmineralsinfoodshavedeclinedbyanywherefrom6percentto81percent.1,22

Thereareanumberofelementsrequiredbyplantsthatareneededinsmallquantities,andarethusdescribedasmicronutrients.Overall,duetooverfarming,thesemicronutrientsaredeficient inagricultural soilsbecause theywereneverrestored as they were depleted. Only a handful of plant micronutrients areofficially recognized: boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum,andzinc.Thatisbecauseseveredeficienciesoftheseelementsusuallygiveclearadversesymptomsinplants.

However, as plants are the start of our food chain and humans require farmore than just these sevenminerals, soildeficiency inanymineralneeded forhuman health should be avoided as its disappearance from plants means wedon’tgetenoughinourdiet.

Compostingtomaintain thefertilityof thesoilandretaintheseelements isimportant.Toadegree,asdescribedinMiniFarming,theseelementscanalsobeaddedinsmallquantitiestoyourbeds.Thisiseasytodowithelementssuchascalciumor iron thatcanbeeasilyobtained,butmoredifficultwith fluorineorstrontium. And even if these elements are available, you may be missingsomethingwehaven’tlearnedaboutyet.

Theeasiestwaytomakesurethesoilhasallofthetraceelementsneededisthe periodic addition of oceanminerals.Over the ages, rain and erosion havemovedagreatmanymineralsthatwouldordinarilybeonlandinabundanceintothe sea. Overfarming without replenishment has exacerbated this problem.ThoughIamabletogototheseashoreandcollectkelpfromthebeachformy

owncompost,thisisseldompracticalformostpeople.WhatIrecommendasasolution for the most robust and nutritionally complete plants possible is theperiodicadditionofasmallquantityofoceanminerals.

In essence, sea water contains, in varying amounts, every known elementsave thosemade artificially in nuclear reactors. In 1976,Dr.MaynardMurraypublished a book titled Sea Energy Agriculture in which he highlighted theresultsofnumerousstudieshehadmadefromthe1930s throughthe1950sonthe addition of ocean minerals to agricultural land. Though his book waspublishedsome timeago, Ihavediscovered that ingrowingbedssidebyside,thosetreatedwithseamineralsdo,infact,produceobviouslyhealthierplants.

Thebigproblemwithusingoceanwaterdirectlyisobvious:youcan’tgrowplantsinsaltwaterbecauseitkillsthem.Infact,oneofthepracticesofancientwarfarewas to sowyour enemies’ fieldswith salt so theywouldn’t be fertile.Fortunately,onlyasmallquantity isrequired,andwhenpackagedirectionsarefollowed not only is there no harm, but plants also becomemore healthy andmoreresistanttoinsectsanddiseases.Itisalsofortunatethatonaminifarm,theamountofseamineralsrequiredistiny;soevenaten-poundbagofseamineralsfromvarious sourceswill literally last for years. (I use five pounds annually.)ThereareanumberofcompaniesofferingseamineralssuchasGroPal,SeaAgri,SeaMinerals fromArkansas andothers.The key is that each offering is a bitdifferent,sobesuretoscalethepackagedirectionsappropriately.

Woodashes,seaminerals,andboraxaresourcesofmicronutrientsforyourbeds.

TheonemicronutrientthatIdon’tbelieveseamineralsprovideinsufficientquantityisboron.You’llseeborondeficiencyinhollowstemsforbroccoliandholloworgraycentersofpotatoes.Theamountofboronrequiredistinyandcanbe derived from borax. Use extreme caution because borax in higherconcentrationsisaneffectiveherbicidethatwillleaveyourbedssterileforyearsifitisdumpedonthemindiscriminately.Sufficientboraxcanbeaddedwithoneteaspoon dissolved in one gallon ofwater and used to lightly sprinkle over asingle4ft.x8ft.bedbeforearegularwatering.Onceayearisplenty.

ConclusionHealthy plants require healthy soil. Use of composting practices will helpreduce the need for outside inputs plus provide optimum soil health forsuppressionofdiseases.Raisedbedsallowformoreaeratedsoil,higherlevelsofproduction,andtheuseoflessfertilizeroverall.Ideally,theprocessofamendingbeds for pH range and nutrient deficiencies will start in the fall or, at a bare

minimum,startassoonasthesoilcanbeworkedinthespring.Covercroppingandcrop rotation fillout themix tocreate themosthealthysoilpossible, thusmaking whatever crops you grow more productive. I have only given basicinformationinthischapter,soformorein-depthknowledgeofbedconstruction,double-digging, composting, and soil fertility practices such as biochar, pleaseseeMini Farming: Self-Sufficiency on ¼ Acre, in which several chapters aredevotedtocoveringthesesubjectsindepth.

Notes1Bergner,Paul(1997),HealingPowerofMinerals,SpecialNutrients,andTraceElements (TheHealingPower),ISBN-13:978-0761510215

2Marie-Mayer,Anne(1997),“HistoricalChangesintheMineralContentofFruitsandVegetables”

2

Asparagus

No,asparagusisnotpoisonous!Well,theberriesmadebythefemaleplantarepoisonous, but the rest of the plant isn’t.And the compounds thatmakeurinesmell . . .different . . . to the22percentof thepopulationable todetect itareperfectly safe. In addition, it is a nutritional gold mine, rich in folic acid, Bvitamins,antioxidants,minerals,andevenvitaminsEandC.NowonderitwascultivatedbytheancientGreeks,Egyptians,andRomans.

Theasparagus instores issoldby thepound,sosometimes it issoldwhenold and the stems have turnedwoody (so itweighsmore). In terms of usableportions, it isquiteexpensive.Organicasparagus,evenfrozen,sells for$7perpound atmy local supermarket. If therewere ever a compelling argument forgrowingyourownasparagus,thepriceandqualityofwhatcanbefoundatthesupermarketshouldbeenough.

Thoughittakesafewyearstogetestablished,asparagusiseasytogrowandcan be eaten fresh, frozen, dried for use in soups, and even canned using apicklingmethodsothatitwillkeepforyears.Onceyouhaveabedofasparagusstarted,ifyouproperlycareforit,itwilllast20to30years.

SelectingtheRightVarietyAsparagus is one of the few dioecious species of plants grown in gardens,meaning that a plant is either entirely male or entirely female, rather thancombiningbothmaleandfemaleattributeswithinthesameflowerorplantasisseen with tomatoes. All asparagus variants grow just fine anywhere in thecountry, so they should be selected based on your own tastes. Popular open-pollinated varieties include Mary Washington, Argenteuil (also known asPrecoceD’Argenteuil)andConover’sColossal.Though therearehybridmale-onlyvarietiesavailableascrowns(i.e.,bare-rootplants),I’dencouragegrowingoneoftheopen-pollinatedvarietiesfromseedbecauseoftheeaseofseed-savingso that if anything ever happens to your bed, you can re-create it instead ofrelyingonacompanythatmayhavegoneoutofbusiness.

StartingAsparagusAsparagusiseasy tostartfromseed.Start it indoorssixweeksbeforethelastfrost,andplant itoutsidewhenyouplantoutyour tomatoes.Becausesomeofthe seeds are male and some are female—and only the male plants producesubstantive shoots—start twice as many plants as you think you’ll need.

Transplantthemintworowsinyourbed,sixinchesapart.Thenextyear,cullallthe femaleplantsbut the two strongest, leaving these so thatyoucanproduceseeds.Thencull theweakestof themaleplantsuntilyouhaveplantsevery12inchesto18inchesineachofthetworowsinthebed.

PlantingAsparagusAsparagus can be grown from either seed or bare-root plants known as“crowns.”Theprimarydifferenceisthatcrownsareanalreadyestablishedplantandwillproduceusefulshootsayearearlier thangrowingfromseed.Whethergrowing from seed or crowns, you should keep in mind this is a prettypermanentplanting,andthebedshouldbepreparedaccordingly.

Thesinglemostimportantaspectofanasparagusbedisdrainage.Wetfeet,that is, waterlogged roots, are the death of asparagus. Raised beds are animportanttoolinthisregard,butmakesuretheraisedbedisn’tlocatedinanareaof the yard that gets flooded.The secondmost important consideration is soilpH;asparagusprefersasoilasclosetoneutralaspossible.Thus,becauseofthelongtimeframesneededforlimetowork,anasparagusbedshouldbepreparedand pH correctives added in the fall prior to the transplanting of crowns orseedlings in the spring. The third most important consideration is light;asparagusneedsatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightdaily.Fourth,bedsshouldbe4feetwideand1½feetlongforeachplant;sowhengrowingsixplants,you’llneedabed4ft.wideand8ft.long.(Makesurethelongsidefacessouthforthegreatest sun.) Finally, the bed should have plenty of reserve fertility. This isaccomplished by double-digging as described inMini Farming, incorporatingproperly aged compost into the bottom of the trenches, working even morecompost—agoodfourinchestosixinches—intothetopofthebed.Thiscanallbedoneinadvance.Then,amonthorsobeforeplanting,addtracemineralsandthenuseorganicsourcestocorrectanydeficienciesinmajornutrients.Theuseoforganicsourcesisespeciallyimportantwithasparagusbecauseyoucan’tjusttill more stuff into the bed later (remember: asparagus takes three years toproduce,andtheplantslastaslongas20years).Anythingaddedlaterwilljustbemixedwithcompostasatopdressing.Theannualspringtopdressingshouldbefivecubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bed.Youshouldmix3lbsofwoodash,1lboflime,2lbsofbonemeal,2lbsofalfalfameal,and1lbofbloodmealintothecompostbeforeapplication,andthencoverwithatwo-inchmattingofcleanstraw.

Thereisoneotherveryimportantthingyouneedtoknowaboutasparagus:it

loves arsenic, sucking it up like a vacuum cleaner, and it will give it to you.Arsenic is not a problem unless your bed is in an old apple orchard thatwastreated with arsenic as an insecticide, but the one thing you absolutely mustavoid is pressure-treated wood that has been treated with arsenic compoundsanywherenearyourbed.Allyouhavetodotokeepyourasparagussafeiskeeppressure-treatedwood away, and don’t try to grow it where arsenic was usedheavily in the past. This is absolutely no joke—it is entirely possible forsomeonewhodisregardsthisadvicetomunchanasparagusstalkandthenquiteliterallyflopoverdead.

WeedsBecause an asparagus planting is long term, weed problems can accumulateand quickly overwhelm the plants. Furthermore, because the crowns thatproducetheshootstendtogrowupward,weedcontrolviahoecaninadvertentlydamagethem.Thestandardprotocolfordealingwithweedsinasparagusbedsistouseflameweeding,mulching,orother(nonherbicidal)meanstokeepweedsaway from the bed.Grasses are especially invasive, so don’t let anyget closeenough for the seeds to fall into the bed.Apply two inches to four inches ofcompost yearly to the bed, and cover that with two inches of clean straw tosmotherweeds.Pull anyweedsbyhand that stillmanage togrowbefore theyproduceseeds.

Asparagusgrowingthroughthestrawmulchusedtosuppressweeds.

DiseasesAsparagusisvulnerabletoanumberofroot-rotdiseases,butthesearehighlyunlikelytomanifestinanasparagusbedsituatedasdescribedearlier.Itcanalsobe affected by botrytismold spread from grasses, but properweed control asearlierdescribedwillpreventthis.Therearealsosomeviraldiseasesthatcankilloffasparagus.Thesearebelievedtobespreadbyaphids,butareextremelyrareinhomegrownbedsasopposedtocommercialsituationswhereacresuponacresofasparagusaregrown.Allyouhavetodoiscreateawell-drainedraisedbed,controlweedsandcontrolaphidswhen/iftheyappear,andyou’llhavenodiseaseproblems.

PestsAsparagusaphidsarerarelyanissuebecauseawidearrayofnaturalpredatorssuchas ladybugskeep them incheck. Ifyou finda largepopulationofaphids(theywillhideunderthebractsoftheleaves),theycanbeeffectivelycontrolledwithtwoapplicationsofinsecticidalsoapaweekapart.

Asparagus beetles aremore of a threat. These are usuallymetallic blue orblackandaquarterofaninchlong,thoughsomeorangespeciesexist.Theadultasparagusbeetledoeslittledirectdamage;itistheoffspringthatareaproblem.Theeggs,appearinglikeblackspecks,hatchintogreentograywormlikelarvaeaslongasonehalfinchthateatvoraciously.Thedefoliationweakenstheplants.

Primarycontrolofasparagusbeetlesis tocutdownallasparagusfoliageattheendoftheseasonwhenithasturnedyellow/brownandaddittothecompostpile. This denies the beetles a place for offspring to overwinter. During theseason,justvigorouslyshakingthefoliagewilldislodgethelarvae,andbecausetheywillbeunabletoclimbbackupthestalk,theywilldehydrateanddieinthesoil.

HarvestIf grown from transplanted seedlings, allow asparagus to grow withoutharvestinganythingfortwoyears.Thiswillallowthefoliagetostoreenergyinthe crowns thatwill enhance their ability to survive over thewinter. If grownfromtransplantedcrowns,allowthemtogrowwithoutharvestforthefirstyear.Then,thefirstyearyouharvest,onlyharvestthestalksthatappearforoneweek.Overthenext20or30years,youcanharveststalksforafullsixweeksastheyappear in spring. Then let the rest of the stalks grow out into full plants toreplenishthecrowns.

Harvesting asparagus isn’t all at once. You’ll see a stalk here and a stalkthere.Thestalksshouldbecutwithasharpnonserratedknifejustbelowgroundlevelwhen theyarenomore thaneight inches tall. (Muchbiggerand theygetwoody.)Putaninchofwaterinthebottomofawide-mouthcanningjar,andputthestalksinthewaterinyourrefrigeratoruntilyouhaveenoughofthemtocookorpreserve.They’llkeepjustfineforacoupleofweeksthisway.

SeedSaving

Collect theripe redberries from the femaleplants,bring them inside, and letthemdryoutonapaperplate.Next,crushtheberriesandwinnowouttheseeds.Keep the berries out of reach of children as the attractive red berries arepoisonous, and eating as few as seven of them might send someone to thehospital.

PreservationandPreparationAsparagus can be kept fresh in the refrigerator for a couple of weeks if thebottomendsare inwater,or itcanbeblanchedandthendehydratedorfrozen.Pickling works extremely well with asparagus. Even though it is technicallyfeasible,Idon’trecommendpressurecanningbecausetheresultantmushisvile,inmy opinion. For fresh eating, asparagus can be eaten raw, steamed, or stir-friedwithexcellentresults.Frozenpackagescanbecookedinthepackageinthemicrowaveifventedtopreventexplosions.

PickledAsparagus

Ingredients:

60asparagusspears

½cupcoarsesalt

1galloncoldwater

31/3cupsdistilledwhitevinegar11/3cupssugar2tspcoarsesalt2tspmustardseed

1tbspdillseed

1yellowonion,slicedintorings

4clovesgarlic

Saveasparagusspearsuprightinwaterintherefrigeratoruntilreadyforuse.

Procedure:1. Clean theasparagus,cutoff thebottom1 inch,and thencut the spears3½

incheslongsotheywillfituprightinthecanningjarswhileleaving1inchtothetop.Putthecutspearsinalargebowl,add½cupcoarsecanningsalt(seasalt is fine, too), and then cover with water for two hours. After the twohours,drainandthenrinsetheasparagus,andpatitdry.

2.Cleanandsterilizefour(4)wide-mouthpintcanningjarsandlids.3. Combine the vinegar, sugar, 2 teaspoons salt, dill seed,mustard seed, and

onioninasaucepanovermediumheat.Bringtoaslowboil,thenturndowntoasimmer.

4.Packtheasparagusspearsuprightandtightlyinthejars.Addacloveofgarlictoeachjar,thenpourinthepicklingliquidtowithin¼inchoftherim.

5. Adjust the two-piece lids and process in a boiling water canner for 10minutes.

Thesecanbeenjoyedfreshfromthejar,asagarnish,orasatastyadditionto

salads.

Asparagusberriesareeasytocollectforseed-saving,butdon’tletchildrenhavethem.

ButterLemonAsparagus

Ingredients:20freshasparagusspears

1lemon

1½tbspbutter

2clovesgarlic

Procedure:

1.Washanddryasparagusspears,cuttingoffthebottom1inch.Cutthelemoninhalf, settingasideonehalf for later.Mince thegarliccloves.Preheat thebutterinthepanoverlow-mediumheat.

2.Addthegarlictothebutterandstir-fryuntilslightlybrowned.3.Addtheasparagus,andstir-fryuntiltender.

4.Squeezethejuicefromhalfofthelemonovertheasparagusinthepan.5.Cuttheremaininghalflemonintothinslices.6.Servetheasparaguswiththelemonslicesasgarnish.Delicious!

Asparagus fresh from the garden makes this simple dish a culinarydelight!

3

Beans

Beansareoneofthemostversatilevegetablesgrowninthegarden.Theycanbeused to replenish nitrogen in the soil, eaten as green beans, and made intoeverythingfromsoupsandstewstotofu.Theyarealsooneofthemostevocativeintermsofculturalimagery,withthecowboycarryinghissupplyofdriedbeansonalonelytrekandevenlittleodeshavingbeencomposedinhonorofthe...music...weoftenmakeaftereatingthem.

The variety of beans available crosses species and is truly amazing, withliterally hundreds of varieties available from traditional cultures and moremodernbreeding.Thereareseedcompaniesthatofferoverahundredvarieties!Butdespitethisdiversitymadepossiblebydedicatedseedsavers,therealityisthatmostbeansavailableinthesupermarketarefromonlyahandfulofvarieties,andfully85percentofthesoycropinthiscountryhasbeensubjecttoartificialgeneticmodificationtoconveytraitssuchasherbicideresistance.

Furthermore,beansarecommonlyovercroppedand,addinginsulttoinjury,supplies of dried beans are sometimes several years old. Unless you know afarmer and can get them fresh, the bestway to have decent beans is to growthemyourself.Luckily,theyareamongtheeasiesttogrowofallgardencrops.

VarietySelectionBeanscanbedividedintocategoriesinvariousways,butformostminifarmerstheycanbecategorizedintermsofgrowinghabit(bushbeansvs.polebeans)orculinary use (green beans vs. dry beans). But they can also be divided evenfurther to include lima beans, cow peas (aka “black-eyed peas”), yard-longbeans, and more. As they grow well anywhere in the country, the biggestconcernisthefarmer’spersonaltaste.

Whenbeansaregrownfreshandcompared,yousoondiscoveratremendousdifferenceinflavorsandtexturesthatisnotevidentinsupermarketfare.Agreenbean is definitely not just a green bean. There is a big difference in flavorbetween theBlueLakeandOldHomesteadvarieties.Youmayeven find that,likeinmyfamily,differentfamilymemberspreferthetasteofdifferentvarieties.WhatIencourageyoutodoisgrowmorethanonevarietyeachyear,andkeeptrying out newvarietieswhile continuing to grow favorites you’ve discoveredalong the way. Amix of green and dried varieties is best for menu diversitythroughouttheyear.

Rather than tell you exactly what to grow, instead I’ll list some of thevarieties that I’ve grown and enjoyed in each category as a starting point for

yourowninvestigation.BlueLake,GreenPole:Therearemanyvariantsofthis,someofwhichoffer

awidearrayofdiseaseresistance.BlueLakepolebeansusedtobethedominantbean grown for commercial processing, and it definitely holds up well tocanningandfreezing.BlueLakeisverymildlyflavoredandthusidealforpickyeaterswhomightnototherwiselikegreenbeans.

KentuckyWonder,GreenPole:Thisisaveryproductivepolebeanthatwillproduceeight-inchlongbeansaslongasyoukeepitharvested.Itseemstoneverstop!KentuckyWonder isalsoveryversatile in that, ifyouallowthebeans tomature into a dried bean instead of harvesting while green, they make anexcellentdrybeanforbakingandsoups.It isalsoagoodfreezingbeanwithaverydistinctiveflavor.

TopCrop,GreenBush:Ifyouwanttoputalotofbeansaway,you’llfindtheproductionimpressive.Theplantsgrowuptotwofeet tall,andstartproducingbeansaboutfiftydaysfromplanting.

Jacob’sCattle,DryBush:Thisismyfavoritedrybean.Notonlyisittasty,butit isalsoproductiveandgrowsreallywellontheoutsideedgesofthecornpatch.Itiseasytoharvestandaveryattractivewhitebeanwithpurplesplotches.

BlackTurtle,DryBush:Inmywife’sopinion,thebestchoiceforbeansouprecipes.Ithasanassertivebutexcellentflavorandverygoodcookingqualities.Itisn’tasproductiveassomevarieties,butmorethanmakesupforthatwithitsflavor.

Henderson’s,BushLima:Limabeansarealittletrickyintermsoftimingtheharvest. You want to catch them when they are big but before they start tomature.Henderson’shasaverydefined“limabean”flavorwithahintofbutter.Shelledout,theysteamnicely.

SoilPreparationBeansdon’tgrowwellinacidicsoil,sothebedwhereyouplantogrowbeansshouldbecorrected toapHofbetween6and6.5well inadvanceofplanting.Enrich thesoilwithcompost,andmakeespeciallysureofsufficientpotassiumandphosphorus.Ifthesoilisabitlowinnitrogen,that’sokayaslongasyouuseabacterialinoculantwhenplantingasthebeanswillmaketheirownnitrogen.

PlantingBeans

Beanscanbeplantedanytimeafterthelastexpectedfrostdateforyourareabyplantingtheseedoneinchdeepdirectlyinthesoil.Ifaveragesoiltemperaturesare under 60 degrees, though, germinationwill be poor.Though beans can beproductiveoveraperiodofseveralweeks,theyeventuallystopproducing,soforalongerharvestyoushouldplantbeansintwophases,withthefirstphasebeingaboutaweekafterthelastexpectedfrostdatewhensoiltemperaturesareabove60degreesandthesecondphasebeingthreeweekslater.InmostoftheUnitedStates, this is sufficient to give yields until fall. If you live in an areawith agrowingseasonof120daysorlonger,youcanalsoplantathirdphaseinanotherthreeweeks.

Beanswill generallygrow finewithorwithout any inoculant; however, inorder tomaximize their utility in a crop rotation based on their ability to fixatmospheric nitrogen into the soil, an inoculant shouldbeused.Thiswill alsoincreaseyields.

Alittlebitof inoculantgoesa longway.WhatIdo isput thebeanseedsIwillbeplantinginajar,mistthemwithabitofwater,addacoupleofteaspoonsofinoculantandgentlyswishthemarounduntiltheyallhavesomeinoculantonthem.ThenIplantthemaboutoneinchdeep.

Withbushbeans, Iplant themfive inchesapart inalldirections.Withpolebeans,Iplantthemfiveinchesapartinonerowsixinchesawayfromtheframeon the north side of the bed. Pole beans can grow asmuch as nine feet tall,whichcanbeprettyinconvenientforharvesting.Youcaneithermakeyourtrellissoitslantsawayfromthebedandputasix-footsupportonthetopoftheleaningtrellis, or prune the bean vines as they reach the top of a conventional trellis.Eitherwaywillwork.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesWeedsareseldomaproblemwithbushbeansgrowninbedsbecausethebeanssproutandgrowquicklyandtheleafcover theyprovideeffectivelyshadesoutweedcompetition.Allyouneedtodoiskeepanygrassgrowingaroundthebedtrimmed,andmakesurethebedispreparedandweed-freepriortoplanting.

Thetwomajorpestsyou’lllikelyseeinbeansarebeanbeetlesandJapanesebeetles.Japanesebeetlesstartasgrubsinyourlawn(orthatofyourneighbor’s).If you have a lot of property so there is a good buffer with your neighbors,treating your entire lawn and beds with milky spore disease can be a goodpreventative after the disease has become established in a couple of years.

Japanesebeetletrapsareprettycontroversialasapestcontrolmeasurebecausesomestudies show that theyattractmorebeetles than they trapandwill likelybring in beetles from the neighbors. They work well for me, though, whenplaceddownwindofthegardenatleast100feetaway.

Japanesebeetlesattracteachother.Soonewaytokeepthemcontrolledistosimply pick them off by hand into a small bucket of soapy water. (The soaplowersthesurfacetensionofthewatersothebeetlessinkanddrownratherthanfloatontopwheretheywillclimbupthesidesofthebucketandflybackontoyour beans.) If you keep them picked off daily once they are noticed, you’lllikely prevent the problem altogether. They can also be controlled by organicsprayssuchaspyrethrinandrotenoneusedaccordingtopackagedirections,butthisisalastresortassuchspraysareexpensive.

Adultbeanbeetlesoverwinterinthedebrisfromtheprioryear’sbeancrop.Socleaningoutyourbedattheendoftheseasonandcompostingtheplantsisanimportant preventative. Bean beetles look like slightly larger than averageladybugswithabronzecast.Theylaymassesofyelloweggsontheundersidesoftheleaves,whichhatchintospinyyellowgrubsabout¼inchlong.Boththeadultsandthegrubseateverythingbuttheveinsintheleavesofthebeanplants,andtheyeatvoraciously.Exceptinthecasesoflarge-scalemonocropping,beanbeetles canbe controlledby cleaningup theprior year’s plants, smashing anyeggmassesorgrubsfoundundertheleaves,andflickingtheadultsintoabucketof soapywater. In the extremely rare caseswhere they can’t be controlled bythese measures, the grubs can be controlled with insecticidal soap or lighthorticulturaloil(besuretogetundertheleaves)andtheadultscanbecontrolledwithneemoilpreparations.Themosteffectivecontrol Ihave foundforpotatobeetles is an organic bacterial poison called spinosad, used according to labeldirections.

Thedensefoliageofcloselyspacedbeansshadesoutweeds.

Disease is seldoma problemwith beans in a properlymanagedmini farmenvironment because crop rotation and debris removal control most likelydiseases.Ifyouhaveaproblemwithsclerotina(whichlookslikeawhitemold),switchingtopolebeanswilllikelysolvetheproblem.

HarvestDrybeansneed tostayon thebushorvineuntil theyare tan/brown,dry,andbrittle.Oncetheyhavereachedthatstage,pickthemintoabag,thenbreakopenthepodsandallowthebeanstosettletothebottom.Discardthelargedebrisandpourthebeansintoalargebowl.You’llnoticealotofsmallerdebris,butthisiseasilydiscardedthroughaprocessknownaswinnowing.

Ittakesabitofpracticetogetthehangofwinnowing,buttheideaissimple.The beans are heavier than the debris, so if the beans mixed with debris arepoured into another bowl from a height while the wind (either natural orartificialviaafan)isblowing,thedebriswillbeblownawayandthedebris-freebeanswillbealoneinthesecondbowl.Ihavefoundthisworksbestusingafanonmediumspeedacoupleoffeetawayandpouringfromadistancenogreaterthanthreefeet.Usingthismethod,youonlyhavetopourfromonebowlintotheotheracoupleoftimestohaveperfectlycleanbeans.

Once the dry beans have beenwinnowed, set them aside in an uncoveredbowlforafewweeksforthemoisturetodissipate,givingthemastirwithyourhandonce in awhile.Then store them in an airtight container in a cool, dark

place.Greenor“snap”beansarebestharvestedassoonastheyarelargeenoughto

use. If you keep the plants picked clean and don’t allow the beans to startmaturing, the plantswill keep generating flowers and beans for a fewweeks.Incidentally,plantsgrownlikethisthatarenotallowedtosetseedfixthemostnitrogenintothesoil.Harvestthebeansintheafternoonwhentheplantsaren’tdamptoavoidspreadingdiseases,andstoretheminabagintherefrigeratorforuptoaweekuntilyouhaveenoughbeanstoeatorpreserve.

Blackturtlebeansinabowlafterwinnowing.

SeedSavingIn the case of dry beans, simply using the ones you have stored for food issufficient if you intend to use them the next year. Otherwise, you’ll want todehydrate themabitusing the techniquesdescribed inMiniFarming.Tosaveseedfromgreenorsnapbeans,treatthemlikedrybeans.Allowatleasttwentyplantstogrowtomaturetheirpodsintothedry-beanstage(makingsurethatistheonlyvarietyofbeansyouaregrowingatthetime),andthenwinnowlikedry

beans.

PreparationandPreservationGreenbeanscanbekept inaplasticbag in the refrigerator forup toaweek.After that, they can be pickled, canned, or blanched and then frozen ordehydrated.Theyarebeststeam-blanchedforfourminutes,cooledinicewaterforanotherfourminutes,andthenfrozen.Butthatissimplymyownpreference,and many people like green beans that have been pickled as dilly beans,preservedviapressurecanning,orreconstitutedfromdriedformintostewsandcasseroles.

Old-FashionedGreenBeans

Ingredients:1lbfreshgreenbeanswiththeendsremovedandcutinto1-inchpieces1smallonion

3tspbutter

¼cupofwater½tspsaltdashofpepper1chickenbouilloncube(usegoodstuff,notthebouillonthatismostlyMSGorsalt)

Procedure:Cuttheonionintoslicesandsautéinbutteruntilsoft.Stirinthebeans,then

addthewater,salt,pepper,andbouillon.Crushthebouillonwithaforkorspoonuntilitisdissolved.Coverandcookuntilthebeansarecrisp/tender.

4

BeetsandChard

Beetsandchard (alsoknownasSwisschard)arevariationsof thesameBetavulgaris species commonlydescended froma seabeet thatgrowswild aroundtheMediterranean.Though beets are grown for their roots and chard for theirleafygreens,thegreensofbothareedible.Beets,beetgreens,andchardareanabsolutenutritionalpowerhouse.Therootscontainglycinebetaine,acompoundshown to reduce homocysteine levels in the blood. Homocysteine levels arepredictiveofcoronaryarterydisease,peripheralvasculardiseases,andstroke,sobeetsaredefinitelyacasewherecleaningyourplateisagoodidea.

In addition to this benefit, beets supply minerals such as manganese,magnesium, and iron, as well as B vitamins such as niacin, pantothenic acid,pyridoxine, and folates.Beet greens and chard are also an excellent source ofvitamin K, which plays a role not just in blood clotting, but also in boneformation and limiting damage to brain tissues. They also contain vitamin C,betacarotene,zeaxanthin,lutein,andahostofotherimportantantioxidants.

That’s all well and good, but . . . are they tasty? Absolutely! And, evenbetter,theyareamongtheeasiestcropstogrowonyourminifarm.

VarietySelectionGiven properly prepared soil, beets and chard can be grown practicallyanywhere inAmerica thatplantswillgrow. I’venever triedavarietyofeitherthat wasn’t delicious, though you’ll find over time that certain varieties maygrowalittlebetterortastealittlebetterinyourspecificlocation.I’llgiveyoualistofmyfavoritevarieties,andIthinkyou’llfindthemwellsuited,butpleasedon’tlimityourselftojustmysuggestions.

Beets:Bull’sBlood,EarlyWonder,Cylindra,DetroitDarkRedChard:RubyRed,Rainbow(akafive-colorsilverbeet),FordhookGiant

SoilPreparationBeetsandchardgrowbestindeeplydug,rock-freesoilsrichinorganicmatterthat have a pH between 6.5 and 7.5. The beds should be fertilized normally,though adding¼ teaspoon of borax (mixed with something like bonemeal orwoodashesforevendistribution)per32squarefootbedisagoodideabecausebeetsaresensitivetoborondeficiency.Onemajorproblemwithgerminationofbeets and chard is that soil can crust over the seeds, leading to plants beingtrappedunderneaththecrust.Thiswillcauseunevenstandswithdifferentrates

ofmaturity. To solve this problem,make sure there is plenty ofwell-finishedcompostinthesoil.

StartingandPlantingBeetsandchardcanbegrownasbothspringandfallcrops.Duringtheheatofthe summerwhen temperatures climbabove80degrees and stay there, they’llbecome bitter and tough.Chard can be harvested at practically any stage, butbeets aren’t usually ready for harvest before fifty to sixty days. On the otherhand, chard and beets don’t germinate well at soil temperatures below 50degrees. Inmyarea, thebest time toplant isamonthbefore last frost.This islateenoughthatthesoilissufficientlywarm,butearlyenoughthatthebeetsareatharvestingsizebeforethesummerheatmakesthemtough.

Beetsandchardcanbesuccessionplanted,butinmyexperiencethisworksbest in the fallbecause thecoolerweatherduring the laterdevelopmentof thebeetskeeps themsweeter,whereasa secondspringcropofbeetscanbehitormissdependinguponthesummerweather.Forfallplanting,plantyourfirstcropabout seven weeks before first frost and your second crop about four weeksbeforefirstfrost.

Itisentirelypossibletotransplantbeetsandchardthataregrowninsidefirstasseedlings.Thoughthisisseldomdoneonacommercialscalebecauseofthecarerequiredtoavoiddamagingthetaprootandbecauseofthetightnessofthetiming, on the scale of a mini farm transplanting can improve production byallowing the grouping of more uniformly sized seedlings, thereby preventingplantsthatsproutedearlierfromshadingoutthosethatsproutlater.Simplystarttheseedsinsideinsoilblockstwoweeksbeforetheseedswouldusuallybesownoutside.

Whetherusingseedsortransplants,spaceyourplantingatthreeinchesinalldirectionsforbeetsandfourinchesinalldirectionsforchard.Duringthespringplanting,plantthemabout½inchdeepandkeeptheplantedareaevenlymoistuntilgermination.Ifacrustforms,useastandardkitchenforktolightlybreakupthecrustnomorethan1/8inchdeep.Becausetheseedsoftencontainseedsformultipleplants,aboutaweekaftergerminationyou’llwanttogobackandthinout the extras. Save the thinned plants—roots and all—for a delicious saladgreen.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesBecausetheplantsarespacedsocloselytogether,oncetheystartgrowingtheywill shadeoutmostweed competition (provided thebedwasweed-free at thestart).Whatfewweedsremainshouldbecarefullypulledbyhand.

Beets and chard seldom have pest or disease issues that are economicallyimportantonthescaleofaminifarm,thoughincommercialmonocroppingwithinadequaterotationquiteafewpestsanddiseasesareproblematic.Cleaningupdebrisat theendof thepriorseason, rotatingcropsbetweenbeds,mowing thelawn, and keeping grasses and weeds out of the beds are usually sufficientmeasurestoavoidproblems.

Leafminersandotherbeet-specificpestsspreadfromnearbyweedsthatarebotanicallyrelated,suchaslamb’squarters;themoregeneralizedpests,suchasleafhoppersandcarrionbeetles,migrate from tallgrassesnearby.Thediseaseseitheraccumulate in thesoil fromgrowingacrop in thesameplaceyearafteryearoraretransmittedbypests.So95percentofthetime,justdoingbasicminifarm maintenance will prevent any problems. Those few that remain, if theybecomeeconomicallythreatening,canbecontrolledwithorganicsprayssuchasneemorpyrethrin/rotenoneusedaccordingtolabeldirections.

Youcanfitalotofbeetsintoabedwhenplantingatthree-inchintervals.

HarvestChardandbeetgreenscanbeharvestedassoonastheyappearbutshouldbeallowedtogrowtoatleastacoupleofinchesbeforepicking.Don’tharvestmorethanacoupleofleavesfrombeetsintendedtoproduceroots,asdoingsowouldreduce the yield.With chard, harvest the outside leaves first as they get largeenoughandthenthenextlayerofleaveswillcontinuetogrow.Keepharvestinglike that insuccessionand thechardwillproducefor threeweeksormore.Asthebeetgreensorchardareharvested,youcanstoretheminaplasticbagintherefrigeratorforuptoaweekuntilyouhaveenoughtoprepareorpreserve.

Thoughitvariessomewhatwiththevarietyofbeet,ingeneral,beetsshouldbeharvestedwhen theyareno larger than two inches indiameter. If youwaitlongerthanthattoharvest(andespeciallyifyouwaituntiltheheatofsummerisintense),theytendtogetwoody.Whenharvesttimecomes,grabtheleafstalksjustabove therootandpull thebeetsoutof theground.Cutoff the leafstalkstwoinchesabovetherootandsetasidetheleavesforeating,andthenhoseallthedirtoffthebeetsoutside.Letthemdryforabit,andthenprepareorpreserveasdesired.

SeedSavingBeetsandchardarebiennials,meaningtheyproduceseedintheirsecondyearofgrowth.(Somevarietiesofchardwillproduceseedintheirfirstyear.)SouthofMaryland,youcanmulchtheplantswithsixinchesofstrawattheendoftheseasonand they’llproduce seed in the secondyear.NorthofMaryland,you’llneedtocutoffthetops,storetherootsindoorsoverwinterandthenputtherootsoutagaininthespring.Theywillproduceaflowerstalkfourfeetlong.

Beetpollen isverymobile, so ifyouare saving seed,make sureyouhaveonlyonevarietyofbeetorchardinflowerinyourgarden.Beetsandchardarealsosubjecttoinbreedingdepression,soyoushouldhaveatleasttwentyplantsinthefloweringandseed-settingpopulation.

Toharvest the seeds, cut the stalkwhenmostof the seedpodshave turnedbrown and hang inside upside down for two or three weeks. Then, use yourhandstostripthepodsfromthestalkintoabag,breakupthepodssotheseedsfalltothebottomofthebag,anddiscardthelargerdebris.Youcanseparatetheseeds from the smaller debris using the winnowing method described in thechapteronbeans.Then,drytheseedsusingadesiccantsuchasdriedsilicagelforacoupleofweeks,andstoreinanairtightcontainerinacool,darkplace.

PreparationandPreservationBeetgreensandchardcanbestoredinaplasticgrocerybagintherefrigeratorforuptoaweekpriortofreshuseorpreservation.BothbeetgreensandSwisschard contain oxalic acid. Though the oxalic acid is not present in sufficientquantitiestobeproblematicformostpeople,ifanyoneinyourfamilyispronetokidneystones,youcanprepare thebeetsandchard insuchawayas toreducetheamountofoxalicacid.Cookthegreensbyboilingtheminacoupleofinchesofwateruntilwilted,andthendiscardthewaterandeatthegreens.

Greensarebestpreservedbyblanchingfor2½to3minutes,coolingin icewater for four minutes, drying, and then vacuum sealing for the deep freeze.Unfortunately, they don’t stand up well to pressure canning and they don’treconstitutewellfromdehydrating.Evenso,IdehydratemanygreenssothatIcanlaterreducethemtopowderinthefoodprocessorandblendthatpowderintospaghettisauceandsoupsforanaddednutritionalboost.

Ifnotproperlyprepared,beetsliterallytastelikethesoilinwhichtheyweregrown.Theouter layerof thebeet,knownasthe“skin,”needstoberemoved.Once the skinshavebeen removed, thebeetscanbe sliced, rinsed lightly, andthenusedinyourrecipes.Thiscanbedonebypeelingthebeetswithapeeler,orbyroastingand/orboilingthewholebeetsuntiltenderandthenslippingtheskinoffafterplungingthemintocoldwater.Thislattermethodisbestasitgetstheentire layer that absorbed the flavor of the soil.When boiling beets thisway,leave about an inch of the stalk at the top and don’t remove the root at thebottom. The loose dirt should be removed prior to boiling, by using a high-pressure stream of water from a garden hose outside or bywashing them offthoroughlyinthekitchensinkandusingavegetablebrushifneeded.

Thisbeetistheperfectsizeforharvest.

Newbeetscanbeplantedforfallassoonasthespringcropisharvestedformaximumproductivity.

Beetscanbestoredwholeforaslongasthreemonthsbycuttingoffthetops,leavingonlyone-halfinchofstem,andlayeringthebeetsindampsandorpeatmossinacontainerwitha tight-fittinglid.Thecontainershouldbestoredinacoolplace—preferablyjustslightlyabovefreezing.Thoughbeetscanbefrozen,the results aren’t impressive. Pressure canning them reduces them to anindistinctmush.Thebest long-term storagemethods for beets are dehydratingandpickling.

Once the skins have been removed from the beets, they can be sliceduniformly, steam blanched for four minutes, and then dehydrated until hard.Beetsdehydratedthiswaywillreconstitutejustfineforsoupsandstews.

PickledBeets

Ingredients:6–8lbsbeetswiththeskinsremoved,sliceduniformly1lbonions,skinsremovedandslicedthinly1thinlyslicedlemon(rindandall,removeseeds)4cupsvinegar(eitherwhiteorcidervinegar,5%acidity)2cupswater

2cupssugar

1½tsppicklingsalt

1tbspgroundcinnamon

½tspgroundcloves

1tspgroundallspice

Procedure:

Cook beets and remove skins. Slice uniformly. Slice the onions and thelemon, and combinewith the slicedbeets.Prepare a syrupwith the remainingingredients and bring just barely to a boil. Add the sliced beets, onions, and

lemontothesyrup,bringtoasimmer,andholdatasimmerfor15minutes.Packthe vegetables into hot sterilized jars and then pour in syrup leaving ¼ inchheadspace.Adjustthetwo-piececapsandprocessinaboilingwatercannerfor10minutes.Yield:8–10pintsofpickledbeets.

Chardandbeetgreensareeasilypreservedbyfreezing.

5

Cabbage,Broccoli,andCauliflower

Broccolimade the news during the administration of the first PresidentBushbecause he said he didn’t like it. But since that time, broccoli, cabbage, andcauliflower have made the news dozens of times in a more positive sense,indicatingthattheelderstatesmanmightwanttoreexaminehispalateandplate.Thesedelectabledelicacieshavebeen in thenewsquiteoften for theircancer-fightingbenefits.

Cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and other plants in this family all producesulforaphane,apotentanti-cancercompound.Alongwith this, theyare rich infiber,vitamins,minerals,antioxidants,andmore.But theprimary reasons theyarefeaturedinmoremealsatmyhousethananyothervegetablesistheyarenotonlydeliciousbutalsoeasytopreserveinanappetizingstateandtoincorporateintomealplanning.

VarietySelectionMostvarietiesofcabbage,broccoli,andcauliflowerwillgrowjustfineinmostparts of the country if grown during the right time of year.However, becausetheyareacool-seasoncropthatisfrost-hardy,theytendtodobetterinthenorth.As long as the maturation date is no more than sixty days longer than thegrowing season (and most mature much more quickly), that variety can begrowninyourarea.

My favorite varieties of cabbage are Early Jersey Wakefield and GoldenAcre. Both are earlymaturing and form a compact headwith excellent sweetflavor.My favoritevarietiesofbroccoli areAtlantic andWaltham29.Bothofthesevarietiesproducealotofsideshootsoncethemainheadiscutandhaveaclassicbroccolitaste.IusuallyplantAtlanticinthespringandWaltham29inthefall. I’ve had best results in my area with the Early Snowball variety ofcauliflower.Cauliflowerisvulnerabletoearwigs,andwehavealotofthem!Aquick-growingcauliflowergivesthebestoddsofaharvestwithminimalinsectdamage.

Theforegoingaresimplymycurrentpreferencesandwillnecessarilyreflectmy own tastes as well as climate and soil. These are excellent varieties forstartingyourexploration,butyoushouldn’tlimityourself.

SoilPreparationSoilpHshouldbeadjusted to6.5,and thesoilshouldbegenerouslyamended

with compost and as-needed for sufficient levels of all nutrients. Broccoli inparticularissensitivetoborondeficiency,sopaycloseattentiontomicronutrientsupplementation.Thebedshouldbeweed-freepriortoplanting.

StartingForspringcrops,startcabbage,broccoli,andcauliflower indoorseightweeksbefore last frost, and plant outside threeweeks before last frost. Broccoli andcauliflower can be planted out a bit later if desired without harm, but if youdelaytransplantingthecabbage,itmightnotproduceaslargeaheadasitwouldotherwise.

Broccoliproducessideshootsafterthemainheadhasbeencut.

Insufficientboroncauseshollowstalksinbroccoli.

For fall crops, the timing of planting is a bitmore complicated but easilyunderstood.Markthedateoffirstfallfrostonyourcalendar,andthenmarkthedatethirtydaysafter.Now,countbackwardsthenumberofdaystomaturityforthat variety, count back another tendays tomakeup for diminishing sunlight,andmarkthatdayonyourcalendar.Thatisthedayyouputyourtransplantsintheground.Now,countbackwardsfiveweeksfromthatdateandmarkthatdateon your calendar. This is the day you start the seedlings inside for your fallplanting.

So,givenmyfirstfallfrostofSeptember6andAtlanticbroccolimaturingin62days,myprojecteddateofharvestisOctober6.Thetransplantsshouldbeputintothebeds62+10daysbeforehand,whichisJuly26.Theseedlingsshouldbestartedindoorsfiveweeksbeforethatdate,onJune21.

Thistechnique,incidentally,issuitableforanyfrost-hardycropgrowninfallsuchaskale,kohlrabi,andmustardgreens.

PlantingBroccoli,cabbage,andcauliflowergetprettybig,buttheycanneverthelessbespaced closely in the beds.Doing so helps to shade outweed competition. Infact,itisveryrareformetohavemorethanacoupleofweedsinabedofthesevegetables.Sospacetheplantseverytwelveinchestoeighteeninches.Thiswillallowyoutofitasmanyasthirty-twoplantsinasingle4ft.x8ft.bed.

Early in the season, the availability of nitrogen in the soil is not reliablebecause the soil temperature may be too cool for microorganisms to work.Becausecabbage,broccoli,andcauliflowerareheavyfeeders,youmayseesigns

of nitrogen deficiency almost immediately in the form of older leaves turningyellow. This is easily prevented by watering spring transplants heavily everycoupleofdayswithfishfertilizeruntiltheyarewellestablishedandthedangeroffrostispast.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesAs long as the bed was prepared and weed-free prior to planting, with theselarge-leavedvegetablesplantedsoclosely together,mostweedswillbeshadedandhavedifficultygrowing.Whiletheplantsaresmall,youcanremoveweedsbetween themwith careful use of a stirrup hoe; once they are larger you caneasilyhand-pullanyweedsencountered.

Aswith other crops, the best approach to pests and diseases is preventionthroughcroprotationandpropersanitation.Especiallywhengrowinginraisedbeds that preventwaterlogged roots and have properly adjusted soil pH,mostdiseaseproblemssimplywillnotoccur.

Cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower are subject to a few likely pests.Chiefamongthemincommonarecabbageloopers.Thesearethesmallgreenworm-likelarvaeofanondescriptmothwithmottledgrayandbrowncoloration.Themothslayeggseithersinglyoringroupsofasmanyassixontheundersideof

leaves.Whenthe leaveshatch, thegreen larvaegrowquicklyas theyconsumethreetimestheirbodyweightinvegetablematterdaily,leavingaslimeoffecalmatterintheirwake.Theyhaveadistinctive“looping”styleoflocomotion.

Sincethesepestsseldomeatthecrownsofbroccoliorcauliflowerandonlyrarelyboreintotheheadsofcabbage,onthescaleofaminifarm,theireconomicimpactisusuallysmallandtheycanbeadequatelycontrolledbyhandpicking.(Ifeed mine to the chickens who consider them a rare delicacy.) If, however,infestation becomes a serious risk, they can be controlledwith a Bt (Bacillusthuringiensis) preparation used according to label directions. Cabbage loopershavealotofnaturalenemies,andamongthemisthenuclearpolyhedrosisvirus(NPV).Ifyouareobservantandyoufindanywhitishcabbageloopershanginglimplyfromvegetation, theyaredyingfromNPV.Ifyoucancollect theminacan,waitafewhoursforthemtodie,andthenmashthemupintoawater-basedspray,anycabbageloopersthateatthecoatedvegetationwilldiefromNPVinaboutaweek.

Cabbagerootmaggotscanbeaproblemwithearlyplantings,particularlyifimmaturecomposthasbeenaddedtothebeds.Thesearethelarvaeofaflythatlooks similar to anordinaryhousefly.The telltale symptom is plants that lookwilted even though they are thoroughly watered. The easiest prevention is toplant no more than three weeks before last frost and never use immaturecompost.Diagnosisiseasy:whenyoupullupastuntedandwiltedplant, therewillbe littlewhitegrubs all over the roots.Thisproblem isbestpreventedbylaterplantingandusingonlywell-maturedcompost;onceyouhavetheproblem,I have found that it can be solved if caught early by drenching the roots ofaffected plants with a mixture of neem and pyrethrin/rotenone. If the rootdamage from the maggots wasn’t too extensive, the plants will reestablishthemselvesandthrive.

Earwigs can be a real nuisance, especially with cauliflower, but also to alesserextentwithcabbage.Earwigsareharmless tohumans (theycan inflictaminorbutharmlesspinchwiththeirabdominalpincers)butareanasty-lookingbrown creature about three-quarters inch longwith prominent pincers on theirabdomen.Theyhideintheheadsofcauliflowerorintheleavesofcabbageanddotremendousdamagefromtheinsideoutthatmaygoundetecteduntilharvest.Ihavefoundnoorganicsprays thatare trulyeffectiveindealingwithearwigs,though nonorganic carbaryl/Sevin will work. Earwigs can be prevented bysurrounding beds with dry gravel, and they can be trapped by placing damp,loosely rolled newspaper near problem areas overnight and disposing of thenewspaperinthemorning.

Clubrootisadiseaseofcabbagefamilycropsthathassymptomssimilartocabbage root maggot infestation: the plants are wilting in spite of adequatewater.ThisdiseasecannotthriveatapHexceeding6.8,soitcanbepreventedbymixingahandfuloflimeintothesoilintheholeyoumakefortransplanting.

Other common diseases such as alternaria, black leg, black rot, downymildew,turnipmosaicvirus,andotherscanbecontrolledthroughconscientiouscomposting of plant residues, rotating which beds are planted with cabbagefamilyplants,keepingweedsfarawayfrombeds,andnotworkingin thebedsduringwet weather. If thesemeasures are insufficient, you can pretreat seeds(whichmayharborsomeofthesediseases)byimmersingtheminwaterat122degreesFforfiveminutespriortoplanting,anddownymildewcanbetreatedbysprayingwithbakingsodamixedonetablespoonpergallonofwater.

HarvestThere ismore art than science in determiningwhen to harvest cabbage. Theheadsshouldbeharvestedwhentheyreachfullsizeforthatvariety,butbeforetheheadscrack.Ingeneral,there’snosuchthingasharvestingtooearly,soitisbettertobesafethansorry.

The harvesting time frame for broccoli is likewise limited. You want thebroccolitoreachitsfullgrowth,butyoudon’twantthebudstostartflowering.(The flowers are, however, perfectly edible.) Cauliflower should be harvestedwhenthecurdisstillfirmandbeforeitbecomesgrainy-looking.Thekeyhereisyourobservation skills.As the florets andcurdget larger, examine themdailyforanysignsoffloretsopeningorthecurdgettinggrainy.Harvestedheadscanbekept in the refrigerator in aplasticbag forup toaweekuntil enoughhavebeenaccumulatedforcookingorpreservation.

Whenharvesting cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower, use a sharpknife andcut at an angle. In the case of both broccoli and cabbage, youwill likely getmanyindividualfloretsgrowingonthebroccoliplantthatcanbeharvestedoverthenext coupleofweeks foruse in salads,or severalmini-cabbages that tastedeliciouswhensteamed.

SeedSavingCabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and other plants in the same family such askaleandkohlrabicanallinterbreed.Astheirpollinationisviawindandinsects,

maintainingpurityrequires thatonlyonevarietybeallowedtoflowerforseedproductionatanygiventime.

Aperfectbroccolicrownreadyforharvest.Tosaveseedforbroccoli,justdon’tharvesttheheadsfromtwentyormore

plants in close proximity. Allow them to flower, and soon they will developseedpods.Oncethepodshaveturnedtan/brown,stripthemfromtheplantintoabag, break up the pods, remove the larger debris, and then winnow out thesmallerdebrisanddehydrateusingsilicagel.

Bothcabbageandcauliflowerarebiennial,meaningtheyproduceseedinthesecondyear.InthesouthernpartsoftheU.S.wherewintertemperaturesseldomfallbelow20degrees, cabbageandcauliflowercanbemulchedwithhayoverthe winter and cleaned off in spring. In parts of the country where thetemperaturestayslowerthanthatinthewinter,you’llneedtobringintheplantstooverwinter inacool(35to40degrees)anddarkplace,suchasanunheatedbasement.Todothis,diguptwentyplantsfromthefallcropandstorethemindampdirtinfivegallonbuckets.Whenspringcomes,plantthemoutsideagain.Tohelp thecabbages forma flowerstalk,useasharpknife tocutanX in thehead. Once cabbage and cauliflower have bolted, they are processed just likebroccoli.

Thehighlikelihoodofcrossbreedingamongthisspeciesmakesitdifficulttosave seeds frommore than one variety in any given year, but the seeds stayviableforfiveyearswhenproperlystored,soifyoutimeyourseedsavingright,you can stay well supplied with all the seed you need without danger of

crossbreeding.

Anambitioushoneybeeisbusypollinatingbroccoliflowers.

Broccolicanbefried,baked,orsteamedasinthisphoto.

PreparationandPreservationWith the root and outer leaves removed, a head of cabbagewill keep in therefrigerator for two weeks if wrapped tightly in plastic wrap. Broccoli andcauliflowerwillkeepforaweekinatiedplasticbaguntilyou’veaccumulatedenoughforuseorpreservation.Allthreefreezejustfinewhencutinto1½-inchchunks.Forfreezing,cutintochunks,blanchforfourminutes,coolinicewaterforfourminutes,removeexcesswater,seal,andfreeze.

Cabbage (as well as kale, collard, and turnip greens) can be turned intosauerkrautvialacticacidfermentation;cabbage,broccoli,andcauliflowercanbesuccessfullypickledinpintjarsusingvinegar.Broccoliandcauliflowerturntomushwhenpressure-canned,butcabbageholdsupokay.Packblanchedcabbagepieces intopint jars,coverwithhotwater leavingone inchofheadspace,andprocess for 45minutes. Cabbage that has been blanched and dehydrated doesfineinwinterstews,butbroccoliandcauliflowerdon’tdehydratewell.

Ifyoudiscardthestalksofbroccoliaftercuttingofftheflorets,youshouldconsiderusingthemtomakebroccoli-slawinstead.Tomakebroccoli-slaw,peelofftheouterlayerofthestemandthenjuliennetherestofit.Broccoli-slawsellsin theproducesectionforasmuchas$5fora twelve-ouncebag.I likeaddingbroccoli-slawtoregularsalads.

BakedCauliflower

Ingredients:1largeheadcauliflowercutinto1-inchpieces¼cupoliveorwalnutoil

1tspgarlicpowder

½tspsalt¼tspgroundblackpepper

Procedure:

Preheat oven to 450 degrees. Cut up the cauliflower and place in a largebowl.Addtheoilandspices,andmixthoroughlyuntiluniformlycoated.Putthecoated cauliflower in a roasting pan arranged in a single layer. Bake for 20minutesuntilcrispontheoutside,butforktender.

PickledCabbage

Ingredients:

1gallonchoppedcabbage

2largeonions,diced(optional)½cupcoarsenoniodizedsalt4cupssugar

4cupsvinegar

1½cupswater2tbspmixedpicklingspices

1spicebag

Procedure:

Combinethecabbageandonioninalargebowl,mixtogetherwiththecoarsesalt,coverwithplasticwrap,andallowtositintherefrigeratorovernight.Inthemorning, flood with fresh water to remove the salt, and drain. Combine thesugar,vinegar,andwaterinalargepot,addthespicestothewell-tiedspicebag,andbringtoasimmerforfiveminutes.Addthedrainedcabbagetothepot,stirthoroughly,andbringtoagentleboilforfiveminutes.Removeanddiscardthespice bag. Pack into sterilized pint jars, and process in a boiling water bathcannerfor10minutes.

6

CarrotsandParsnips

Mymotheralwaystoldmethatcarrotsweregoodformyeyes.That’scertainlytrue, as thebetacarotene theycontain is aprecursor for importantcompoundsthatassistwithvision.ButcarrotsalsocontainappreciableamountsofvitaminK,vitaminC, folate,potassium,andmanganese.Parsnipsareamemberof thesamebotanical family, butbeingwhite they lackcarotenes.Nevertheless, theymake up for that lack with added amounts of vitamin E, twice the folate ofcarrots,andBvitamins.Forsomereason,parsnipsaren’taspopularascarrots,but as they are both calorically and nutritionally dense, if you find themappetizing they merit equal growing space to carrots in a self-sufficiencyenterprise.

VarietySelectionThere are very few varieties of parsnips available, and these include HarrisModel,HollowCrown,AllAmerican, andHalfLongGuernsey.All are long-season varieties that are planted in the spring and harvested after the first fallfrost.

Thevarietiesofcarrotsavailablenumberinthehundredsandencompassanendless array of colors, lengths,widths, and tastes. These range from the tinyThumbelinacarrotthatisliterallynobiggerthanyourthumballthewaythroughthemulticoloredCosmicPurplecarrot.Ingeneral,carrotsfall intoafewbroadcategories. These include Imperator-type varieties that are long and tapered,Nantesthatarecylindricalandhighinsugarbutdon’tkeepwell,Danverswithahighfibercontentandgoodkeepingqualities,andChantenaytypesthatareshortandwideandsobetter-suited forheavysoils.Even thoughmostcarrotsyou’llfindinthesupermarketareImperator-typecarrots,theseareusuallyamongtheleasttastyvarieties.Weeatalotofcarrots.TheprimaryvarietiesthatIgrowareSaint Valery, Scarlet Nantes, and Danvers Half Long, though I usually plantsome purple carrots such as Dragon for variety. The Saint Valery carrots are

twelve inches long and as much as three inches in diameter—real monsters.Theystorewell,haveahighgerminationrateforcarrots,andthereforetendtobe quite productive. Scarlet Nantes carrots are blunt-tipped and about seveninches long. They are reddish, sweet, and almost coreless. They are a greatvarietyforjuicing.DanversHalfLonggrowwellintoughsoils,areaboutsevenincheslong,andareafavoriteatmarkets.

SoilPreparationCarrotsandparsnipsrequireasoilthatisdeeplydug,clearedofstones,light,andwith apHof6.5–7.5, though theywill growat apHas lowas6.0.Theypreferasoilthatisrichinphosphorus,potassium,calcium,andmicronutrients,butgoveryeasyon thenitrogen.Woodashesasa formofpotassiumarewellloved by carrots and parsnips. When preparing the bed, use about half thenitrogen-bearingfertilizer thatyouwouldforothercrops.Alsoavoidanyformoffreshmanures,especiallyanimalmanure.Carrotsandparsnipswilltastejustlikethemanure,andyourentirecropwillbealoss.Youshouldideallyaddfullymatured compost in the fall to beds destined for carrots in the spring becausefreshly added or immature compost will inhibit germination as well as causedeformitiesintheshapeofthecarrots.Thedeformedcarrotsareperfectlysafetoeat but notmarketable. Stoneswill also cause deformities. Again, this isn’t aproblem in terms of edibility or flavor, but it will make the carrots lessmarketableandmoredifficulttostore.

PlantingCarrotsandparsnipsareamongtheslowestgerminatingcrops in thegarden.This slow rate of germination can be problematic because weeds will likelysproutfirst,andthereisdifficultyinmaintainingoptimumlevelsofsoilmoisturelongenoughfortheseedstosprout.Theyalsodon’tlikebeingthinnedastheyare very fragile when young, and should therefore be planted at optimumspacingfromthebeginning.

These crops should be planted three weeks before last frost or when soiltemperatures are above 50 degrees at a four-inch spacing in all directions.Parsnipseedsaren’ttoodifficulttohandle,butcarrotseedsaresmall.Ifyoufindthemdifficult tohandle, thereareseveralseedcompanies thatsellcarrotseedsthat have been encapsulated in an innocuous substance that will break down

oncetheseedshavebeenwatered.TheseencapsulatedseedsarethesizeofaBBand much easier to handle. Alternately, you can have someone with smallerfingerstakeonthetask.

In spring plantings, the seeds should be planted nomore than one-quarterinchdeepbecausethelowertemperatureswillmakegerminationtakelongerandthe fragile seedlingswill have toomuchdifficultybreaking through the soil ifthey are plantedmore deeply. For late summer plantings, they can be plantedmoredeeply.

Carrots and parsnips take a long time to germinate, but this is verymuchtemperaturedependent.Atasoiltemperatureof42degrees,theytakefifty-onedaystogerminate.At50degrees,theytakeseventeendaystogerminate,butatasoil temperature of 59 degrees, they require only ten days. Only six days arerequired at 72 degrees, but germination rates at temperatures higher than thatdecline.Useof a soil thermometer to timeyourplantingcanhelpagreatdealwiththesevegetables.

After theseedsareplanted,youshouldwater twicedailyusinga finemistuntiltheseedlingsarewellestablished.Oncetheyareestablished,aweeklydeepsoakingprovidingtheequivalentofaninchofwaterissufficient.

The one growing problem you may encounter with carrots is greenshoulders. If they growup out of the ground, the tops of the carrotswill turngreen and theywill becomebitter. If you see carrot topspokingupout of thegroundatall,hillthemwithsomedirtanditwon’tbeaproblem.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesWeedsarea realproblemwithcarrotsandparsnipsbecauseevenif thebedisseeminglyweed-freeatthetimeofplanting,thelongperiodofgerminationcangiveweedsaheadstart.Withtheseedlingsinsuchadelicatestate,weedingatanearlypointcanbetoodisruptive.

Therearemanywaystohandlethissituation.Ifyoutimeyourplantingforasoiltemperatureof59degrees,thengerminationwilltakeonlytendays.Anotherapproachoftencitedingardeningliteratureistosoaktheseedbedandthenlayaboardover it to seal in thedampnessanddeprivepotentialweedsof light.Nodoubtthisworksinsomecases,especiallywithsandysoils,butinmycasethesoiladherestotheboardandwhentheboardislifted,theseedlingscomewithit.Youcan also solarize thebedbygiving it agood soakinga coupleofmonthsbefore planting and covering it with closely stapled clear plastic until time to

plant. This will raise the temperature of the top two inches of the soil highenoughthatweedseedswillbeunabletosurvive.WhatIdoisgooverthebedslowlywithaflameweederjustpriortoplantinganddisturbthesoilaslittleaspossiblewhileputtingintheseeds.Thisonlykillsseedsinthetopone-quarterinchofsoil,butitworkswellenoughandisquicklyaccomplished.WhileIamatit,Iusetheflameweedertogetalltheweedsandgrassesgrowingalongtheedgesofthebeds.

Wirewormsareeasilyidentifiedbutnoteasilycontrolled.

Though, theoretically, therearea lotofpotentialpestanddiseaseproblemswithcarrots,onthescaleofaminifarm,ifyouarepracticingcroprotationandcleaningupdebris at theendof the season,you reallyonlyhave twopestsof

concern:wirewormsandcarrotflies.Wirewormsare the larvaeofclickbeetlesandareusuallyaproblemwhen

growinginareasthatwerepreviouslysodorareabuttedbysod.Thus,theyareacommonproblemwithminifarmsinparticularbecauseraisedbedsareusuallylocatedinareasthatwerepreviouslyusedforgrowinggrass.Wirewormsburrowintomanyediblerootcropsincludingcarrots,parsnips,potatoes,andmore.

If you surround your bed frames with a mulch that smothers out grasses,suchasathicklayerofbarkorgravel,thatwillhelpdiminishpopulationsovertime. Turning up the soil in the beds a couple of days prior to planting willencourage birds to eat them. Also, when we turn the soil, we scan it forwirewormsandothergrubsandfeedthemtoourchickens.Youcanalsobaitthewirewormsbyburyingsomepiecesofcutpotatoattachedtoaskewer(foreaseinlocating)twotofourinchesunderthesoilsurface.Pulluptheskewerstwiceaweek and dispose of the wireworms. If you put the skewers into the bedsintendedforrootcropsaweekpriortoplantingandkeeptheminplaceuntilaweekaftergermination,damagefromwirewormswillbereducedconsiderably.Figureononeskewerperfoursquarefeetofbedspace.

Carrotfliesaretheotherlikelypest.Carrotflieslooklikearegularhousefly,excepttheyaremorestreamlined.Oftenyouwon’tseethem.Onceattractedbythe smellof the foliageofparsley, carrots, celery,parsnips, and relatedplants,theyflyinandlayeggsinthesoilatthebaseoftheplant.Whentheeggshatch,the grubs burrow into the roots and ruin them.Unfortunately, youwon’t findproblemuntilyouharvesttherootsandstartcussing.

Carrotsgrowninaboxwithalandscapefabricbottomtooutwitwireworms.

An important aspect of preventing carrot flies is to avoid anything thatinjuresordisturbsthefoliage.Bruisedfoliageisapowerfulattractant.Luckily,whenspacedsocloselytogether,theplantswillusuallyshadeoutanyweedssothe primary cause of bruised foliage—weeding—can be avoided. If youmustweed,dosocarefully.

Anothertrickthatworkssurprisinglywellistoattachsomewoodenstakestothecornersofthebed,andwrapatwo-foothighsectionofclearplasticaroundthebed,staplingittothestakesandtheedgesofthebed.Carrotfliesseldomflyanyhigherthaneighteeninchesfromtheground,sotheplasticbafflesthemandtheymoveontoeasierpickings.

Finally, carrot flies (and some less common pests such as carrot weevils)don’t likewood ashes. If you usewood asheswhen you prepare the bed andwaterthebedeverycoupleofweekswithamixtureoftwotablespoonsofwoodashespergallonofwater,carrotflieswillbedeterred.

Harvest

Carrotsandparsnips canbeharvestedatanystage.However, thebalanceofbitterturpenesandsugarsfavorstheturpeneswhenharvestedearly.Parsnipsarebest left until after the first hard frost, as this sweetens them. Carrots, on theotherhand,shouldbeharvestednomorethantwoweekslaterthanthespecifiedmaturitydateofthatvariety,aslettingthemsitinthegroundtoolongcanmakethemfibrous.

Toharvestcarrotsorparsnips,waterthoroughlytomaketherootseasiertopull,grasp the foliageasclose to the root aspossible, andpullwhilegivingaslighttwist.If thetopsbreakoff,youcanuseadiggingforkorhandshoveltodig around the effected roots and lift them out gently. Cut off the tops one-quarter inchabovetherootandimmediatelyplacein thecompostpile.Let therootssitoutinthesunforacoupleofhoursforthedirt todry, thendustitoffwithasoftbrush.Carrotsshouldbewashedimmediatelypriortouse.

SeedSavingCarrotsandparsnipsarebiennials,meaningtheyproduceseedintheirsecondyear.Duringtheirfirstyear, theystoreenergyin theroot. Ifallowedtostayinthegroundoverthewinter,theywillsproutinthespring,sendingupaseedstalkwithabeautifulflowercalledanumbelthatisidenticaltoQueenAnne’slace.Infact,QueenAnne’s laceisawildcarrotfromwhichourdomesticatedvarietiesarederived,anditwillinterbreedfreelywithgardencarrots.

Because wild carrots are so widely distributed and this family is insect-pollinated,isolationtechniquesarerecommendedforsavingcarrotseed,thoughthey aren’t necessary for parsnips. In addition, inbreedingdepression canbe aproblem, so ideally seeds will be saved from a population of at least twentyplants.

Bagtheumbels(usingaspunpolyestermaterialsuchaswhatyoucanbuyasa floating row cover) when they have not yet flowered to keep insects fromgettingtothem.Youdon’thavetobagalloftheumbels,justonefromeachplantthatyouwillbeusingforseed.Oncetheumbelshaveflowered,useahorsehairor camel hair brush to cross-pollinate.The technique is straightforward: everydayfortwotofourweeksoncetheflowershaveformed,removethebagsfromasmanyflowersasyoucankeepfreeofinsectsatonetime.Gentlyrubthebrushovertheflowersineachumbel,goingbackandforthsothatallflowersofeachumbelhavebeentouched.Replacethebags,thenremovethebagsfromanothersetofumbelsandcontinueuntilalloftheumbelshavebeenprocessed.

Carrotflowerscanbeimpressivelylarge.

Oncetheumbelshavematured,cut themfromtheplantandallowthemtomature indoors in a cool, dry place for another twoweeks. The seeds can bestripped from theumbels by rubbingwithyour hands, and separated from thechaffbywinnowing.

PreparationandPreservationCarrotsandparsnipscanbestoredwholeforafewmonthsinmoistenedpeatmossorcleansand.Thetopsarecutone-halfinchabovetherootsotheydon’tsuckthemoistureoutof theroots.Theycanalsobeblanchedforfourminutesandtheneithercooled,dried,andfrozenordehydrated.Ifdriedthoroughly,theycanbestoredintherefrigeratorinasealedbagforacoupleofmonths.

CarrotsandParsnipPickles

Ingredients:1poundcarrots

1poundparsnips

3½cupsvinegar1½cupssugar2tspgroundcinnamon

1tspgroundallspice

1tspseasaltorothernoniodizedsalt½tspgroundcloves

Procedure:Quarter the carrots and parsnips lengthwise and cut into spears 3½ inches

long.Packintocleanpintjars.Combinetheremainingingredientsinasaucepan,and bring to a light boil for five minutes. Pour this into the jars, completelycoveringthespearsandleaving½inchheadspace.Adjustthetwo-piecelidsandprocessinaboilingwatercannerfor15minutes.

LemonDillCarrots

Ingredients:1poundofcarrots

1lemon

3tbspwalnutoil(buttercanbesubstituted)½tspdrieddillweed

Procedure:Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Cut the carrots to uniform thickness, coat

thoroughlywithwalnutoil,thenaddonequarterofthezestofthelemonandallofitsjuice(makingsuretoremoveanypits)anduniformlycoverwithdillweed.Spreadinasinglelayerinacovered(itisimportantthatitbecovered!)bakingdish.Bakefor30minutesoruntilforktender.

Thisdishisenhancedwithdillfreshfromthegarden.

7

Corn

Cornisoneofthebiggestcommercialcropsinthecountry,beingusedtomakeeverythingfromcornstarchbabypowdertoethanolforvehicles.Unfortunately,it is also one of the most genetically modified. Depending upon the state inwhich it isgrown,between79percentand95percentofallcorngrownin theUnitedStatesisgeneticallyengineered.1

There is sufficient debate regarding the safety of such crops that theEuropean Union currently bans importing or growing genetically engineeredcornforhumanuse.Whethertheyaresafeornot,Icannotpretendtoknowwithcertainty.Muchof thedatapertaining to itsdangers seems ratheralarmist,butthe data pertaining to its safety is from biased sources. Perhaps the strangestdevelopment in this debate is the adoption of federal laws that preempt statelawsrequiringthatproductscontaininggeneticallymodifiedcropsbelabeled.2

Thus,other than the laws thatban theuseofgeneticallymodifiedseeds inUSDAorganicproduce,thereisnowaytoknowifwhatyouareeatingcontainsgeneticallyengineeredorganisms.

As I have mentioned, I find the data pertaining to the safety or harm ofgeneticallyengineeredcornrathermurky.Otherthanbuyingexpensiveorganic-labeledproducts, theonlywaytoassure thecornyoueat is freeofgeneticallyengineeredattributesistogrowityourself.

VarietiesCorn is a staple of the human diet in many places, and as a result, manyvariationsofcornhavebeencreatedfordifferentuses.Flourcorncanbegroundintoafineflour.Flintcornisusedtomakecoarsecornmeal.Dentcornisusedinanimal feedsand industry.Popcorn isused tomake(youguessed it)popcorn.Butthetypeofcornmostcommonlygrownbyhomegardenersissweetcorn.

Ofthemanyvarietiesofflintcornavailable,FlorianiRedFlintisoneofthe

mostproductiveopen-pollinatedvarietiesavailable.Grainyield is roughlyfivepoundsper4ft.x8ft.bed.BlueHopiisanheirloomvarietywithadistinctivebluecolorandfantasticflavor,thoughitisslightlylessproductiveatfourpoundsper4ft.x8ft.bed.

Sweet corn falls into three categoriesbasedupongenetics:NormalSugary(Su),SugaryEnhanced(Se)andSupersweet(Sh2).Thesegenesdeterminehowmuchsugarisinthekernelandhowlongthesugarwillstayinthekernelbeforeturning to starch.Allof thegenes that result in sweet cornare recessive traitsthatspontaneouslyaroseinflintordentcorn.Asaresultoftherecessivequalityof these traits, sweet corn should be separated from field corns that may bepollinatingatthesametimebyatleast400yards.Otherwise,thekernelsofthesweetcornwon’tbesweet.

Su sweet corns are the oldest varieties of sweet corn.Nearly all availableopen-pollinated varieties of sweet corn have this genetic profile. Examples ofpopular open-pollinated varieties include Golden Bantam (yellow), CountryGentleman(white),Stowell’sEvergreen(white),andDoubleStandard(bicolor).CommonhybridswithSugenesincludeEarlySunglow(yellow),SilverQueen(white),andButterandSugar(bicolor).

Susweetcornneeds tobekeptwellawayfromSh2sweetcornbutcanbegrownnearSesweetcornandviceversa.Harvesttimingiscritical,anditshouldideallybeprocessedwithinthirtyminutesofharvest,asthesugarstartsturningtostarchthesecondtheearispickedfromthestalk.Evenso,Suvarietiesdeliveraclassiccorntasteandholdupwelltobeingblanchedandfrozenonthecob.

Se sweet corn has evenmore sugar than Su corn—somuch so that it cankeepathighqualityfortwotofourdaysafterharvestifrefrigerated.Althoughsome projects for producing open-pollinated Se varieties are underway,3 allcommerciallyavailableSevarietiesarehybrids.Secornhasexcellenttastebutiscomparativelydelicatesoitdoesn’tstandupwell toprocessing.It isbetterforfresheating.PopularSevarietiesincludeKandyKorn(yellow),Argent(white),andPreciousGem(bicolor).

Sh2sweetcornholdsitssugarcontentforaslongastendaysafterharvestand is thus ideal for truck-shipping and display in supermarkets. In addition,thoughmoreidealforshippingthaneating,thekernelsaretougherandsostandup better to rough handling. All commercially available Sh2 varieties arehybrids,andtheymustbeseparatedfromSeandSutypestoavoiddevelopingstarchy kernels. Popular Sh2 varieties include Challenger (yellow), Aspen(white),andDazzle(bicolor).

Thoughthereareastaggeringnumberofvarietiesavailable,forminifarming

I recommendsticking toSuandSevarietiesbecause theyaremore tolerantofplantingdepthandsoiltemperaturevariations.Forseedsaving,youarelimitedto open-pollinated varieties that, so far, are entirely Su strains. I recommendFlorianiRedFlintorBlueHopiforcornmeal,andGoldenBantamorStowell’sEvergreen for sweet corn; these are beginner recommendations and throughexperimentationyou’lllikelyfindothervarietiesthatyoulike.

SoilPreparationCornisaseriouslyhungryplant,requiringplentyoffood, light,andwaterforoptimal production. In addition, it is shallow-rooted, a fact thatmakes propersoilmanagementallthemorecritical.CornprefersapHof6.0to6.5andlotsoforganicmattertilledthroughoutthetopsixtoeightinchesofsoil.Itisaheavyfeeder and in agribusiness production is typically treated with high-nitrogenfertilizersthreetimesduringthecourseoftheseason.However,thisisbecausetheartificialfertilizerstheyusearehighlysoluble,andtheypaylittleattentiontomaintaininghighenoughlevelsoforganicmatter inthesoil toholdontothosenutrients. A properly prepared bedwon’t need additional fertilizer to producegreatcorn.

Toprepareabedforcorn,addatleastsixcubicfeetofmaturecompostperforty-eightsquarefeetofbedandmixitintothetopsixtoeightinchesofsoil.AdjustthepHtosomewherebetween6.0and6.5usinglime.Addmicronutrientsin the form of sea mineral solids at the manufacturer’s recommended rate.Amendthesoilusingorganicfertilizersbasedonahomesoiltestfornitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium. Finally, to provide additional both slow and fastreleasenitrogen,addtenpoundsofalfalfamealandtwopoundsofbloodmealper forty-eight-square-foot bed, in addition to what you have already addedbaseduponsoil test.Thecompostwillworkwiththenutrients toholdtheminthesoilsorainwon’twashthemoutandmakethemavailabletothecornastheplant requires.Using thismethod, Ihaveneverneeded to add fertilizerduringtheseason.

StartingandPlantingCorncanbetemperamentalaboutplantingdepth,temperature,waterlevels,andmore,especiallywhendealingwithhybridSh2varieties.ButevenSuvarietiescan suffer fromstaggeredgermination, seeds rotting in thegroundbefore they

cansprout,andotherwoes.Though this solution certainly won’t work on the scale of the agri-giant

Monsanto, for a mini farm it works extremely well: instead of planting yourseeds in theground, start them indoorsoneweekbefore last frost.Then,plantoutyourcornseedlingsatone-footspacinginalldirectionsoneweekafterlastfrost. This practice allows you to skip all these problems and have a nice,uniformstandofcorn.

If you don’t want to do this, then plant your seeds one inch deep spacedtwelveinchesapartoneweekafterlastfrost,andwaterdailyuntiltheysprout.

Also, if you follow my practice of planting beans with corn (see MiniFarming),waituntilaweekafterthecornseedlinghaveemergedbeforeplantingthebeans.Otherwise,thebeanswillsproutfirstandshadeoutyourcorn.

Corniswind-pollinatedandstronglyoutbreeding.Pollinationisnecessarytoproduce kernels on the ears. Planting the corn closely spaced is generallysufficient to yield adequate pollination, but just to be sure, once the pollen-bearing tops have grown, I reach in andgently shake a few corn plants everyonceinawhiletodistributethepollen.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesIn agribusiness production on the scale of hundreds of acres and whereharvestingismechanized,weedsareaseriousproblemforcorn.Masssprayingwithherbicidesispracticed,andgeneticallymodifiedcornthatisimmunetotheherbicides is planted. Fortunately, on the scale of a mini farm, weeds can becontrolled with little effort. If you clear the bed of weeds before planting, aweeklyhand-weedingoruseofastirruphoebetweenplantsissufficient.

Though incommercialmonocropping therearea lotofpestproblems, inaproperlyrunminifarmwherecropsanitationandrotationarepracticed,thereareonly a couple of notable pests that are easily controlled. Japanese beetles candefoliatethecornandthusreduceproductivity.Japanesebeetlesareaubiquitouslawn grub. If you have a lot of property so there is a good buffer with yourneighbors,treatingyourentirelawnandbedswithmilkysporediseasecanbeagood preventative once the disease has become established in a year or so.Japanesebeetletraps(availableathardwarestores)canworkwell,buttheymustbeplaceddownwindofthegardenatleast100feetaway.

Japanesebeetlesattracteachother.Soonewaytokeepthemcontrolledistosimplypickthembyhandintoasmallbucketofsoapywater.Ifyoukeepthem

picked off daily once they are noticed, you’ll likely prevent the problemaltogether.Theycanalsobecontrolledbysprayssuchaspyrethrinandrotenoneusedaccordingtopackagedirections,butthisisalastresortassuchspraysareexpensive.

Theothernotablepestiscornearworm.Thisisthelarvaofalargebutrathernondescriptmoth. Though it will attack nearly anything edible in the garden,includingtomatoes,broccoli,andlettuce,itisprimarilyariskforcornbecausethe damage it has done is not visible until harvest. Because the moth can’toverwinternorthofMaryland,ittendstobemoreconsistentlydamagingintheSouth,thoughwindsblowitwellupintoCanada.

Themothlaysitsspeck-sizedeggsoncornsilk.Thehatchedeggsproduceatinywormthatcrawlsdownthesilkintotheearandburrowsitswayin.Itgrowsasiteatsandbythetimeitisdone,itcanbeagoodthreeincheslong.Often,itwillnotbeimmediatelydetectedbecauseitsheadresemblesakernelofcornanditwillhaveboredthroughthecobandputitsheadinplaceofacornkernel.Itcanbeabitunsettlingwhenanearofboiledcornischomped,andyoupullawaywithawormdanglingfromyourmouth!Sometimesthewormsimplyeatsalongthe outside of the ear.Almost always it eats some of the silk,which preventskernelsfrombeingpollinatedandgrowing.

Damage from corn earworm can be substantially reducedwith a criticallytimed application of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) mixed with corn oil from thesupermarket and using liquid lecithin (available at health food stores) as anemulsifier. Mix one heaping tablespoon of liquid lecithin and three leveltablespoons of Bt (in this case, DiPel DF) with one quart of corn oil. Mixthoroughly.Apply0.5mlofthemixturetoeachcorntassel.Iuseasmallsyringe(without the needle) that I picked up from a veterinary supply company tomeasure the amount accurately. Apply it to the corn tassel, and distribute itevenlybyhand.

The oil can adversely affect pollination but is extremely effective incontrolling earworm damage during the crucial stage. There is a short five-toeight-daywindowwhen it can be appliedwithminimal impact on pollinationand still achieve good control. If you observe your corn carefully, that timeperiod starts fifty-seven days after the start of silk growth or thirty-four daysafterthesilkisfullygrown.

Thissortofobservationmaynotbefeasible.Butallisnotlost!Youcanalsojudgewhentoapplytheoilbywaitinguntilthetipsofthesilkhavejustbarelystarted to turnbrownandwilt. Ifyoupeelback thehusk fromanearof corn,you’lldiscoverthatthesilkisonlyattachedtolessthanthetopinchofkernels.

Thisistheoptimalmethodasitprovidesgreatestcontrolwithminimumuseofmaterials.However,itmightnotbepractical.Ifyouareraisingasubstantialamountofcorn,theprocesscanquicklybecometedious.Ifthisisthecase,youcan dealwith the problemby using aBt or spinosad preparation according tolabeldirectionsandthoroughlysprayingthecornonceaweekusinganordinarygarden sprayer starting once the silk has formed. The water-based spray willhavenoadverseeffectonpollinationand, as longasyoudon’t skip, adequatecontrolwillbemaintained.

Though corn is vulnerable to about a dozen diseases of commercialimportanceinlarge-scalefarming,withintheformatofaminifarminwhichsoilfertilityisproperlymaintained,cropsarerotatedamongbeds,andcropdebrisiscomposted,noneofthemarelikelytobeanissueatall.Likewise,manyofthediseasesthatmanifestinagribusinessproductionaretheresultofdamagetothecornstalkorearsfrommachines.Asminifarmingmethodsdon’tusemachines,this won’t be a problem. If in spite of good cultural practices you encounterdiseaseproblems,switchingtoahybridSucornforfutureplantingswilllikelytakecareofthem.

Though it isn’t a pest or disease problem per se, lodging of corn hurtsproductivityinlarge-scaleproductionandcancertainlybeaproblemonaminifarm.Lodgingisdefinedasstalkbreakagebelowthecornear,anditisusuallycaused by severewinds orweather.Because corn is grown in beds on aminifarm, lodging can be entirely eliminated by using deck screws to screw somefourfootuprightstothecornersofthebedandrunningsomestoutstringthatisresistanttoUVdegradationaroundthebedandthroughholesdrillednearthetopoftheuprights.

HarvestFieldcornssuchasdentandflintcornareharvestedattheirdrystage.Harvestassoonasthegreenhuskfadestotanbyholdingthecornstalkinonehand,andpulling theeardownwith theotherwhile twistingslightly.Theearsshouldbeshucked immediately, meaning that the husks and as much silk removed aspossible. Then the husked ears should be hung in bunches out of theweatherwhere there is good air circulation for amonth ormore.Once the kernels arewell dried, thekernels canbe removed from the cobsby shelling.On a smallscale,youcanremovethedrykernelsfromtheearsbywearinggloves(soyoudon’t get blisters) and rubbing two ears together and twisting the cob in yourhands.Collectthekernelsandallowtodryfurther.Onalargerscale,youcanuse

a simple hand sheller or a manually operated mechanical sheller. Mechanicalshellersareoperatedwithahandcrankandareprettyfuntouse.MycousinsandI used to shell corn for my grandfather using a mechanical sheller, and wethoughtitwasalotoffun.Ashehadnevertoldustodoit,weneverrealizeditwassupposedtobework.

Thetimingofsweetcornharvestisabittrickier.Ifyouharvesttooearly,thekernelsareimperfectlyformedandthereisinsufficientsugar.Ifyouharvesttoolate, sweet corn becomes starchy and hard. To complicate matters, especiallywithopen-pollinatedvarieties,notalltheearsmatureatonce.Thisisonereasonwhyhybrids are used in large-scale farming—they allow all of the corn to beharvested inonesession.Nevertheless,allof theearsofopen-pollinatedsweetcorncanbeharvestedwithinaweekofeachother.

Corn will mature at a different rate each year, depending on temperature,amountofsunlight,andtheamountofwateritreceives,sothe“daystoharvest”givenintheseedcatalogisanapproximation.Startcheckingtheearstwenty-onedaysaftersilkhasappeared.Whenthesilkhas turnedbrownandstarts todry,feel the ears to see if they are firm. If so, gently separate some of the huskmidwaydown theearandpunctureoneof thekernelswithyour thumb. If thejuiceisclear,thecornisn’treadyyet.Ifthejuiceismilky,itistimetoharvest.Ifitiscreamy,thenthecornisoverripe.Allisnotlostwithslightlyoverripesweetcornbecauseatthatstageitisperfectforcanning.

Toharvest, remove theearsusing the same techniqueas for fieldcornbutleavethehuskson.Storeatacooltemperature,preferablyinarefrigerator,untilusedtohelpslowdowntheconversionofsugartostarch.WithSuvarieties,useorpreservewithina fewhours.WithSevarieties,youhave two to threedays.WithSh2varieties,youhaveaweek.

SeedSavingCorn is a strongly outbreeding plant,meaning that it is subject to inbreedingdepression if a largenumberofplants aren’tusedas thebreedingpool. In thecaseofcorn,somanyplantsareneededthatitmaynotevenbefeasibletosaveseedatasmallscale.Youneedatleast200plants,fromwhichyoucullanythatare clearly inferior or off-type. Because corn is wind-pollinated and readilycrosseswithallothervarietiesofcorn,ifyouaretryingtomaintainpureseeditshouldbeseparatedfromothercornbyatleastamile,butpreferablymore.

The seeds of field corn are harvested as described above in the sectionon

harvesting. In order to save seed from sweet corn, treat it like field corn andallow the ear to reach maturity rather than harvesting at its milk stage. Irecommendshellingallof thecornintoa largecontainer,mixingit thoroughlyso that seeds are saved from asmany unique plants as possible, and taking arandomsampleof at least aquart from thecontaineras seed.Thedried sweetcornthatisn’tusedforseedcanalsobegroundintocornmeal.

PreparationandPreservationDriedcornshouldbestoredinanairtightcontainerinacool,dryplace.Ideally,thatcontainerwillbefreeofoxygeninordertopreventpests.Therearealotofwaystodothis.Onewayistoputametalplateontopofthecornandplaceanamount of dry ice (solidified carbon dioxide) on the plate. Because carbondioxideisheavierthanair,asitvaporizesitwillsupplantalloftheoxygeninthecontainer.Whenthedryiceisalmostgone,putthelidonthecontainer.Anotherwayistouseanairtightmetalcontainer,putaverystableheatproofplateontopof the corn, put an unscented candle on it, light the candle, and close the lid.Though this won’t remove all of the oxygen, it will alter the oxygen/carbondioxide proportions sufficiently to be inimical to animal life. You’ll need torelightthecandleeachtimethelidisopened.FlintanddentcorncanbegroundintotrulyexcellentcornmealusingahandgrinderwithproperburrssuchastheCoronagrainmill.

Whenthesilkhasturnedbrownandstartstodry,checkyoursweetcornforripeness.

Sweetcornis ideallypreparedwithinafewhoursofharvest toprevent theconversionofsugarstostarches.Themostpopularwaytoeatsweetcorniscornonthecob.Thecornisshucked,andtheearsareboiledfortwentyminutesorso.Iprefertoslatherminewithenoughbutterandsalttomakeacardiologistwince,butthereareplentyofothertoppings.Cornonthecobcanalsobegrilled.Peelback the husk but leave it attached, remove the silk, coat the kernels withplentifuloliveoil,put thehuskback,and tie itclosedwithcottonstring.Thengrill, turningfrequently,onamedium-hotgrillforfifteentotwentyminutes.Ifyoudon’twanttobotherwiththehusk,wraptheshuckedearsinaluminumfoilandusebutterinsteadofoil.

Sweetcornshouldbeshuckedandusedassoonaspossibleafterharvest.

Sweetcorncanbefrozeneitheronoroffthecob.Blanchforfourminutes,coolforfourminutes,dryoffthewater,andputinfreezerbagsfromwhichtheair has been evacuated. Off the cob, it can also be dehydrated followingblanching. Sweet corn holds up to pressure canning pretty well, especially ifharvestedacoupleofdayslate.

CannedCorn

Ingredients:2poundshuskedcornonthecobperpintsaltwater

Procedure:Huskthecornandremovethesilk.Useasharpknifetocutthekernelsfrom

thecob.Placethekernelsinjars,add(optionally)½teaspoonsaltperpintor1teaspoonperquart,ladleboilingwateroverthecorninthejarsleavingoneinchofheadspace,andthenprocessinapressurecannerat10poundsofpressurefor55minutesforpints,or1hourand20minutesforquarts.

FreshCornSalsa

Ingredients:

5earsfreshsweetcorn

1jalapeñopepper½poundtomatillos(preferred)ortomatoes1redpepper,choppedsmallwithmembranesremoved1smallonion,slicedthinly

1lemon

½tspgroundcoriander

1tbspchoppedfreshcilantro

water

Procedure:Husk the corn andcut thekernels from the cobs.Removemembranes and

chop the jalapeño pepper finely. Chop up the tomatillos after removing thehusks.Addalloftheingredientstoafryingpan,squeezethejuiceofthelemonintothemixture,addenoughwatertopreventscorching,andbringtoalightboilovermediumheat.Stirfrequentlyfor5minutes,andthenremovefromheat.Putit in the refrigerator to cool, and then stir in the cilantrobefore serving.Note:thisisafreshsalsaandisnotintendedforcanningasitisn’tacidicenoughtobecannedsafely.

Notes1USDAEconomicResearchService(2010),AdoptionofGeneticallyEngineeredCropsintheU.S.:CornVarieties

2Lasker,Eric(2005),FederalPreemptionandStateAnti-“GM”FoodLaws3TheOrganicFarmingResearchFoundationhas funded a project to create twoopenpollinated, sugaryenhancedsweetcornvarieties.Joseph’sGardeninParadise,Utah,isundertakingasimilareffort.

8

Cucumbers

Cucumbers are in close competition with tomatoes as the quintessentialvegetableannouncingthejoyofsummer.Eatenalone,aspartofasalad,orasapickle,cucumberslendadistinctivelyfreshandwholesomeflavortoanymeal.A member of the gourd family along with gourds, melons, and squash,cucumberswereoriginallycultivated in Indiaandspread fromthere toancientGreece,Rome,andeventuallytoFrancewheretheygracedCharlemagne’stable.

Cucumbers contain caffeic acid and vitamin C, as well as being a goodsource of molybdenum, vitamin A, fiber, and folate in the diet. Their silicacontentisgoodfortheskin,andtheyhavebeenusedasacosmetic,eitherslicedorasapaste,forhundredsofyearstoreducepuffinessinandaroundtheeyes.

VarietySelectionIngeneral,cucumbersareclassifiedasslicers,picklers,orburpless,thoughatthe right stage of development their uses are interchangeable to some degree.Slicersareusually longandstraightandare intended for fresheating.Picklersusuallygrownolongerthanfourinchesandhavebeenbredspecificallyfortheirqualityaspickles.Burplesscucumbersaresupposedtobemoreeasilydigestedwithoutburpingwheneaten fresh,butas I’veneverhadaproblemwitheitherslicers or picklers causing burping, I can’t say with certainty that burplesscucumberssolvetheproblem.

When growing in raised beds, space is an issue. Cucumbers are usually aviningcrop,thoughsomebushvarietieshavebeenintroduced.Ingeneral,bushvarietiesaren’tveryproductive.Using raisedbeds, thebest spaceefficiency isgainedbygrowingviningvarietiesonatrellisonthenorthernonefootofabedandusingtherestofthebedforgrowingashortercropsuchaslettuceorcarrots.Trellisedcucumbersalsotendtogrowstraighter.

Oneadditionalcomplicationinchoosingcucumbervarietiesisbacterialwiltdisease,spreadbycucumberbeetles.Thereareveryfewresistantcultivars,butifyourunintotroublewiththispestandtheaccompanyingdisease,yourbestbetmaybetoswitchtoavarietyofcucumberthatisresistant.

Among slicers, good vining varieties include Muncher, Marketmore 76,Tendergreen Burpless, and Straight Eight. My favorite vining picklers areHomemadePickles andBostonPickling Improved. If youhavedifficultywithcucumberbeetlescarryingbacterialwiltdisease,youmightwanttoconsiderthehybridpicklerCountyFair,whichhasdemonstratedresistance tobacterialwiltdiseaseincontrolledstudies.

SoilPreparationCucumbers likefertile,well-drained soilswith lots of organicmatter.Addatleastfivecubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bed,adjustthepHtobetween6and 7, and amend for NPK as indicated by a soil test. Cucumbers like traceminerals, so make sure these are added as well. Organic fertilizers are wellmatchedtocucumbersascontinuousharvestcreateslong-termneedsforfertility.Organic fertilizersbufferedwithplentyofcompost area recipe for impressivesuccess with cucumbers and also reduce the uneven growth spurts that makecucumbersmorevulnerabletodisease.

Picklingandslicingcucumbersreadyforasalad.

StartingandPlantingCucumberscanbegrowneitherfromseedorfromtransplants.Iprefertostarttheseedsindoorsaweekbeforelastfrostandthenplantthemoutaweekafterlastfrosttogivethemaheadstart.Ifyoupreferdirectseeding,waituntilaweekafter last frost, put the seeds in soil one-half inch to one inch deep andwaterthoroughlydailyuntiltheseedlingsemerge.

As mentioned earlier, cucumbers are most productive and most space-efficientwhen trellised.A six foot trellis is sufficient.Plant cucumbers spacedeightinchestotwelveinchesapartinasinglerowalongthenorthernonefootofabed.As theseedlingsgrow, train thevinesonto the trellis.Once theyhavea

footholdonthetrellis,you’llonlyhavetotraintheoccasionalerrantvine.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesPlant cucumbers in a weed-free bed and weed by hand weekly. Onceestablished,cucumberswilloutgrowmostweedproblems,butyouwant togettheweeds out anyway so they don’t set seed and create a problem for futurecrops.

Cucumbers are vulnerable to three major pests: leaf miners, aphids, andcucumber beetles. They also are vulnerable to squash bugs and squash vineborers, though they aren’t a preferred food for those creatures. (For moreinformation on these latter two pests, please see the section on squash.) Leafminers are the larvaof a smallyellowandblack fly.Theeggs are laidon theuppersurfaceoftheleaf,andthehatchedlarvaeburrowthroughtheleaf,leavingtracks.Whenready,theycutasemicircularholeontheundersideoftheleafanddroptothegroundtopupate.Usuallyleafminersposelittleornoeconomicrisktocucumbers.Croprotationandcleaningupdebrisaresufficienttokeepthematbay.

Various species of aphids affect nearly every soft plant in existence. Theysuckouttheplantjuicesandexcreteastickyhoneydewthatservesasfoodforantsand fungi.At low levelsof infestation,aphidsaren’tusuallyaneconomicthreat,butathigherlevelstheycanweakenandstuntplants.Aphidsaretinyovalcreaturesaboutone-sixteenthofaninchlongwhenfullgrown.Somehavewingsand some don’t. They can be controlled with insecticidal soap or a lighthorticulturaloilappliedtotopsandbottomsofleafsurfacesandalongthestem.

Cucumber beetles are a serious threat because they carry bacterial wiltdisease. They can do serious feeding damage as well, with adults feeding onfruit, flowers,stems,andfoliage,and larvaefeedingon theroots.But,overall,bacterialwilt disease is the greatest threat because the disease kills the plantsoutright. Organic control focuses mainly on prevention because botanicalinsecticides are only moderately effective at best, especially given that all ittakestokillaplantisasinglebite.Becausecucumberbeetlesoverwinterawayfrom the garden, feed on a variety ofwild plants and trees until cucurbits areavailable,andcanbecarriedhundredsofmilesonhighaltitudewindcurrents,croprotationandcompostingdebrisarenotaseffectiveincontrollingthemasincontrollingotherpests.

Somepeoplegrowcucumbersfordecadesandneverencounteracucumber

beetle,whileanotherfarmerlessthanamileawaycansufferseriousinfestationyear after year. You never really know until you encounter them. If youencounterthem,herearesomestrategiesfortheirmanagement.

Growingcucumbersonatrellismakesthemstraighterandsavesspace.

Growresistantvarieties.OnlytworesistantvarietiesexistasfarasIknow:County Fair (a pickler) and Saladin (a European greenhouse slicer). Usetransplants instead of seeds to get a head start. Use floating row cover (wellanchored) to exclude the beetles until the first flowers appear. If you use thisstrategy, you should thoroughly weed the bed and then flame the soil beforetransplanting,asopeninguptherowcovertoweedwilldefeatitspurpose.Usealuminum foil or Mylar (you can get this cheap as a so-called “emergencyblanket”) as amulch because studies show this sort ofmulch can reduce pestlevelsbelowthethresholdofeconomicdamage.1

Once you see cucumber beetles on your vines (they often hide in theflowers), it’s too late for any organic sprays to havemuch of an effect. Plus,those sprays (particularly thosecontainingpyrethrin)would likelybe farmore

toxictobees,andbeesarecriticalpollinatorsforcucumbers.Otherthanbacterialwilt,themostlikelydiseaseyouwillseeincucumbersis

powderymildew.Powderymildew is caused by a fungal spoor taking root on(usually) theundersideof the leaves. It appears likebabypowderand isoftenaccompanied by a yellowing of the upper side of the leaf opposite the funguscolony.Asthediseaseprogresses,itcanspreadtotheuppersidesofleavesandeven(althoughrarely) to thefruit.Powderymildewinfections, ifuncontrolled,willcausethedeathoftheassociatedleavesandpoorqualityfruit.

Conditionsfavoringpowderymildewdevelopmentarehighhumidity,shade,andpooraircirculation.Itoverwintersincropdebris,soeventhoughthespoorsare widespread, risk of reinfection can be diminished through sanitation.Likewise,thevariationandspeciesofpowderymildewfungusisusuallyspecifictoagivenfamilyofplants,socroprotationwillhelp.Sogrowingcucumbersontrellisesforbetteraircirculationandlocatingtheminfullsun,alongwithcroprotationandsanitationwillgoalongwaytowardprevention.

Anotherthingtoconsider,becausemanyresistantvarietiesofcucumberareavailable,isplantingavarietyofcucumberthatisresistanttopowderymildew.ExamplesincludeMarketmore76andTendergreenBurpless,amongothers.

Onceaninfectionisnoted,immediatetreatmentcaneliminatetheproblem.Because development of fungicide resistance has been observed in manyvariationsofpowderymildew,Irecommendafungicidecocktailapproach.Thefungicidesusedinorganicproduction,particularlybicarbonateandhorticulturaloils, have the potential to harmor kill garden plants. So during this treatmentregimen,pleasemakesuretheplantsarewellhydrated,andtestbicarbonateandhorticulturaloilsonasingleleaffirstandwaitadaytoassurenoharmisdonebeforemakingawiderapplication.Useapressuresprayertospraytheplantsandleaves(makingsuretogettheundersidesoftheleaves)withasolutionBacillussubtilis (such as Serenade) according to label directions.Wait two days, thenspraywith light horticultural oilmixed according to label directions, towhichyouhaveaddedonetablespoonbakingsoda(sodiumbicarbonate)pergallonofwater.Spray to thepointof runoff.Wait threedays,and then repeat thecycle.Continuerepeatingthecycleuntilnopowderymildewremains,andthensprayeveryotherweekwiththeBacillussubtilispreparation.

Cucumberbeetlesarethemostfearedpestofcucumbersastheycarrybacterialwiltdisease.

HarvestCucumbers should be harvested when they have reached the size for theparticularvarietygrownandwellbeforetheyhavestartedtoturnfromgreentoyellow. Keep a watchful eye for cucumbers that manage to hide among theleaves while they ripen because once a cucumber on a particular vine startsripening, that vine will stop producing new fruit. To pick a cucumber withminimal damage to the vine, gently hold the cucumber with one hand whileusingapairofscissorsintheotherhandtocutthestem.

SavingSeedCucumberseedsare savedvia thewetmethod.Allowacoupleofcucumbersoneachvine togrow tomaturity—meaning theygrow large,yellow, and soft.Leavetheseonthevinesuntiltheyaredeadfromfrost,andthenbringthemintoripen out of direct sunlight for another couple ofweeks. Slice the cucumbersopenlengthwiseandscoopouttheseedmassintoaplasticcup.Addsomewarmwater, stir,andallow tosit for fivedays.At theendof fivedays therewillbemoldgrowingontop.Giveitaswirlandthebadseedswillfloatwhilethegoodones sink.Emptyout thewater,discard themoldandbadseeds, and rinse thegoodseeds thoroughly.Dry thegoodseedswithapaper towel,and thenallowthem to dry on a screen until they are brittle.You candehydrate them furtherusingasilicageldesiccant.Storeinasealedcontainerinacool,dryplaceaway

fromsunlight.

Powderymildewispreventableandcurable.

PreparationandPreservationCucumbers keep best at a humidity of 95 percent and a temperature of 45degrees. In practical terms, this environment doesn’t exist inmost homes.Forshort-termstorage—fivedaysor less—puttingcucumbers insealedbags in therefrigeratorworkswell.For longerstorage (up to twoweeks), fullywrapeachcucumber separately in plastic wrap and store in the refrigerator. That is theeffectivelimitofhowlongcucumberscanbestoredfresh,buttheywillkeepforseveralyearsaspicklesusinganyofanumberofavailablerecipes.Theyneitherfreezenordehydratewell,thoughyoucanfreezethemwithmoderatesuccessifyoubakethemfirstat350degreesfor30minutes.

Cucumberswilllooklikethisduetounevenwatering.Assuringtheequivalentofoneinchofrainweeklywillpreventthis.

SesameCucumberSalad

Ingredients:3slicingcucumbers1tspsesameseeds1tbspsesameoil

1tspsoysauce

½tspsalt¼lemon

Sesamecucumbersaladisaquickanddelicioussummerdish.

Procedure:Peel the cucumbers and cut into chunks. Add salt and stir thoroughly.

Squeeze the lemonover thecucumberandmix.Mix theremaining ingredientstogether,thenpouroverthecucumberandmixthoroughly.Servechilled.

Note1Diver,S.&Hinman,T.(2008),CucumberBeetles:OrganicandBiorationalIntegratedPestManagement

9

Greens

Theterm“greens”includesanyplantwhoseleavesareeatenasfood,includingcabbage,kale,collardgreens,beetgreens,chard,spinach,andlettuce.Butitalsoincludesawidearrayofunderappreciated leafvegetables rich innutrients thatyou can seldom—if ever—find in the store.Examples includeorache,miner’slettuce,mustard,gardenpurslane,watercress,gardencress,andcornsalad,justto name a few.Greens are eaten both raw and cooked, depending on culinarytastes.

Some of the plants in this category, such as chard, are covered in otherchapters.InthecaseofplantsforwhichI’vegivenmoredetailedinformationinanother chapter, that more specific information should be preferred.Nevertheless, greens have enough in common in spite of their diversity that achapter dedicated to their general growth and properties is useful, especiallygiven that having separate chapters on orache and miner’s lettuce would bewasteful.

Leafygreensarenutritionalpowerhousesthatcombinehighnutrientdensitywith compounds that lower the risks for serious diseases such as cancer andatherosclerosis. Some work better raw, and some work better cooked. But ineitherstate, leafygreens, inmanycases, literallycontainmorevitamins thanavitamintabletfromthestore.Asaminifarmer,youhavetheabilitytoeatthesegreens as fresh ashumanlypossible, alongwithgrowingadiversityofgreensunavailableinstores.You’lldiscoveramazingtastesensations.

GrowingGreensBydefinition,greensaregrownfortheirleafyvegetation.Assuch,theyrequireasubstantialamountofnitrogen.Askeydietarysourcesofeverythingfromtraceminerals to omega-3 fatty acids, they should be provided with soil rich incompost and properly managed for trace nutrients. Most greens grow best incoolerweatherandaregrownfromseed.Raisedbedsareidealastheyallowthesoil to be worked earlier in the spring, thereby extending the season whilepreventingoversaturationwithmoisture.

Withtheexceptionofcollardsandkale,whichshouldbestartedfromseedinthe samemanner as cabbage and transplanted at a spacing of at least twelveinches,greensareusuallyharvestedintwostages.First,earlyintheirgrowthassalad greens that are eaten raw, and later in the season as pot greens that aresteamed, boiled, or fried. To accommodate this, greens are usually sowed asclosely together as an inch. They are harvested as they grow, leaving anincreasingamountofspacingbetweenplantsuntilall that is leftare theplants

beinggrownforpotgreens.Often, so-called“mesclun”mixesare sowed.Mesclunmixescontain seeds

for a variety of greens that have different tastes and textures.Commonmixescontain lettuces, arugula, endive, and chervil, but quite a few also includemustard, chard, spinach, and sorrel.You can buy these premixed ormix yourown.

To grow mesclun mixes or use the dual-harvest method described, putnarrowfurrowsinthesoilofthebedspacedfourinchesapart.Sprinkletheseedinthefurrowsataboutaone-inchspacing,andthencovertheseedswithsoilandwater thoroughly each day until they sprout. Start harvestingwhen plants arefourinchestall,anddosoinafashionthatwillleaveincreasingspacesbetweenwhatremains.Thiswayyoucanharvestbabylettuceandmaturelettucefromthesameplanting,orbothsmallmustardgreensforsaladandlargemustardgreensforsteaming.

PestsandDiseasesThe most troublesome pest of greens, especially milder greens, is the slug.Slugsgobbleholes in thevegetation, leavinga slimy trail in theirwake.Theycanbelargeorsmall,andseemtobeabletoworktheirwaythroughthesmallestcrevasse.Luckily,thereareanumberofwaystodeterslugs.

Caffeine is deadly to slugs. Spread coffee grounds around plants that theslugs like, and as they crawl across the grounds theywill absorb the caffeinethrough their bellies anddie.Asabonus, coffeegrounds are agoodnitrogen-containingorganicfertilizer.

Cornmeal is also deadly to slugs and is an attractant as well. Put a fewtablespoonsofcornmealinajar,andlaythatjaronitssidenearplantsrequiringprotection.Theslugswillcrawlintothejar,eatthecornmeal,anddie.

Beerisanextremelyeffectivelure.Youcanfillacontainer75percentfullofbeer,buryitsothelipisatgroundlevel,andprovideitwithacanopyofsomesort tokeepout rainanddebris.Slugswill crawl inanddrown (mywifeusescleanedcatfoodcansforthistrap).

Slugs are physically delicate creatures. Sand, egg shells, and similarsubstanceswillcutthemseverely,causingthemtodehydrateanddie.

Outside of this, all you need to be concerned about are grasshoppers, leafhoppers,andsimilar insectsmigratingfromnearbyvegetation.Thesepestscanbe avoided by keeping the lawn trimmed near the beds. Diseases are not a

problemsolongasyoupracticecroprotationandsanitation.

PurslaneThoughpurslaneisoftenconsideredaweed,Igrowiteveryyearinmygarden.It containsmore omega-3 fatty acids than any other land plant1 and is a richsourceofvitaminsAandCaswellaspigment-basedantioxidants.Theleaves,stems,and flowerscanbeeaten raw,steamed,or fried.Whenharvested in themorning,ithasatangyapple-liketaste;whenharvestedintheafternoon,ithasasweeterandmoregrass-liketaste.Ifyouareeatingadietfreeofthestarchesthatareusedas thickeners,keep inmind thatpurslanehasmucilaginouspropertiessimilar to okra that make it a good thickener for soups, stews, and gravies.Blanchit,dehydrate it,and then turn it intoapowder inyourblender.Use thepowderasathickenerinplaceofcornstarchorflour.

Sowpurslaneseedsdirectlyafterdangeroffrosthaspassed.Ifyouletitgotoseed, itwill regroweveryyear in thatspot inyourgarden.ThebedwhereIoriginally planted purslane has been used to grow greens, corn, carrots, andmore,yetpurslanenowgrowsthereeveryyearwithnoeffort.

CornSaladLike purslane, corn salad is often considered a weed; it can be an invasiveweedincornandwheatfields.ItisdelicatelyflavoredandrichinvitaminsE,C,A,B6,B9, andomega-3s. It isbestwhenharvestedbefore the flowersappearandused raw in salads, though it canbegoodwhen steamed lightly for aboutfourminutes.Itcanbesowninlatefallforanearlyspringharvestorinearlyfallfor a late spring harvest. It is an ideal crop to grow late in an unheated hoophouse.Germination is slowat ten to fourteendays.Plant thinly—oneseedperinch—and use the thinned plants in salads. Leave at a final spacing of fourinchesandharvesttheentirerosette.

Purslaneisdelicious,fresh,andmakesagoodthickenerforsoups.

OrachIgrowRedOracheveryyearmainlyforthecolorfulzestitaddstosalads.Itisbest when sowed early in the spring and the young leaves are harvested andeatenlikeyoungspinach.Sowseedseverytwoinches.Astheygrow,thinouttoeightinchesbetweenplantsandeatthethinnings.

Miner’sLettuceMiner’slettuce(alsoknownasClaytonia)isnativetoNorthAmericaandwascalledminer’slettucebecauseitwasusedextensivelybyGoldRushminersasasourceofvitaminC topreventscurvy. It tastesmore likespinach than lettuce,andsomeconsideritstastesuperiortoboth.Itcanbeeateneitherraworgentlysteamed.Ifyouhavedifficultygrowingspinach,considerminer’slettuceinsteadas itgrowsmoreeasily.Miner’s lettucewillgrowyear-round inagreenhouse,hoophouse,orcoldframe.Plantdirectlyinthespringatone-half-inchspacing,thinningouttosix-inchspacingastheplantsgrow.

MustardMustard is a culinary delight, and this fact is demonstrated in the dozens ofvarietiesavailablereflectingeverysize,shape,andflavorimaginable.Sowintheearlyspring,harvest thesmall leavesforsalads,and thenuse the larger leavesfor steaming and stir-fries. The pungent character in the fresh leaves isdiminished by cooking.The seeds can be harvested as a spice for pickling.AsinglecupofrawmustardgreenshasalmostdoubletheU.S.RDAofvitaminAand500percentof theRDAofvitaminK.It ishighinfolateandanumberofotherimportantvitaminsandminerals,too.Asamemberofthesamefamilyasbroccoli, it also contains a number of cancer-fighting compounds. And ithappenstobedelicious,soIgrowalotofit.

Planttheseedsdirectlyinthegroundeverysixinchesasearlyasthegroundcanbeworkedinthespring,andtheneveryweekthereafterforthenextmonthsoyouhaveacontinuousharvestuntilitbolts.Oncethemustardbolts,letitgoto seed if you plan to usemustard seed in pickle or other recipes.Collect theseedpods by stripping them from the plantwhen brown, break up the delicatepods,andseparatetheseedsbywinnowing.

CressCress grows both wild and cultivated, both in the form of watercress alongstream banks and in the form of dry land cress in fields and gardens. Cress,watercressparticularly,hasshownanumberofanti-cancerproperties,includingthe ability to inhibit the formation of blood supply to tumors. It is tangy andpepperyandusuallyeatenraw,thoughitcanalsobesteamedorboiled.Itisbestharvested before it goes to seed. Starting in the spring and every two weeksthereafteruntilfall,planttheseedsforcressdirectly,spacedeverytwoinches.

SorrelSorrel isamemberof thedockfamilyandcontainssufficientlyhigh levelsofoxalicacid that itcanbepoisonous ifeaten in largequantities.Thus, its tangyleavesarebesteatenyoungassmalladditionstosaladsforvarietyratherthanasamain coursepotherbwhen fullygrown.Sorrel growsbest in light shadebutwill tolerate full sun. It is ahardyperennial, so ifnotduguporkilled, itwillcome back every year from the roots. Directly seed at twelve-inch spacing.Theseplantsspread,sogrowingtheminaraisedbedisagoodidea.

ArugulaArugula(alsoknownasrocket)hasanassertive,pepperytaste.Itsyoungleavesare often used in mesclun mix for salads, and its older leaves as potherbs.Starting inmidspring and every threeweeks thereafter until summer, sow theseedstwoinchesapart.Harvestbypullinguptheplantsandcuttingofftheroots.

EndiveEndive is amember of the chicory family and has bitter leaves that promotesalivationandappetite.Itisanexcellentsourceoffiber,vitaminsA,C,andK,aswellasfolateandothervitaminsandminerals.Endivecanbestartedindoorsforaheadstartoritcanbedirectlyseeded.Spacetheplantsateight-inchintervals.

ChervilChervilisamemberofthesamefamilyasparsleyandhasadistinctiveyetmildflavor. It isused inmesclun,butalsoasanherb inFrenchcooking.Chervil isbest started indoors fourweeks before last frost and transplanted at eight-inchspacingoncethedangeroffrosthaspassed.

SpinachSpinach is, for all practical purposes, a superfood. A single cup of cookedspinach contains two-thirds of the RDA of folate, 25 percent of the RDA ofcalcium, 300+ percent of vitamin A, and over 1,000 percent of the RDA ofvitaminK. It is indeed powerful stuff.And for such goodmedicine, it is alsoquitetastyharvestedyounginsaladsorsteamedwhenolder.

Sowspinachsix toeightweeksbefore last frost. I recommend“broadcast”seeding in a bed, such that there is approximately one seed per inch. As theplants start growing, thin to a three-inch spacingwhile using the thinnings insalad. You can also grow a fall crop by using the same method, starting sixweeks before the first expected frost in fall. Spinach will grow up until hardfrosts.

Lettuce

Lettucehasa reputation forbeingnutritionallyvapid,but thisonlyapplies tothecommoniceberglettucefoundinstores.Whengrowingyourown,youcangrow any of dozens of varieties of cos (also known as romaine) lettuce, leaflettuce, and butter lettuce; all of these pack a greater nutritional punch thanstandardiceberglettuce.Twocupsofromainelettucedeliver58percentof theRDAofvitaminA,45percentoftheRDAofvitaminC,andasubstantialdoseof B vitamins as well. The array of textures, tastes, and colors available inlettuceisunequaledinanyotherleafvegetable.MyfavoritevarietiesareParrisIslandCos,Buttercrunch,andLolloRossa.

Lettucecanbedirectlyseededorplantedoutfromtransplantsgrownindoors.Idoboth.Igrowtheheadedvarieties,suchasromaine,indoorsandplantthemoutaboutsixweeksbefore last frostso theyhave timetogrowa largehead. Isow the leaf varieties directly, starting eightweeks before last frost and everytwoweeksthereafteruntillastfrost.Imakelittlefurrowssixinchesapartacrossthebeds,sprinkleseedinthefurrowsattherateofoneseedperinch,andlightlycover.Iharvesttheplantsforsaladsuntiltheyreachafinalspacingofsixinchesandallowthosetogrowintofullheads.

RichinfolateandvitaminK,spinachisasuperfood.

GreeneryBroth(abaseforsoups)

Ingredients:1headromainelettuce,chopped1smallonion,chopped3stickscelery,chopped2cupspurslane,chopped½tspsalt(optional)

8cupswater

Leaflettucespackamorepowerfulnutritionalpunchthaniceberglettuce.

Procedure:Chopup the ingredientswhile the saltedwater iscoming toa simmer ina

mediumpot.Addtheingredients,returntoasimmer,cover,andallowtosimmerfor another hour. Strain out the greens, and reserve the liquid as a soup base.

Thisissurprisinglygood!

Notes

1A.P.Simopoulos,H.A.Norman,J.E.GillaspyandJ.A.Duke.(1992)“Commonpurslane:asourceofomega-3fattyacidsandantioxidants.”JournaloftheAmericanCollegeofNutrition,Vol11,Issue4374-382

10

Herbs

AfewyearsagoIranoutoforegano,soIheadeddowntothesupermarket tobuysome.Talkaboutstickershock!Thegoodstuffintheglasscontainerswasselling for $10 per ounce! That’s when I decided that I needed a bed full ofherbs.

Herbsare,ofcourse,usedinnaturopathicmedicine.Butformypurposes,Iuse thema lot incooking toadd tasteandvariety.Beingoriented towardself-sufficiency,whatIdon’twanttodoismaketheguyswhoownthegrocerystorerich in the process. I’d rather keep that money in the family budget whilesimultaneouslymakingsuremyherbsarefresh.

Itisn’tlikelythatyou’llbegrowingyourownnutmeg,cloves,orcinnamon.Forthose,you’llremainbeholdentothesupermarketfortheforeseeablefuturebecause the conditions required to grow them aren’t favorable. But othercommonherbssuchasbasil, thyme,rosemary,sage,parsley,dill,mint, lovage,andmore can be grown easily at home. Some, in fact, are perennials or self-seedingannualsthatwillbecomeestablishedandreturneveryyearwithlittletonoeffortrequired.

Another benefit of growing your own herbs is variety. Down at the store,basil is just basil and thyme is just thyme. It is a standardized commodityproduct. But when you start looking through seed catalogs, you’ll discoverdozens of varieties of common herbs, each with subtle (or not so subtle)differencesincolor,flavor,aroma,andtexture.InonecatalogIreceive,therearetwo pages dedicated just to different varieties of basil. With this varietyavailable,youcanliterallygrowherbsthatcannotbepurchasedatanyprice.

Inaddition,freshherbsaresimplyamazinglytastefulandfragrant.SomeofthefinestdishesIprepare includeherbssuchasrosemary, thyme,ordill thatIhaveliterallytakendirectlyfromabedtothekitchen.Thedimensionstheseaddtotasteareimpossibletodescribeandhavetobeexperiencedtobeunderstood.Driedherbsaregood,butnotasgoodassomethingharvestedfresh.Someofthecompoundsresponsibleforthetastesandsmellsoffreshherbsarevolatileatlowtemperatures, and they are lost in the drying process. So even though dryingyourownherbsisagreatthingthatwillsavealotofmoneyovertime,itistheculinaryexperienceofaccesstofreshherbsthatwillgetyouhookedongrowingyourown.

Igrowmostofmyherbsinone4ft.x8ft.bed.Mostherbsaren’tbotheredbybugs,sorotationisn’tanissue,andthosethataren’tperennialoftenself-seed.Someherbs,mintsinparticular,seemtoharborambitionsforworlddomination,sopullinguptheexcesseveryyearaspartofbedmaintenanceisagoodidea.

BasilBasil isanessentialherb in Italiancooking,saladdressings,andpesto; italsogoes well in broiled or roastedmeats and stews. There aremany varieties ofbasilavailable.Forpesto,tryGenoveseorNapoletano.Forarealtreat,tryoneofthe redvarieties likeRedRubin.As a spice fordressings, tryLemonBasil orFineVerde.Basilcanbedirectlysownafter last frostat four-inchspacingandthen thinned to eight-inch spacing, or it can be started indoors three weeksbeforelastfrostandthentransplantedateight-inchspacing.

BorageBorage has cucumber-flavored leaves that go well in salads, and its blueflowers are a nice edible garnish. Sow the seeds directly at four-inch spacingafter last frost. Once they have sprouted, thin to eight-inch spacing. Borage’sgreatestvaluemaylieinitsnonculinarybenefits.Itsflowersareabeemagnet,anditwilldrawbeneficialpollinatorstoyourgardenandtherebyimprovecropsas diverse as cucumbers and okra. Inter-planted with tomatoes, it will repeltomato hornworms; some gardeners claim that they improve the flavor oftomatoes.Driedandpowderedborageleavesmakeaveryworthwhileadditiontomeatstews,makingthemmoresavory.

ChivesChiveshaveamildonion flavor thatgoeswell ineverything fromomelets tomashedpotatoes.Chivesareperennialandcaneitherbedirectlyseededstartingthree weeks before last frost or started inside six weeks before last frost andtransplantedatafinalspacingofeightinches.Thegrass-likeleavesaresnippedasneeded,ortheycanbedriedforconvenientuse.Thepurpleflowersareedibleandmakeawonderfulgarnishforsalads.

Cilantro/CorianderTheleavesofthisfreshherbareknownas“cilantro”andtheseedsareknownas“coriander.”Cilantroisusedinsalsasandotherspicydishes,givingthemanairofcoolfreshnesstooffsetthespice;corianderseedsareusedincurriesandroastpoultry. Cilantro is directly seeded starting four weeks before last frost at a

spacingofthreeinches.Itbecomesbitterwhentemperaturesstartaveragingover75degrees.Forculinaryuse, theseedsshouldbeheatedinadry,hotpanuntilthescentisnotable,thencooledandgroundwithamortarandpestle.

Choppedborageleavesgowellinsalads.

DillDillisobviouslyusedinpickles,butitisalsousedtospicefish,saladdressings,cookedvegetables,andmore.IenjoychewingonasprigofdillasIworkinthegarden.Both the foliage and the seeds can be used. Itwill reseed itself everyyear,making for abountiful supply. I growMammothdill, but other commonvarietiesincludeDukatandBouquet.Itcanbedirectlyseededstartingamonthbeforelastfrost,orstartedindoorstwomonthsbeforelastfrostandtransplanted.Thereafter,itwillreseeditselfimpressively.

FennelFennelhasaflavorlikeaniseorblacklicoriceandispopularinItaliancooking;itisalsousedforflavoringfish,lamb,andpork.Theseedsareusedasaspice,theleavesandflowersareusedinsalads,andthebulbscanbecookedasarootvegetable.Fennelreseedsitselfsoaggressivelythatitcouldbecomeinvasive;bemercilesswhencullingunwantedvolunteers.Directlyseedatfour-inchspacing.

Freshcilantrocontributesasenseoffreshnesstosaladsandsalsas.

GarlicAnentirebookcanbewrittenaboutgarlic.Itisoneofthemostpopularherbsinallformsofcooking,anddozensofvarietiesareavailable.Garlicfallsintotwobroad categories: hardneck (also known as “stiffneck”) and softneck. Thisdifferentiation is based upon whether or not the particular variety of garliccreatesaflowerstalk.Theflowerstalk,ifallowedtogrow,becomeshard,thusgiving the garlic a hard neck. The flower stalks, also known as scapes, if cutyoung,makeanexcellent stir-fryvegetable.Cutting the scapesalsomakes thegarlic more productive. Softneck garlic has a more flexible neck, and once

harvested,thoseneckscanbebraidedtogethertohangthegarlic.Thebestsoilconditionsforgarlicarethesameasforonions.Thoughgarlic

canbeplantedinspring,itislessproductive.Likewise,eventhoughallclovesof garlic will grow, the larger the clove you plant, the larger the bulb it willproduce.Sogarlicisbestplantedinthefallaroundthefirstfrostdateforharvestthenextyear.Plant thecloveswith therootsidedown, two inchesdeepatsixinch intervals in all directions, and then mulch heavily with straw to assistsurvival through the winter. If you live in a very cold place like Maine orMinnesota,youmayneedtoplantthemorewinter-hardyhardneckvarieties.

When you see the foliage starting to die back, stop watering your garlic.Oncethebottomleavesarebrown,itisreadytoharvest.Don’tjusttrytopullitupby thedead foliage. Instead, loosen the soilby insertingadigging fork sixinches away from the garlic and levering up the soil. Then dig out the bulbs.Brushoffanydirt,leavethetopsattached,andletitcurebydryinginashady,well-ventilatedplaceawayfromrain.Aftercuring,youcanremovethetopsandstoreinthedarkinmeshbags.Softneckvarietiescankeepforaslongaseightmonths,buthardneckvarietieswillonlykeepforfourmonths.

All garlic varieties can be successfully pickled in vinegar for long-termstorage and can likewise be blanched for four minutes and then frozen ordehydrated.(Oncedehydrated,youcanmakeyourowngarlicpowderbyputtingthe dehydrated garlic in a blender.) Though it is a popular practice, I woulddiscourage putting fresh garlic cloves in olive oil for storage, as this providesgoodconditionsforgrowthofundetectablebotulism.Infact,peoplehavediedasa result. In1989 theFDA issued the following statement about freshgarlic inoliveoil:

Tobesafe...garlic-in-oilproductsshouldcontainadditionalingredients—specific levels of microbial inhibitors or acidifying agents such asphosphoricorcitricacid. . . .Unrefrigeratedgarlic-in-oilmixes lackingantimicrobial agents can permit the growth of Clostridium botulinumbacteriawithsubsequenttoxinproductionwithoutaffectingthetasteandsmell of the products. Toxin production can occur even when a smallnumberofClostridiumbotulinumsporesarepresentinthegarlic.Whenthe spore-containing garlic is bottled and coveredwith oil, an oxygen-freeenvironmentiscreatedthatpromotesthegerminationofsporesandthe growth of microorganisms at temperatures as low as 50 degreesFahrenheit.1

LemonBalmLemonbalmmakesapleasanttea,butisalsoawelcomeadditiontomushroomandasparagusdishes,aswellastosaucesandmarinadesforfishandmeats.ItisaperennialherbthatwilloverwinterthroughoutmostofthecontinentalUnitedStates.Theseedswon’tgerminatebelow70degreesandcanbestartedindoorsandthentransplantedorsprinkledoutdoors(butnotcovered)andthenwateredfrequentlyuntiltheysprout.

LovageLovage’suniquecelery-likeflavorgoeswellinallsortsofstewsandstuffingswhileaddingnewpossibilitiesforsaladdressings,herbbutters,andfruitdishes.Lovagewill grow tobe about six feet tall andcomesbackeveryyear, soyouonlyneedoneplant.Startafewseedsindoorsaboutsixweeksbeforelastfrost,and then transplant the best one outside on the north side of your herb bed.Lovage is best used fresh; the dried herb is marginally useful, althoughblanchingandfreezingworksprettywell.Inplaceofthedriedherb,youcanusetheseedsyear-round.Theyareabitsweeterthantheleaves,butotherwisecarrythesameexcellentflavor.

MarjoramMarjoram is a close relative of oregano, although it ismoremild and sweet,complementingpracticallyanymeatdish.Althoughit isaperennialherbin itsnativeregions,itissomewhatcold-sensitiveandwon’tsurvivethewintersinthenorthern parts of the country. All is not lost, however, because it can besuccessfully grown as an annual by starting the seeds inside sixweeks beforelastfrostandputtingout the transplants justafter the lastfrost.Transplantataspacingof twelve inches.Theherb isharvestedbycuttingasectionofgrowthandhangingitupsidedownintheshadeuntildry.

Likelemonbalm,lemonverbenacontributesacitrusandsavoryessencetomarinades.

MintTherearemanymintvarietiesavailable,rangingfromthecommonspearmint,catnip, and peppermint to more exotic mints with flavors such as lemon andchocolate. Mint is best started indoors six weeks before last frost and thenplantedoutsideattwelve-inchspacingafterlastfrost.Itisahardyperennialthatwill come back year after year throughout the continental United States. Itsflowersattractbeesinabundance,anditcanself-seedtothepointofbecominginvasiveifyoudon’tkeepaneyeonitandruthlesslycullinvaders.Inmostmintvarieties,thegreatestconcentrationofflavorisinthetopfivetoseveninchesofgrowth. Snip that completely—stem and all—near midsummer, hang upsidedown in a shady but well-ventilated place to dry, and then use the leaves asseasoning,intea,etc.Mints,ingeneral,canattractcats.

MustardGrowingmustardandharvestingtheseediscoveredinthechapterongreens.The seeds are used as a spice, both in whole formwhenmaking pickles andgroundasanadditiontopracticallyanythingthatcanbecooked.Itisespeciallygood when used as a flavoring for boiled cabbage, but likely the biggestattraction for purposes of self-sufficiency is the ability to make your own

preparedmustard,soI’llincludearecipeattheendofthischapter.

OreganoOregano is a perennial that ismore cold-hardy than its cousinmarjoram, andwill overwinter well throughout the continental United States. It should bestarted indoors sixweeks before last frost and then transplanted outdoors at aspacingoftwelveinchessometimeafterlastfrost.Don’tcovertheseedsbecausetheyneedlighttogerminate.OreganoisknownastheessentialItalianherb,butitgoeswellwithalmosteverything. I like toaddasmallamount toportobellamushrooms fried inbutter.Oregano isbestharvestedbefore theplant flowers.Cutastalkallthewaydowntothegroundtoencourageabushyhabit.Youcanthenhangitupsidedowntodryintheshadeawayfromweatherandthenstriptheleaves,orstriptheleavesfromthestemdirectlyforfreshuse.

ParsleyEveryonehasseenparsleyusedasagarnish,andmanyswearbyparsleyasaremedyforhalitosis,butbyfarmyfavoriteuseisasaningredientinvegetablejuices that Imakewithmy juicemachine. I use a half pound of carrots, twostalksofcelery,andahandfulofparsleytomakethejuice.Theparsleymakesthe juice taste fresh and vibrant.There are twoprimary types of parsley: flat-leavedandcurly-leavedvarieties.Though someclaimonevariety tastesbetterthantheother,Ithinktheyarebothquitegood.

Parsleyishardtostartfromseed.Tostartit,puttheseedsinthefreezerforaweek, then put them in a wet paper towel sealed in a zippered plastic bagovernight before planting inside. Theywill take nearly amonth to germinate.Oncetheyhavebeenestablishedforacoupleofweeks,transplantthemoutsideataspacingoftwelveinches.Harvestbycuttingentirestemsbacktothegroundtoencouragemoregrowth.Itisbesteatenfresh,butitcanbequicklyblanched(oneminute)anddehydratedaswell.

Thischocolatemintmakesexcellentteasbutwilltakeoverthebedsifyouallowit!

RosemaryRosemaryisaperennialherbbestknownforitsuseinpoultryseasoning,butitisalsousefulinmarinadesandvegetables.Thoughitissupposedlyonlywinter-hardy throughzone6,my rosemarycomesbackeveryyear in themorechillyzone5.Rosemaryismosteasilystartedasapurchasedplantfromanurseryorfromacuttingtakenfromanestablishedplant;itisneverthelesspossibletostartfrom seed using the samemethod as describedwith parsley. The germinationrateisverylow,soplantfivetimesasmuchseedasyouthinkyou’llneed.Putout the transplants at eight-inch spacing two weeks before last frost. Harvestrosemary by cutting healthy branches, tying them together, and hanging themupsidedownoutoftheweatheruntildry.

SageTheusesofsageoverlapthoseofrosemary;Ihavefoundthatinmarinadesforvariousmeats, one spicewill be better than the other. Like rosemary, sage ismosteasilystartedfromanurseryplantoracutting,butwithdifficultyitcanbe

startedfromseedusingthesamemethodaswithparsley.Spaceplantsattwelve-inch intervals, and don’t harvest the first year. In subsequent years, harvesthealthybranchesthatarehungupsidedowninsidetodry.Sageisalsoexcellentinstewswhenusedfreshfromtheplant.

TarragonThere are two varieties of tarragon: Russian and French. The French variety(Artemisia dracunculus) is more flavorful but seldom produces seeds, andtherefore must be started from a cutting or purchased from a nursery. TheRussian variety (Artemisia dracunculoides) can be started from seed, is moreprolific, and has a milder flavor. Both are superb as flavorings for variousspecies of white fish, as well as for making herbal vinegars for salads. SowRussiantarragonseedsindoorssixweeksbeforelastfrost,andplantoutshortlyafter last frost.You’llprobablyonlywantorneedoneplant, as itgrows tobetwofeettallandtwofeetwide.

The leaves don’t smell like much when growing, but once harvested theflavorstartstoconcentrate.Theheatofcookingreleasesevenmoreflavor,soitis easy to overuse tarragon. Tarragon can be used fresh, it can be dried on adehydrator,orthesprigscanbesealedinairtightbagsandfrozen.

ThymeAclassicandessentialherb,thymelendsitsflavorstodressings,vegetables,andmeatsalike.Thymeisaperennial,thoughdifferentvarietieshavedifferentcoldtolerance,somakesurethevarietyyouchoosewilloverwinterinyourarea.Sowtheseedsindoorssixweeksbeforelastfrost,andthentransplantshortlyafterlastfrost at eighteen-inch spacing. Early in its life thyme grows slowly, so weedcontrolisimportant.Also,foritsfirstyear,don’tharvestfromtheplants.Fromthesecondyearandthereafter,harvestaroundmidsummer,justbeforeitbloomsorjustasitisblooming.Cutoffthetopfourorfiveinches,anddryitinsideintheshade.

HowtoMakeMustardThe prepared mustard available in the store is made from vinegar, water,mustard seed, salt, turmeric, and other spices such as garlic. Each of these

ingredientsservesaparticularpurposeduetothenatureoftheactiveingredientsinmustardseed.

Justastheirritantsubstancesinonionsandgarlicarereleasedbymechanicaldamagetothecellsofthebulbs,thedistinctivetastesandsmellsofmustardseedarereleasedbymechanicaldamage to theseed.Likewise,applyingheat to thedamagedmustardseedinactivatesthecompounds,sothedegreeofspicinessofmustardcanbecontrolledbytheamountofheatapplied.

Therearethreetypesofmustardseed:themilderwhite/yellowmustardusedinAmericanmustards, the tangierbrownprevalent inEuropeanmustards, andthefieryblackthatpredominatesAsiancuisine.Foryourfirstexperimentswithmakingmustard,Irecommendusingmostlyyellowandabitofbrown.

For processing, whole mustard seed should be soaked overnight in water.Onceithassoaked,processitwiththesoakingwaterinablender.Justasis,thepropertiesofthemustardwoulddissipateinafewdays.Waittenminutesorso,andthenaddvinegarandprocessfurtherintheblender.Saltisalsoneededtofixthe qualities of themustard, and anywhere from 1 teaspoon to 2 teaspoons isusedpercupofproduct.Theturmericisusedforimpartingayellowcolor.Thereasonwhythefamous“GreyPoupon”mustardlacksthedistinctivefluorescentyellowcolorofAmericanmustardisbecauseitlacksturmeric.Turmericlendsatasteall itsown,soifyouareusedtoAmerican-stylemustards,you’llwant toadd this ingredientaswell.Freshlymademustard isunbearablybitter,but thisbitternesswilldisappearonceithasbeenrefrigeratedfor24hours.Ihaveonlyprovidedonerecipe,butbyexplainingtheprocess,youcanbranchouttocreateyourown.

Sagewillrewardyouabundantlyyearafteryear.

Thiscreepingthymeisfeaturedinhomemadesaladdressings.

Down-HomeMustard

Ingredients:1/3cupwater½cupwinevinegar

½cupmustardseed,yellowandbrown

2tspsalt

½tspturmeric½tspgarlicpowder

Procedure:Soak the seeds in thewaterovernight at room temperature.Dump them in

the blender, and blend until it is smooth enough for your purposes. Add theremainingingredients,blendthoroughly,andthendumpintoasealedcontainer.Storeintherefrigerator,andallowtositatleastadaybeforesampling.

Note1TheFDAMemoonGarlic-in-OilPreparations,4/17/1989

11

Melons

Thequintessential taste of summer is themelon.Whether it bewatermelon,honeydew, or cantaloupe,melons just seem to concentrate summer’s essentialsweetness.Andeventhoughtheyarenature’scandy,theyareveryhealthfulaswell.Watermelon contains citrulline, an arginine precursor that relaxes bloodvessels and indirectly supports nitric oxide synthesis.1 It likewise contains agreatdealoflycopene,knowntohelppreventprostate,breast,andlungcancer.Cantaloupeisso tasty that it ishardtobelievethatasinglecupcontainsmorethantheRDAofbothvitaminsAandC.

Melonsaremembersofthesamefamilyascucumbersandsquash,andtherearelikelyahundredvarietiesaroundtheworld.Manyareeatenfresh,butjustasmanyarepickledascondimentsorusedtomakepreserves.

In theUnitedStates,we typically think in termsof threemelonvariations:watermelons,cantaloupes,andhoneydew.Inreality,themelonwithnettedskinthatweintheUnitedStatescalla“cantaloupe”isamuskmelon,Cucumismelovar.reticulatus.Truecantaloupes,Cucumismelovar.cantalupensis,havescaledrinds and are much more common in Europe than in the United States.Honeydew,Crenshaw,andcasabamelonsareCucumismelovar.inodorus.Butall variations ofCucumismelo can interbreed with each other, so if you aregrowing them for seed, youwill need to practice isolation techniques to keepseedlinespure.

WatermelonsareCitrulluslanatusandwillcrosswithotherwatermelonsandcitron,butnotwithanyothermelonsgrownintheUnitedStates.

VarietySelectionPlantsthatmakefruitsrequiresuntomakethem,somelonsinparticulartendto be long-season crops,with some requiringmore than 100 frost-free days—preferably warm days. Particularly if you live in the northern parts of the

country, you should choose a variety that will produce ripe fruit within yourgrowingseasonwithsomeroomtospare.

Another consideration is disease resistance. Watermelons are pretty muchresistant to bacterial wilt, but all varieties of muskmelon are susceptible.Powderymildewandmosaicviruscanposeaproblemwithmelons,butresistantcultivarsareavailable.

InNewHampshire, I have successfully grownMoon and Stars and SugarBabywatermelons,andHale’sBestandGreenMachinemelonvarieties.

SoilPreparationLikeothermembersofthecucumberfamily,melonspreferfertile,well-drainedsoilwithlotsoforganicmatter.Theuseofraisedbedsassistswithdrainage.Addatleastthreecubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bed,adjustthepHtobetween6 and 7, and amend forNPK as indicated by a soil test.Melons use a lot ofnitrogen, so make sure to combine nitrogen sources that release both quickly(suchasbloodmeal)andslowly(suchasalfalfameal)whenamendingthesoil.

StartingandPlantingMelonscanbegrowneitherfromseedorfromtransplants.Iprefertostarttheseedsindoorsaweekbeforelastfrostandthenplantthemoutaweekafterlastfrost to give themahead start. If youprefer direct seeding,wait until aweekafterlastfrostoruntilthesoiltemperatureis65degrees,puttheseedsinsoiloneinchdeep,andwater thoroughlydailyuntil theseedlingsemerge.Spacemelonplantsatoneperfoot.Ifplantingfromseed,planttwoseedseveryfootandthenusescissorstosnipofftheleaststrongofthetwothatsprout.

Melons, theoretically, canbegrown in thenorthernone footofabedonatrellisforhighestspaceefficiency—justascucumbers—andIhavesuccessfullydonethiswithmuskmelonsbysupportingthegrowingmelonswithaslingmadefromoldwashed nylons (a.k.a. pantyhose). It turned out to be labor intensiveandwould work better with true cantaloupes because those don’t slip off thevine.WhatIrecommendinsteadisplantingthemelonssixtotwelveinchesbackfromthesouthsideofthebed,allowingthevinestotrailalongtheyardortheareabetweenbeds. Imulch theareacoveredbyvineswithgrass clippings (orhaycanbeused)andsetboardunderthegrowingmelonstokeepthemofftheground.Thenorthernportionofthebedcanbeplantedwithothercrops.

Onethingtoconsiderisplantingtrellisedcucumbersonthenorthsideofabed,free-runningmelonsonthesouthsideofthebed,andcloselyspacedbushbeanstreatedwithinoculantdownthecenterforacontinuoussupplyofnitrogen.

Melonstendtohaveshallowrootsystems.Consideringtheirneedforwater,it is important to establish the deepest root systems possible. To this end,wateringshouldbedoneonlyweeklyunlesstheweatherisabominablyhot;thewateringshouldbeextremelythorougheachtimeitisdone.Usearaingage,andinanyweekwhenlessthananinchofwaterwasreceived,givethemaninchofwaterontopofwhattheyalreadyhave.Ifaninchormoreofwaterwasreceivedthatweek,youcanletitpassaslongasthevineslookokay.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesMelons are fast growing once they get started and tend to shade out weedcompetition,soweedsaren’tusuallyadirectproblem,buttheycanbeanindirectproblemas a reservoir of diseaseorganisms and a hidingplace for pests. It ispractically impossible to weed efficiently aroundmelon vines without risk ofharming the vines, so mulching is the best option. In my own mini farm, Iusually use grass clippings because they are abundant, free, and return theirelementstothesoil.Butifyouhavetroublegettingmelonstoripenwithinyourseason, I recommend killing two birds with one stone by using black weedbarrierthatsuppressesweedswhileallowingwaterandairtopenetrate.

Oncewatermelon plants have grown to have ten leaves ormore, they areimmunetothebacterialwiltdiseasetransmittedbycucumberbeetles.Evenso,ifpresent in large numbers they can decrease the vigor of the plant through themechanicaldamageof feeding,and their larvaecanhurt the roots,causing thevinestowiltanddie.Plantingnasturtiumsaroundthestemsofwatermelonscanhelppreventtheadultsfromlayingeggsaroundthestemandthuspreventrootdamage,butonceadultnumbersarenoticeable,chemicalcontrolsmaybecomenecessary.NaturalalternativesincludeusingafineclayproductcalledSurround,ortheuseofamixtureofpyrethrin,rotenone,andneem.

Muskmelons are not immune to bacterial wilt and, in fact, are almost assusceptible as cucumbers. The most effective natural way of dealing withcucumberbeetles spreadingbacterialwilt tomuskmelons is to seal themelonsuptightlyunderfloatingrowcoversuntiltheflowersappear.

Aphids can sometimes spread from surrounding vegetation to melons insufficientquantitiestoposearisktotheplant.Ifthishappens,twoapplications

ofinsecticidalsoapspacedfivedaysapartwillusuallygetridofthem.Other thanbacterialwilt, thenextmost likelydisease tobeencountered is

powderymildew.Powderymildewstartson theundersideof the leafand thenspreads.Itcanbecomeaseriousproblemifconditionsareshady.Ifyouhaveaproblemwithbacterialwilt, resistantvarietiesofmelonare available, andyoushouldgrowresistantvarietiesinfutureseasons.

Once an infection is discovered, fast treatment can eliminate the problem.Because development of fungicide resistance has been observed in manyvariationsofpowderymildew,Irecommendafungicidecocktailapproach.Thefungicidesusedinorganicproduction,particularlybicarbonateandhorticulturaloils, have the potential to harmor kill garden plants. So during this treatmentregimen, make sure the plants are well hydrated, and test bicarbonate andhorticulturaloilsonasingleleaffirstandwaitadaytoassurenoharmisdonebeforemakingawiderapplication.

Useapressuresprayertospraytheplantsandleaves,makingsuretogettheundersidesoftheleaves,withasolutionofBacillussubtilis(suchasSerenade)accordingtolabeldirections.Wait twodays, thenspraywithlighthorticulturaloil mixed according to label directions and to which you have added onetablespoonbakingsoda (sodiumbicarbonate)pergallonofwater.Spray to thepointof runoff.Wait threedays, and then repeat thecycle.Continue repeatingthe cycle until no powderymildew remains, and then spray every otherweekwiththeBacillussubtilispreparation.

HarvestTimingtheharvestofwatermelonsissometimesseenasablackart,whereonlythoseinitiatedtothesecretsoftheuniquesoundsmelonsmakewhenrappedcanmakesuchdeterminations.Mostcertainly,withwatermelons,averyexperiencedperson can do so. But you can also tell by looking for three signs: the curlytendril opposite the stemof themelon has turned brown and/or died, the spotwhere the watermelon was touching the ground has changed from white toyellow,andtherindof themelonhasbecomeabit lessshiny.Thestemto thewatermelonshouldbecutwithasharpknifetoharvest.Itshouldneverjustbepulled.

Muskmelonsshouldbeharvestedwhenthenettingiswelldefined,theyarefragrant, and there is a bit of “give”when the blossom end is pushed.A ripemuskmelonwillalsoslipeasily fromthevinewhenpulled. If it isstubborn, it

isn’t ripe yet—give it another couple of days. Muskmelons are harvested bypullingthemfromthevines.

Overripe watermelons, incidentally, will explode. When I first startedgrowingwatermelons,Ihadnoideahowtotellwhentheywereripe,soIjustletthemgrowuntil thevines theywereonweredead,andthenIbrought theminthe house. For some reason, I also suffered under the notion that they wouldkeep for a long time sittingout, just like squash.So I brought in some thirty-plus–poundmelons,putthemonthekitchentable,andletthemsitforacoupleofweeks.OnedaywhenIwasinthelivingroom,Ihearda“thud”reminiscentof a sledgehammer hitting something. I ran into the kitchen to find a mostimpressivemessalloverthetable,chairs,floor,walls,andmore.Youhavebeenwarned!

Thiswatermelonshowsyellowinsteadofwhitewhereitwastouchingtheground,andsoitisreadyforharvest.

SeedSavingMelons are insect-pollinated, and if pollinated naturally, only one varietyshould be grown or it should be isolated from other varieties by at least one-quartermile.Theseedsarereadywhenthemelonisripetoeat,andtheyarebest

collectedusingthewetmethod.Puttheseedsandabitofthepulpintoalargeplasticcup,addacupofwater,stir,andallowtositforthreedays.Attheendofthreedays,cleanoffanyscumanddiscardanyfloatingseeds.Then,washanddry the seeds that remain, and dry them over a desiccant for a week beforestoring inadark,coolplace inasealedcontainer (seeMiniFarming formoreinformationondesiccants).

PreparationandPreservationMelonsdon’tkeeplong—maybeaweekatroomtemperatureortwoweeksintherefrigerator,tops.Preparationconsistsofjustslicingitupandeatingit!

Youcoulddehydratemelons,butastheyaremostlywater,youwouldn’tgetmuchafterthedehydratingprocess.Muskmelonscanbecubedandfrozenwithsomesuccess,butwatermelonwon’tcomeoutwellatall.

Theonlyeffectivewaytomakesureexcessmelonsdon’tgotowaste is toturnthemintopreserves,pickles,sorbets,orevenwines.Thegoodnewsisthateven in such states, many of the preserves still retain important nutritionalcomponents such as vitamins and antioxidants.Thatmakesmehappybecausewatermelonrindpickleshavebeenmyfavoritesincechildhood!

MuskmelonIce

Ingredients:4cupscubedmuskmelon

2cupswater

½cupsugar2tbspfresh-squeezedlimejuice(don’tusethebottledkind)¼tspvanillaextract1/8tspcinnamon

Thenettingiswelldefinedanditslippedfromthevineeasily,indicatingripeness.

Procedure:

Placeall theingredientsinablenderandprocessuntilsmooth.Pourintocleanicecubetraysandallowtofreeze.Oncefrozen,storethecubesinsealedfreezerbags.Toserve,putthecubesintotheblenderandbreakthemup,orjustputtheminabowlandusetheedgeofaspoontoeatthemalittleatatime.

WatermelonRindPickles

Ingredients:4quartscubedwatermelonrind4quartscoldwater1cupcoarseseasalt

9cupssugar

4cupsdistilled(white)vinegar

4cupswater

2lemons,thinlysliced

4tspwholecloves

8cinnamonsticksbrokeninto1-inchpieces

Procedure:Remove thepink flesh and theoutermost green rind from thewatermelon,

andcuttheremainingrindinto1-inchcubes.Addthe1cupofseasalttothe4quartsofwatertomakeabrine,andpourthisoverthecubedwatermelonrindinalargebowl.Allowtositforthreehours,thendrainandrinse.Putthedrainedcubes intoa largepot, add just enoughwater tocover, andbring toa simmer.Simmerfor10minutes,thendrainandsetthecubesaside.

Makethepicklingbrinebyputtingthespicesinaspicebag,andaddthebagtothemixtureofvinegar,water,sugar,andslicedlemoninamediumpot.Bringtoaboil,thenreducetoasimmerandstiroccasionallyforhalfanhour.

Pack the rinds into pint jars, add one of the pieces of cinnamon from thespice bag, cover with hot pickling brine leaving ½ inch of headspace, andprocess for 15minutes in a boilingwater canner.Allow to sit amonthbeforeconsuming.

Note:11 Nitric oxide synthesis is necessary for achieving and maintaining erections. Studies show thatwatermeloncanassistinthatregard.ScienceDaily,July1,2008,“WatermelonMayHaveViagra-Effect.”

12

Onions

Ihaveitongoodauthoritythat,withoutonions,foodwouldstillexistinsomeformorfashion,butitwouldhardlybeanexaggerationtostatethatgood foodwouldberare.Onionslendtheiruniqueflavorandpungencytoeverythingfromspaghetti sauce to chicken soup. And along with flavor, they have so manyhealth benefits that even theWorldHealthOrganization recognizes them as amedicinaltreatmentandpreventativeforchronicdiseases.

Onionsarewellknownasapreventativeforatherosclerosis,andwhenusedregularly, the fibrinolytic substances they contain suppress the plateletaggregation thatcangiverise toheartattacks.Severalstudieshaveshownthateatingaslittleashalfanonionadayreducestheriskofstomachcancerby40percent.

Givenpropercareandconditionsandusingintensivespacingmethods,youwilleasilyreapover180onionsfromasingle4ft.x6ft.bed.Thetrickliesinthe proper care and conditions, alongwith selecting the right variety for yourpurposes—sothat’swhatthischapterisallabout.

SelectingtheRightVarietyOnions can be categorized in a number of different ways. There are bulb-forming and non-bulb-forming onions, sweet and pungent varieties,multiplieronionsandseed-bearingonions,and that’s just forstarters.Fornowwe’re justgoing todiscuss thecommonbulb-formingandseed-bearingonion thatpeopleusuallygrowintheirgardensorbuyinstores.

This onion, typified by the red,white, and yellow varieties in the grocerystore produce department, can be divided into short-day, long-day, andintermediate-day onions based upon howmuch sunlight they need in order toproperlyformabulb.Long-dayonionsrequirefifteenormorehoursofsunlight,intermediate-dayonionsrequiretwelvetothirteenhoursofsunlight,andshort-dayonionsrequireonlyninetotenhoursofsunlight.

The number of hours of sunlight your garden receives at midsummer isdeterminedbyyour latitude.Though itmaybecounterintuitive, thecloseryouaretoeithertheNorthorSouthPole,thegreaterthehoursofsunlightyou’llseeat midsummer. In practice, this means you can grow a long-day onion inlatitudesgreater than40degrees.In latitudesless than40degrees,you’llgrowanintermediate-dayonion.Short-dayonionsareusedinareaswithmildwintersandareplantedinthefallforaspringharvest.

Not everyone walks around with a globe in his or her back pocket, but

there’saneasyruleofthumbfortheUnitedStates.IfyouareontheEastCoast,40 degrees runs throughNewark, New Jersey, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. IfyouareintheMidwest,itrunsthroughColumbus,Ohio.IfyouareintheGreatPlains, itrunsthroughLincoln,Nebraska,andDenver,Colorado.IfyouareontheWestCoast,itrunsabout100milesNorthofSacramento,California.

Commononionvarietiesforyourlocationandintendeduse.

Thechoiceofintermediate-dayorlong-dayonionismadeforyoubasedonwhere you live, but there are still other considerations including taste andkeeping qualities. When it comes to storage ability, northern growers have adefinite advantage.As ageneral rule, themorepungent a variety, thebetter itkeeps,andlong-dayonionsusually(butdon’talways)storebetterthanshort-dayonions.Thefollowingtableisfarfromexhaustive,butitlistssomecommonandheirloomonionvarietiesthataresuccessfulinhomegardens.

StartingOnionsOnionsusually require a long season, so it is a good thing that they are notterriblysensitivetofrost.Youcanstartorplantonionsinthreeways:fromseed,fromtransplants,andfrombulbs.

InareassuchasSouthernCalifornia,Georgia,Florida,orAlabama,youcanplant seeds in the fall for harvest in the spring. In fact, this is exactly whatgrowersofthefamousVidaliaoniondo.TheVidaliaonionisnotitsownuniquevariety, but is rather aGranoorGranexonion that is sweet due to the uniqueconditionsofthesoilinthatregioncombinedwithbeinggrownfromseedoverthewintermonths.Soifyouliveinawarmerclimate,itcouldbeworthwhileto

experiment with growing onions from seed. However, if you live in a coolerclimate,youwillfindthatplantingonionsfromseed,evenasearlyaspossibleinthe spring, will give very small bulbs. In this case, you can plant the seedscloselytogetherandusetheresultantsprouts(oncetheyarethesizeofapencil)as“bunchingonions.”Theseareadelightfuladditiontosaladsandsoups.

Inordertoformabulb,onionsneedtogatheralotofenergyfromthesun;outsideofverywarmareas,theywillneedaheadstartinordertoformabulb.Thus, onions are typically planted as either bulbs (knows as “sets”) ortransplants. Onions grown from transplants usually have the best keepingqualities,soifyouaregrowingonionsforstorage,thisisdefinitelythewaytogo.Onionsshouldbestartedindoorsapproximately12weeksbeforelastfrost,and the setsplantedoutsideabout sixweeksbefore last frost.Thisgives themtheheadstarttheyneedtoformagoodbulb.Theseedscanbestartedwithinawide temperature range—anywhere from 65 to 80 degrees; once they havesprouted,trytokeepthemcoolerataround60degreesforbestgrowth.

Manyfindgrowingonions frombulbs tobemoreconvenient,and thiscaneasilybedone.Simplysowseedsclosetogetherinasmallpatchofgroundaboutsixweeksbefore last frost.Then, about threeor fourweeks aftermidsummer,pull the plants when the bulbs are no more than three-quarters of an inch indiameter. Discard the largest ones or use them for pickling or salads becausetheywill go to seedearly if planted.Layyour setsout in the sun (butprotectthemfromrain)forseventotendaystocure,andthenremovethedrytopsandstorejustasyouwouldanonionforeating.Comespring,sixweekspriortolastfrost, plant them out at their optimal distance for the expected size of thatparticularvarietyofonion.

PlantingOnionsSoil for onions should already be corrected for the major macronutrients(nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) before planting. Raw manures and thelikeshouldbestrictlyavoided,andonlyverywellmaturedcompostemployed.Thisisthecase,incidentally,forallrootcropsthatcomeintodirectcontactwiththesoilbecausefreshmanuresdrawpests,leachnutrients,and,worstofall,lendtheirflavortowhatisgrowninthem.

Onionscanbestartedindoorsfromseed.Thistechniqueusuallygrowsthebestonions.

Plantingonionbulbsissometimesmoreconvenient.

The compound in onions that makes them pungent is a sulfur compound.Therefore, onions can be made sweeter by depriving them of sulfur. This,however, canmake themkeeppoorly andbemore susceptible topestdamage

becausesulfurisacrucialelementincertainaminoacidsthatareapartofDNAstructure.ThisiswhyyoucanonlygetthefamouslysweetVidaliaonionduringashorttimeoftheyear—thelowsulfursoilinwhichitisgrownmakesitaverypoorkeeper.Thus,youcanmakesweeteronionsbydeprivingthesoilofsulfur,butyoudosoattheexpenseofkeepingquality.

Potassiumandphosphorusareparticularlycrucialforonions,andshouldbepresent in sufficient quantities prior to planting. If needed, they can be addedlaterintheseasonasasidedressingintheformofashes,greensand,bonemeal,etc.Nitrogen,asakeyconstituentofaminoacids,islikewiseneededandshouldbepresentatadequatelevelsatthebeginningoftheseason.However,itshouldnotbeaddedlaterintheseason,asdoingsowilldelayorotherwiseinhibittheformationofbulbsinfavorofexcessivetopgrowth.Thisiswhereslow-releaseorganicformsofnitrogen,suchasalfalfameal,haveadefiniteadvantageoverchemicalseasilywashedfromthesoil.

Onions taste betterwhen grown in sweeter (i.e., less acidic) soilswith pHlevelsbetween6and6.8.Lime ineitherpelletedorpowdered formshouldbeappliedwellinadvanceoftheseasonbecauseittakesmonthstoaffectthepHofthesoil.Soit isbestappliedinthefall.If,comespring,thesoilpHisstill toolow, you can use a mixture of powdered lime (which acts slowly) and woodashes(whichactquickly)toraisethepH.Theseshouldbemixedintothetopsixinchesofsoilverythoroughlyasashescontainpotassiumhydroxide(woodlye),which can be highly corrosive and therefore toxic to plants in heavyconcentrations.

WeedsAretheNemesisofOnionsEarlyintheseason,onions’greatestvulnerability,duetotheirslowgrowth,isbeingchokedoutbyweeds—particularlygrasses.Thisisespeciallyproblematicas distinguishing between an onion and blades of grass can make weedingdifficult. As a result, onions are definitely a case for which applying theproverbial“ounceofprevention”iswise.

For beds that will be growing onions, soil solarization as covered in thechapter on weeds is a very effective strategy. This requires some advancedplanningbecausesolarizationismosteffectiveinJulyandAugustwhenthesunisatitshottest.Soyou’llneedtoknowinadvancewhichbedyou’llbeusingforonions.

The following step-by-step strategy will allow you to effectively prevent

weedproblemswithouttheneedforchemicals.Anaddedbonus,aspartofabedrotation combined with solarization, nutrients will be more available anddiseaseswillbesuppressed.

• Previous spring: Grow a spring crop such as broccoli that is harvested inmidsummer.

•Previoussummer:Harvestthespringcrop.•Mixinamendments,thensmoothoutthebedsoitisniceandflat.•Waterthebedverythoroughlywiththeequivalentoftwoinchesofrain.• Coverwith 6mil plastic attached to the bedwith staples. Leave plastic inplaceuntillateAugust.

•LateAugust:Removetheplasticandsowwithacovercrop.•Earlyspring:Harvestcovercropandaddtocompostpile.•Coverwithdarkbreathablelandscapefabric.•Whenthetransplantsareready,cutXsinthelandscapefabricandplantthemintheXs.

•Coverthelandscapefabricbetweenplantswithstrawandwaterthoroughly.

Well-controlledweedsmakeforhappyonions.

Diseases:RarebutPreventableThoughnottypicallyaproblemforhomegardeners,onionsarevulnerabletoanumberoffungalandbacterialdiseasesthatcanbespreadviasoil;mostnotableamongthesediseasesaresclerotinia,botrytis,andpinkroot.Primarypreventionfortheseiscroprotation,withpre-solarizingalsobeingagreathelp.

Sclerotiniaofonionsshowsupassmalldarkbrownspotsonthebladesthatcan expand to kill the entire blade while infecting others. The organismresponsibleisclerotiniahomoeocarpa,which is thesameorganismthatcausesdollar spot on turf grasses, which are its primary host.1 Using barkmulch orsimilarmulchingtopreventgrassesbetweenandaroundgrowingbedswillhelppreventinoculation.

Botrytisinfectionlookslikesmallwhiteoryellowspotsonthebladesoftheonionwhere cells have died. These spots appear sunken. Successful infectionwillusuallybringaboutthedeathofthetopsoftheonionsinaslittleasaweek.Thoughbotrytisspoorsareubiquitous, themostcommonsourceofinfectionisdebrisfromtheprioryear’scropwherethespoorshaveoverwintered.

In industrialagriculturewhereonionsaregrownona largescaleandoftenre-planted in the same fields year after year, crop losses from botrytis canapproach 50 percent annually. However, on the scale of a mini farm, simplepreventative measures can keep you from ever seeing it. The conditions thatfavordevelopmentofthemoldarecoolandwetweather,particularlylaterintheseason. However, this factor alone is insufficient to cause infection. Botrytisspoorsrequireawoundintheonioninordertoenter.Allyouneedtodoinordertopreventbotrytisisthefollowing:

•rotatesothatonionsaren’tgrowninthesamebedmoreoftenthanonceeveryfouryears,

• clear and compost all crop debris at the end of the season so spoors havenowheretooverwinter,

•avoiddisturbingtheonionsduringdamporwetweather,and•respondtotherarepestsofonionsthatcancausebreaksintheleavesleavingthemvulnerabletoinfection.

Pinkroot is common in industrial agriculture, but something you willhopefullyneversee.Itmanifestsindeadonionsthatdiebackasthoughaffectedby drought, and the bulbs are shriveled and pink. Pinkroot infestation isubiquitousinpoorlydrainedsoilswithlowlevelsoforganicmatterandnutrient

deficiencies that havebeenused togrowonionsorother susceptible crops foryearafteryear.Thefungusresponsible,Pyrenochaetaterrestris, isonlyweaklypathogenic,andifitisinfectingyouronions,youaredoingsomethingwrong.

Usingtheminifarmingmethodofgrowinginraisedbeds,yoursoilshouldbewelldrained,andbyusingplentyofmaturecompostfororganicmatterandrotating crops and amending soil as needed for proper nutrient levels, youronionsshouldbepracticallyinvulnerable.

OnionPestsMostinsectsdon’tliketoeatonions,andforgoodreason:whenoniontissuesare injured, they release a compound that, when mixed with water, producessulfuricacid.Thisiswhycutonionsmakeyoureyeswater.Butjustastherearesome intrepidsoulswhocaneateven themostpungentonionsas though theywere apples, there are a couple of insectswho seemnot to notice the onion’snaturaldefensemechanism.

Thripsareacommongardenpest.Theyaretiny,withthewingedadultbeingnomore than one-tenth of an inch long.Damage from thrips can be twofold:first,throughthedirectdamagetheycandotothecrop,butmostimportantly,thecutstheymakeprovideanentryforbotrytis.Athripinfestationcombinedwithaweekofcold,wetweathercanspelldoomforthewholecrop.Theyplanttheireggs—anywhere from 10 to 100 of them—in the leaves, and when the eggshatch, the larvae cando considerabledamage to thehost plant.Thrips arenotunique to onions and eat practically anything grown in the garden, so croprotationwon’thelp.

Prevention requires a combination of cover crop selection, vegetationcontrol,propersoilfertility,andgardenhygiene.Clearingcropdebrisattheendoftheseasontoreduceoverwinteringpopulationsofthripsiscrucial.Theireggswon’tsurvivethecompostingprocess.Usingamulchbetweenandaroundbedsto keep extraneous vegetation awaywill also reduce thrip populations. Thripshaveapreferenceforwheatandrye,soifacerealgrainisanticipatedasacovercrop, choose oats instead. Finally, many studies have shown that inadequatelevels of calcium as well as trace minerals predispose thrip infestation, soadequatelimeplustheadditionofseamineralswouldbewise.Likewise,excessnitrogenisariskfactor,somaintainingoptimalfertilityofthesoilwillwardoffthispest.

Ifalleffortsatpreventionfailandseverecropdamageislikelyoroccurring,

anumberofnaturalinsecticidesareeffectiveagainstthrips,includingpyrethrinwithrotenone,HotPepperWax,andothers.Becertaintofollowlabeldirections,includingsafetyprecautions.

Theotherlikelypestproblemisonionmaggots,whicharethelarvaeofaflythatlaysitseggsneartherootsoftheplant.Thefirstsymptomyou’dlikelysee,as the flies stay hidden, iswilting plants.When you dig them up, you’ll findonionsthatarearottenandputridmess.Onceanareais infested, itwill likelyremainso.Meticuloushygieneindebrisremoval,solarization,andapplicationofparasitic nematodes will help, as will avoiding white onion varieties becausethese are most susceptible. But of these actions, removal of onion debris,includingmaking surenoonionsare left in theground, is themost important.Overwintering onion maggots need onions for their survival; removing oniondebris and burying it deep in the compost pile will substantially reduce theirpopulation.

HarvestingOnionsAnonioncanbepulledandeatenatanystage,butforpurposesofstorageandmarketing,theyshouldbeharvestedwhenmature.Onionsarematurewhenthetops of 80 percent of them have weakened, turned brown, and flopped over.Whenthishappens,goaheadandbendovertheremainingtops,andthenallowthe onions to remain in the ground until the next sunny day five to ten daysaway.When harvest day comes, pull up the onions in themorning and leavethem outside in the sun until evening. This will kill the little rootlets at thebottomofthebulb.Thenbringtheonionsoutoftheweatherintoaplacethatisshaded, is protected from rain, andhas good air circulation.Leave them for acoupleofweeks,turningeverycoupleofdays.Thisyieldsafullycuredonionofthebestkeepingqualityforitsvariety.

Theseonionsarereadyforharvest!

PreparationandPreservationWholeonions should be stored either braided or inmesh bagswith good aircirculationinacool,dark,dryplace.Don’tletthemfreeze.Onionscanbefrozenraw(withoutblanching)bypeeling,quartering,andplacinginfreezerbagswithasmuch air as possible removed.Onions can also be successfully dehydratedwithorwithoutblanching,butarelikelytodiscolorunlessfirstdippedinabowlcontaining1cupofwaterandatablespoonoflemonjuiceora250mgvitaminCtablet.Thediscolorationisharmlessanddoesn’tadverselyaffect thequalityoftheonions.Onionscanalsobepickled invinegar forpreservationusingwaterbathcanning;theywillturnintoashapelessblobifpressure-canned.

Theonionsonthelefthavesproutedbecausetheywereallowedtofreeze.

Onions play a key role in food preparation generally, and are prepared inevery imaginable way ranging from breaded onion rings to creamed pearlonions.

DilledSaladOnions

Ingredients:3lbsonions,slicedthinly

1½cupsvinegar1½cupssugar3/4cupwater

1tbspsalt

1½tspdillweed

Procedure:Peel the onions and slice thinly. Pack into sterilized pint jars. Bring the

remaining ingredients to a boil and use the resulting picklingmixture to pourinto thepint jars leaving½ inchofheadspace.Process inaboilingwaterbathcannerfor15minutes.Note11Saharan,G.&Mehta,N. (2008)SclerotiniaDiseases ofCropPlants: Biology, Ecology andDiseaseManagement.ISBN:978-1-4020-8407-2

13

Peas

Sometimes kids aren’t impressed by peas, but they will likely enjoy classicdishes such as peas with carrots, peas with pearl onions, split pea soup, andmore.Naturally,peasfreshoutofthegardenarefarsuperiortothecannedpeasfrom the supermarket,with a bursting sweetness thatmakes them almost likecandy. Inaddition,peasarehigh in fiber,protein,vitaminC,vitaminK,andavarietyofphytonutrientsthatmakeourmothers’advicetoeatthemquitewise.

Anothergreatthingaboutpeasisthat,beinglegumes,theyimprovethesoilbyfixingnitrogenfromtheair.Sousingpeas(aswellasotherlegumessuchasbeans)aspartofyourbedrotationwillreducetheneedfornitrogenfertilizers.

There are a great many types of peas, representing not just varieties of agivenspeciesbutalsotwodifferentspecies.Gardenpeas(alsoknownasEnglishpeas),whichareremovedfromthepodforeating,andsnappeasandsnowpeas,whosepodsareeaten,aremembersofthespeciesPisumsativum.Thesepeasarea cool-weather crop started in the spring once soil temperatures reach 50degrees. Split peas are dried peas that have been mechanically split after theshellhasbeenremoved.

Cowpeas,alsoknownasblack-eyedpeas,aremembersofthespeciesVignaunguiculata; they are adapted to warm seasons and near-drought conditions.Black-eyedpeasareusuallypreparedfromadriedstateinafashionidenticaltodriedbeans.

VarietySelectionInordertoselectavariety,youneedtodeterminethetypeofpeayouwanttoeat.DoyouwantsnowpeasforAsiancooking?Sugarsnappeas?Shelledgardenpeas?Splitpeasforsoup?Black-eyedpeas?

Among garden peas, my favorites are Laxton’s Progress No. 9 and LittleMarvel.Theseareshortvines—nomorethaneighteeninches—thatcanbeveryeasilytrellisedaroundtheedgesofabed.

Therearenowa largevarietyofsugarsnappeasavailable.Mypickof thebunchisavarietyknownsimplyasSugarSnap.Thesegrowamassivesix-footvinerequiringatrellislikepolebeans.

Flat-poddedsnowpeasarepopularinAsiancuisine,andmyselectioninthiscategory is Oregon Giant. The vines are three feet long, and the pods areharvestedwhilestillflat.

Igrowthesamevarietyofblack-eyedpeasthatmygrandfathergrewbecauseIhaven’tfoundanyvarietiesIlikebetter.TheBlackCrowderCowpeamakesan

extra-longpodthatiseasilyshelled.Atfirstthepeasarepurple,buttheybecomeblackwhendried.

SoilPreparationandPlantingPeaspreferdeeplyworkedandwell-drainedsoilswithapHofbetween5.8and7.You should checkmacronutrient levelswith a soil testingkit and amend asneededwithappropriateorganicadditives.Organicmatterisnotasimportantforpeasaswithothercrops,butaddingoneortwocubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bedwouldstillbeagoodideaasitwouldsupplymicronutrientsaswellasbiologicalcontentthatwillhelpassurethesuccessoftheinoculant.

Likebeansandotherlegumes,peasperformbestwhentheseedsaretreatedat planting time with an inoculant containing nitrogen fixing bacteria. Thebacteria turnnitrogen from theair intoa formusablebypeasandotherplantsandassistwiththesymbioticbacterial interfacethatprovidesothernutrientstotheroots.Iputmypeaseedsinapintcanningjar,moistenslightly,andthenaddaheapingtablespoonofinoculanttothejar.Thepeaseedsareplantedaftertheyareswirledaroundinthejarsotheywillbeevenlycoatedwithinoculant.

Garden,sugar,andsnowpeasshouldbeplantedinthespringassoonasthesoilcanbeworked.Thisisbecausetheheatofsummershutsthemdown.Ifyouhappentohaveappletrees,Ihavefoundthattheoptimaltimeforplantingpeascorrespondstothepropertimeforspringpruning.Otherwise,asoiltemperatureof50degreesisagoodguide.

Unlike garden peas, cowpeas are very vulnerable to frost, so they can beplantedatthesametimeasothercropsthataresusceptibletofrost.

Seeds for peas and cowpeas should be planted more deeply than isimmediatelyevident.Usually,seedsareplantedatadepthofdoublethesizeoftheseed,butpeasarebestplantedtwoinchesdeep.Thisisnecessarytoestablisha sufficient root system. If they areplantedmore shallowly, theplantswill bemorevulnerabletodroughtandgenerallyweaker.

Everyvarietygrowsabitdifferently.Someonlygrowavinethatiseighteeninches long,so theyareeasily trellisedonafewbranchesstuck in theground.(Traditionally these are the branches pruned from fruit trees, though anythingotherthanpoisonsumacwilldofine.)Othervarietiesmightgrowastallassixfeet,requiringamoreextensivetrellissimilartothatusedforbeans.Theshortervarieties of peas can be grown around the perimeter of the garden withoutshadingothercrops;however,thetallervarietiescanbegrownonthenorthside

of a bed to avoid shading other crops. Peas should be planted at a two-inchinterval.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesPeasaremore vulnerable toweeds thanmany of their other legume cousins,and because the vines are more delicate, you have to be more careful whenweeding.Forthisreason,Iliketogetofftoagoodstartbypre-sproutingweedswherepeaswillbegrown,followedbyflaming.Thisway,handweedingwon’tberequireduntilthevinesarestrongandwellestablished.

Pre-sproutingisastraightforwardprocess.Youcoverabedwithclearplasticin early spring so that it heats more rapidly than it would otherwise, therebyinducingweedseedstosprout.Twoweeksisenough.Oncethatisdone,youcandispose of the weeds by hand pulling, using a stirrup hoe, tilling, or flameweeding.Flameweedingofferstheadvantageofbringingupnonewseeds.Butifthebedneedstobetilledanyway,thebestapproachistotillthebed(addinganyneededamendments)beforetheplasticisemployed.

Threerowsofpeastrellisedinasinglebed.

Croprotationbetweenbedsandcompostingallcropdebrisattheendofthe

season goes a long way toward keeping disease and pest problems in check.Fusarium wilt and powdery mildew are the most likely diseases to beencountered.Fusariumwiltcanbediagnosedbythesymptoms:theleavesstartbrowningat thebottomof theplant,and then thediseaseprogressesalong thevine’slengthuntiltheplantisdead.Powderymildewisaptlynamedbecauseitappears as a white, powdery mold on the leaves and other plant parts.Thankfully,a largenumberofpeavarietiesare resistant to thesediseases. Justcheck theseedcatalogwhenorderingyourseeds,and ifyouhaveexperiencedtheseproblemsinthepast,selectresistantvarieties.

ThoughotherpestssuchasJapanesebeetleswill feedonpeas, theprimarypestslikelytocausedifficultiesarecutworms,aphids,andslugs.

If you walk out to inspect your garden one morning and find a youngseedling snippedoff at ground level just as neatly as if it hadbeendonewithscissors, you’ll know you have a cutworm. The next night, that particularcutwormwillgetadifferentplant.Cutwormsarelittlecaterpillarsaboutaninchandahalflong,usuallycoloredinamotleyfashionsothattheyblendinwiththesoil. Aftermaking ameal of your seedling, the cutwormwill usually burrowdownintothesoilnomorethanfourinchesfromtheseedlingandmakeitsbedduring the day in preparation for the next night. So if you dig around the cutseedling,you’lldigupthecutworm.Mychickenslikethem,soIsavetheminajar along with other grubs, wireworms, and so forth, and feed them to thegratefulpoultry.

Cutworms can be largely—though not entirely—prevented by timing yourplanting so that at least two weeks have passed after tilling other organicmaterialsintotheground.Forexample,ifyouarecuttingacovercropandtillingit into the ground, wait at least twoweeks after incorporating the cover cropbeforeplantingthenextone,asthefreshorganicmatterattractsthecutworms.

One thing I have often seen recommended is the use of cardboard collars.Thisdoeswork,but itcanbe time-consuming ifyouare trying toprotect fiftyplants.Thereisalsoamatteroftiminginthatacutwormcanfeedonanythingfromanewsprouttoatransplantasbigaroundasapencil.Thestemsexpandasthe plant grows. So rather than attaching collars directly to plants, it is moreefficient to surround them with a wall at the time the seed is planted or thetransplant is put in the ground. For this purpose, I use scissors to snip papertowelortoiletpapertubesinto1½-inchsections.Youpushthemintothegroundabout one-quarter inch around the seed, seedling, or transplant, and you’re allset.Eventuallythey’llbecomesoggyandstarttodecompose,butbythen,dangerfromcutwormswillhavepassed.

I’vementioned aphids in connectionwithmany plants, and that’s becausetheyaffectpracticallyeveryplant tosomedegree.Inmostcases theirnumbersareinsufficienttocreateaproblem,sotheycanbeignored.Butiftheirnumbersbecometoogreat, theywillweakentheplants they infestandpredispose thoseplantstomoldorotherdiseases.Ifaphidsareaproblem,theycanbedispatchedwithinsecticidalsoapsprayedtwice,fourdaysapart.Makesuretogetundertheleavesandalongthestems.

HarvestGardenpeasare somewhat likecorn in that their sugarswill turn to starch ifleft too long, so the timing of harvest is important. The key is to catch themwhen they are fully expanded yet immature. Once the pods have started tobecomeround,pickapodandsamplethepeasraweveryday.Thepodsonthebottombecomeripefirst,followedbythoseonthemiddleofthevinethreedayslater and those toward the top another three days later. So you’ll get threeharvests.At the third harvest, just pull up the plant and add it to the compostpile.Oncegardenpeasareharvested,theyshouldbeshelledandeithereatenorpreservedwithina coupleofhoursbecause from themoment theyarepicked,theirsugarsstartconvertingtostarch.

Unlikegardenpeas,thevinesofsugarsnappeasandsnowpeaswillcontinuetogrowandproducenewbloomsandpodsso longas theyarekeptharvested.Thepodsclosest totherootarereadyfirst,andoncethoseareready,countonharvesting every other day until the vines stop producing. Snap peas areharvestedwhentheyfirststarttofatten,buttheystillsnaplikeagreenbean.Ifyouletthemstayonthevinelonger,thepodswillbecomefibrousandinedible.If this happens, don’t despair—just treat it like a garden pea. Snow peas areharvested at an even earlier stage—when the pods are still flat and the peasinside make little lumps no larger than a BB. (The diameter of a BB,incidentally,is0.177inches.)Onceharvestisstarted,theyneedtobeharvesteddailytokeepanypodsfrombecomingoverlymature.

Snow peas and sugar snap peas can be stored in a plastic bag in therefrigeratorforaslongastwoweekswithoutdeterioration.

Anyof thepeasdiscussedsofarcanbeusedasadriedsplitpeaforsoup-making.Allyouneedtodoisleavethepodsontheplantuntiltheyturnbrownandyoucanhearthepeasrattlingwhenyoushakethepod.Pickthepods,andsetthemasideeitherinthesunorinawell-ventilatedplaceforacoupleofdays.Then,splitopenthepodbypressingontheseamandremovethepeas.Youcan

split the peas as you go along by using a thumbnail, and thework progressesprettyquickly.It’sthesortofthingyoucandoifforcedtowatchabadmovieontelevisionwithafamilymember.Putthesplitpeasinalargebowlandallowtosit out for a couple of weeks to dry, mixing with your hand every once in awhile. Then, store them in an airtight container in a cool place away fromsunlight.

Cowpeasorblack-eyedpeasaretreatedthesameassplitpeas.Harvestwhenthepodsarebrownandyoucanhearthepeasrattlingwhenyoushakethepod.

Gardenpeasshouldbeshelledandusedwithinacouplehoursofharvest.

PreparationandPreservationAsIexplainedabove,gardenpeasshouldbeshelledandtheneatenorpreservedas soon as possible after harvest to preserve their sweetness. Split peas andcowpeas should be harvestedwhen the pods are brown. Shell, and then allowthem to dry before being stored in an airtight container. Sugar snap and snowpeas can be sealed in a plastic bag and kept in the refrigerator for up to twoweekswithoutlossofquality.

Gardenpeas,sugarsnap,andsnowpeasareallat theirbestfresh,but theyfreeze verywell. Steam blanch garden peas for 2½minutes or edible podded

peas for4minutes.Dump them into icewater for anequal amountof time tocool, dry them, and then seal in freezer bags with as much air removed aspossible.

SesameSnowPeas

Ingredients:1lbsnowpeas1tbspsesameseeds2tbspcanolaoil1tbsptoastedsesameseedoil

2tspsoysauce

½tspgroundginger4greenonions,choppedsmall2carrots,julienned

Procedure:Prepare thesnowpeasbypinchingoff thestemendandpullingthestrings

down the pod. (Strings may not be present depending upon pea variety andtimingofharvest.)Toastthesesameseedsinadrypain,stirringconstantlyoverlowheatfor5minutes.Setthetoastedsesameseedsaside.Bringalargeskillettohighheat,addtheoils,thenaddtheremainingingredients.Keepinconstantmotionsonothingburns(peasburneasilyduetotheirhighsugarcontent)untilthepeasareabrightgreenandslightlytender.Thenaddthesoysauce,putinthesesame seeds, give everything another good stir, and then transfer to a heateddishforserving.

14

Peppers

NativetoMexico,SouthAmerica,andCentralAmerica,peppershavebecomeanimportantingredientincuisinesworldwide,bothintheformofsweetpeppersandhotpeppers.Thepeppersavailableinthestorerepresentonlyatinyfractionoftherangeofthisversatilefruit,andgrowingyourownpeppersisanidealwaytoexperiencethearrayofflavorsavailable.Acupofripesweetpepperscontainstwodays’supplyofvitaminCandmorethanaday’ssupplyofvitaminA,alongwithagooddoseofvitaminB6,fiber,andimportantantioxidants.

Peppers can be divided into two broad categories: sweet and hot. Sweetpepperscarrytwocopiesofarecessivegenethatinhibitstheproductionofthecapsaicinandcloselyrelatedcompoundsthatgivehotpepperstheirbite.Manysweet peppers have been bred, and the standard blocky bell pepper is the onewithwhichmostpeoplearefamiliar,thoughtherearemanyothersweetpeppercultivarsthathaveawidearrayofshapes,flavors,andcolors.

Hot peppers either lack the gene that inhibits capsaicin or have only onecopyofthegene.Becausethegeneisrecessive,withonlyonecopy(ratherthantwo),capsaicinproductionisnotinhibited.Open-pollinatedhotpeppersalwayslack the gene altogether, but in some hybrids there is only one copy. Oncecapsaicinproductionisenabled,however,thereareothergenesthatmodulatetheamount that isproduced inagivenvarietyofhotpepperaswell asgenes thathavetheeffectofcreatingdifferentflavorsandcolors.

ThedegreeofhotnessofapepperismeasuredineitherScovilleheatunitsorASTApungencyunits.TheScovilleheatunits are ameasureofhowmuchanalcoholic extract of the dried pepper must be diluted before it is just barelydetectablebyapaneloffivetasters;thelargerthenumber,thehotterthepepper.ASTA pungency units are derived through use of High Performance LiquidChromatography (HPLC) to measure the absolute amount of capsaicinoidcontent. Most people are familiar with the Scoville Heat Units and, in mypersonalopinion,becausethereareelementstotasteoutsideofjustaspecificsetofrelatedchemicals,SHUsareabettermeasureofaperson’s likelysubjectivereaction.

The peperoncini peppers on a Greek salad and the pimentos stuffed intoolivesusuallyhavefewerthan200ScovilleHeatUnits,sotheyareprettymild.Banana peppers will have up to 500 SHUs. Jalapeño peppers will havemorethan2,500SHUs.Theworld’shottestpepperistheNagaViper,withmorethan1,300,000SHUs.

VarietySelection

Peppersareindigenoustowarmzoneswithlonggrowingseasons,thoughovertime,varietieshavebeenselectedthatwilldofineincoolerzoneswithshorterseasons. So themost important aspect of a cultivar to consider is its growingseason.Keepinmindthattherearetwomaturitydatesforpeppers:oneforgreenpeppers and another for ripe peppers. Usually a catalog listing will give thenumberofdaysforgreenpeppersandthenspecifyanadditionalnumberofdaysfor those peppers to ripen. Especially if you plan to save seeds, you want tochooseavarietywhosetimetoamatureandfullyripenfruitisatleasttendayslessthanthelengthofyourgrowingseason.Myareaonlyhasninety-sixfrost-freedaysonaverage,soIhavetopickvarietiesthatareripeineighty-sixdaysorless.

Thislittleyellowpepperismildlyhot.

Another consideration iswhether you prefer peppers that are sweet or hotand whether the peppers are for use in salads, salsa, frying, or other specificuses.

Becausemyminifarmis in theNortheast,myparticularchoicesmightnotbethebestforotherpartsofthecountry,soyoucanusetheseasastartingpoint

onlyforyourownexperimentation:IgrowJimmyNardello’sbothforfryinganddrying,OzarkGiantorCaliforniaWonderforsalads,andBlackHungarianasahotpepperforsalsasandspice.Thislatterisabouthalfashotasajalapeñoandhasanicesmokyflavor.

StartingandPlantingPeppersshouldbestartedindoorssevenweeksbeforelastfrostandplantedoutaweek after last frost after theyhave two sets of true leaves.Theygerminateslowlyatlowertemperatures,souseaheatmatwhengrowingseedlingsindoorsto achieve thebest temperatureof70 to80degrees. In addition,make sure tokeepthefluorescentlightstowithinaninchoftheleavessothestemsarestockyandstrong.Inordertoavoidbacterialleafspot(unlessyouareplantingavarietyofpepperthatisresistanttothatdisease),theseedshouldbepretreatedviathemethoddescribedinthesectiononweeds,pests,anddiseases.

PreparethebedforthepeppersbycorrectingthepHtobetween6.0and6.5,thoroughly incorporating three cubic feet of finished compost or well-rottedmanureper4 ft.x8 ft.bed.Correct the soil for themajormacronutrientsandthenaddanadditionaltwopoundsofbonemealper4ft.x8ft.bed.

When transplanting, sprinkle a tablespoon of Epsom salt (magnesiumsulfate) into the hole that will receive the transplant andmix it into the soil.Spacetransplantsattwelveinchestoeighteeninches.Watertransplantsdailyforthefirstweekandthenmakesuretheygettheequivalentofaninchofraineveryweekintheformofadeepsoakingratherthanmultipleshallowwaterings.

Afryingpepperawaitingmyfryingpan.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesBecausepeppersarespacedagooddistanceapart,ifyoumakesurethebedisweed-free before planting, weeds can be either handpicked or controlled bycarefullyusingastirruphoe.

Bacterial leaf spot (BLS) is an economically important disease of peppersthathascausedfailureofentirecrops.Itstartswithwater-soakedspotsonleavesthatturnbrown.Subsequently,theaffectedleafmayturnyellow,wither,anddie.The reduced foliage reduces yield and delays fruitmaturity, and the spots canaffect the peppers aswell.BLS is spread primarily via infected seeds, thoughoncetheinfectionispresentitwillinhabitthesoilandcanbespreadfromplantto plant, especially in wet conditions, via hand contact. Once an infection isnoticed,itcanbecontrolledandkeptfromspreadingbyapplyingcoppersulfateasindicatedonthepackage.Ifyourunintotroublewithbacterialleafspot,keepinmindthatcroprotationandthoroughlycleaningupcropdebrisattheendofseason are the best preventatives. If that is insufficient, pretreating seeds andgrowingresistantcultivarswillhelp.

Seeds can be pretreated with scalding water to kill the bacteria.Unfortunately,thisisadelicateprocessbecausethebacteriaareinsidetheseed,

soanythingthatwouldkill thebacteriawouldadverselyaffect thevigoroftheseed aswell. Ideally, this would be accomplished using laboratory equipmentsuchasstirringhotplatesandsoforth,butthegeartodothatwouldeasilycost$400.Thankfully,thereisanotherwaythatisalotlessexpensive.Theonlygearyou’ll need that youmay not already have is a high quality laboratory-gradethermometersuchastheFisherScientific14-983-15B.

SeedPretreatment

Ingredients/Equipment:

3largeStyrofoamcoffeecups

1fittedlidforoneofthecoffeecups

1saucepanwith8cupswater

1quartjarcoolwater,uncovered

2icecubes

1laboratorygradethermometerwithaFahrenheitscale1cleanhandkerchief,cutinfoursquares(useoneofthesquares)2rubberbands

1largenut

Procedure:

1.Nesttwoofthecoffeecupstogetherandsetthelidnexttothem.Theseareforthehotwater.

2.Filltheothercoffeecuptwo-thirdsfullwithcoldwaterandaddthetwoicecubes.

3.Twistthenutintoapocketinthesquareofhandkerchief,andsecurewitharubberband.Puttheseedsinanadjacentpocketformedsimilarly,andsecure

withtheotherrubberband.4.Bringthewaterinthepottoatemperatureofexactly122degreesF.Testby

swirling the water with the thermometer and observing the reading. If thetemperaturegoeshigher than122degrees, turnoff theburnerandaddcoolwateralittleatatime,stirringeachtimeuntilthetemperatureisexactly122degrees.

5.Pourthewaterfromthepotintothetwonestedcupsuntiltwo-thirdsfull.6.Addthehandkerchiefandassurethatitsinks.7.Attachthelid.8.Wait25minutes.9.Removethehandkerchieffromthehotwater,putitinthecupcontainingice

water,andleaveitthereforanother25minutes.10.Removedthehandkerchief,unwraptheseeds,drythemonpapertowels,and

plantasusual.

Phytophthera root rot, also known as “chile wilt,” occurs throughout theUnited States but is most economically important in irrigated fields. Theconditions that give rise to it—“wet feet” orwaterlogged soil—simply do notexist in raisedbeds.Furthermore,as it iscausedbyamicroorganism,standardsanitationandrotationpracticeswillkeepitevenfurthersuppressed,soyouareunlikelytoeverencounterthisproblemonyourminifarm.

There are about twenty other bacterial and viral diseases that couldtheoretically infect your peppers, but just aswith phytophthera, standardminifarmingpracticeswillmakemostof thema theory rather thana fact.Theoneexceptionistobaccomosaicvirus(TMV).TMVcanbepresentinthetobaccoincigarettes, and it is easily transmitted by hand to peppers, tomatoes, potatoes,andotherplantsinthatfamily.Ifanyonewhotouchesyourplantssmokes,usessnuff,etc.,makesurehewasheshishandsthoroughlybeforetouchingtheplants.Otherviruses,suchastobaccoetchvirus,andpeppermosaic,aretransmittedbyaphids.Ifyoukeepaphidscontrolled,thelawnmowed,andborderweedswellawayfromyourgarden,theseareanunlikelyproblem.

Aphidsareapestofallpepperspecies.Becauseoftheirroleintransmittingdiseases inpeppers,youwant tokeep themundercontrol.Aphidsarea small,soft-bodiedinsect,greenforcamouflage,andtheyareusuallykeptcontrolledbynatural predators.Youcanoftenprevent thembygrowingabedof somethingtheyreallylike,suchasmarigolds,atsomedistancefromthecropyouaretryingtoprotect.(Thisiscalledatrapcrop.)Butiftheybecomeprolific,youcankeep

themcontrolledby sprayingweeklywithadilute solution (one tablespoonpergallon of water) of pure soap such as Dr. Bronner’s or a specific insecticidalsoap.

Slugs can also be an issue. You’d think, especially with hot peppers, thatslugswouldavoidthem,butevidentlytheyhavenotasteandwilleatfoliageandthepeppersalike.Groundupeggshellscombinedwithcoffeegrounds(renewedeverycoupleofweeks)willcreateadeadlybarrieraroundyourpepperplants.The coffee grounds are poisonous to them and the eggshells cut their skin sothey dehydrate. Other ways to deal with slugs are explained in Chapter 9:Greens.

Root-knot nematodes are microscopic roundworms that can affect manygarden plants, including peppers. Symptoms include wilting and loss ofproductivity.Whentheplantsarepulled,therootshavelittlenodulesthatcanbeas big as a pea, though they are usually smaller. Root-knot nematodes prefersandysoilslowinorganicmatter,soifyouuseplentyofcuredcomposttostartwith,theywon’tlikelybecomeaproblem.Useplentyofcompost,practicecroprotation,pullupandcompostoldpepperplants,andyouwon’thavetrouble.

Peppermaggotsarethelarvaeofaflywithgreeneyesandayellowheadthatisthesamesizeasanordinaryhousefly.Thefemaleusesanovipositortopuncha hole in the surface of the pepper and then lays a tiny egg that grows into awhite-yellowlarvaabitunderhalfaninchlong.Thelarvaeatsinsidethepepper,burrowsbackout,fallstotheground,andthenpupatesinthesoil.Theinjurytothe fruit opens it up to diseases, and the insides become discolored. Peppermaggots aren’t a problem for thin-skinned hot peppers, but they do tend toadverselyaffectsweetbellpeppers.Keepinmindthatyoucangrowpeppersforyears without seeing a peppermaggot and then suddenly have an entire cropwipedout.Remediesaretheusual:sanitationandrotation.Sanitationintheformof burying old/dead/rotting peppers deep in the compost pile is particularlyimportantbecauseitisthescentofrottingpeppersthatdrawstheadultflies.

HarvestPepperscanbeharvestedatanystage,thoughhotandsweetpeppersalikehavemoresweetnessandflavorwhenharvestedfullyripe.

Each pepper plant haswhat is called a “fruit load.” This is themaximumnumberofpeppers that theplantcansustaingiven its foliageandrootsystem.Onceaplanthas reached its fruit load, itwill cease to flowerorproducenew

fruits.Ingeneral,then,itisbesttoharvestsomeearlyfruitswhilegreentomakeroomformorepeppersandtoallowsomeoftheselatterpepperstostaythroughfullmaturityandripening.

Peppersvaryincolorastheyripen.Someripentoorangeandotherstoredorevenpurple.Agoodruleofthumbisthelessgreenyouseeonthepepper, themore ripe it is.Once they start to lose their green color, they ripen quickly—sometimesinjustadayortwo.Peppersstart tolosequalityquicklyoncefullyripe,sokeepaneyeonthemandharvestwhenready.Lettingapepperstayonthe plant overlong does not improve its flavor. If you are planning to can orpickleyourpeppers,theymaintaintheircrispnessbetterwhenharvestedadayortwoprematurely.

Thestemsofpepperplantsarebrittleanddelicate.Youcanharvestpeppers,especiallywhenripe,justbyliftingupthefruit;fruitstemwillseparatefromtheplanteasilyenough.Butwhenthepeppersaregreen,thishappenswithdifficultyandthereisthepossibilityofbreakingtheplantstems.SoIuseapairofgardensheerstocutthefruitstemwithminimaldisturbancetotheplant.

Asnotedpreviously,hotpepperscontainanoilysubstancecalledcapsaicin.Capsaicin can wreak havoc onmucusmembranes at even low concentrationsand burn or blister skin at higher concentrations. In fact, law enforcementofficers use the substance to disable people resisting arrest, so it is prettypowerfulstuff.Whenharvestinghotpeppers,resistanyurgetoscratchyournoseorrubyoureyes.Ifyourskinstartstoburn,youcanremovethecapsaicinfromyourskin(butNOTeyes,nose,etc.!)withrubbingalcohol.Internally,milkcanbehelpful

SeedSavingPeppers are both self-fertile (meaning they will self-pollinate from the maleandfemalepartsinsidethesameflowerandthattheyarereceptivetotheirownpollen),andcanbeinsect-pollinated.Allpeppersare thesamespecies,sotheywill interbreed freely. If you are planning to save seed, you either have topracticeisolationtechniquesorgrowonlyonevarietyofpepper.Isolationisassimple as covering the flowerwith abagmade fromspunpolyester. (Floatingrowcover ismadefromspunpolyester; this isplentifulandcheap.)Cover theflower before it opens and gently shake the plant a couple of times a day toencourageself-pollination.Onceafruitstartstoform,removethebagbutmarkthatpepperasonethatwillbeusedforseeds.

Pepperseedshavegreatervigorandhighergerminationratesifthepeppersfromwhich theyare takenare allowed tobecomeoverripe.Allow themarkedpepperstomatureforanextraweekortwoafterbecomingfullyripe.

Seedsarecollectedbycuttingopenthepepperandremovingthem.Put theseeds,separatedfromanyinternalmembranes,onapaperplateandallowthemtodryforamonth.Thendehydratefurtheroverasilicageldesiccantandstoreinasealedcontainerinacoolplaceawayfromsunlight.

PreparationandPreservationPepperscanbeeatenraworcooked.Theywillkeepintherefrigeratorforoneortwoweeksinsealedplasticbags,andcanbepickled,canned,dehydrated,andfrozen.

Forfreezinganddehydrating,firstblanchthepeppersinwater(twominutesfor rings, three minutes for halves) or steam (three minutes for rings, fiveminutes for halves) and then cool in ice water for several minutes. Then thepeppers can be blotted dry and either frozen in evacuated freezer bags ordehydratedandstoredinairtightjars.

Un-pickled peppers must be pressure-canned. But pickled peppers can becannedinawaterbathcanner.Ineithercase,theprocessofcanningmakestheskin tough, so the skin is best removed. The skin is removed via a processknownas“blistering.”Thisconsistsofheating theskin,causing it tobeeasilyremoved. You can do this in the microwave, oven, or frying pan. To use thefrying pan method, cut off the top and bottom of the peppers, split themlengthwise,andremovetheseeds.Heatthepantomedium.Putthesplitpeppersin the pan skin-side downuntil the skins start to blister.Allow the peppers tocoolandthenpeelofftheskin.

Though it varies with the variety of pepper, sometimes you can skipblistering by steam blanching the peppers for four minutes first, whichsufficientlysoftenstheskin.Youcantryitbothwaysandnotethedifference.Ingeneral,ifIamcuttingupthepepperssmallforarelish,Iblanchthem;ifIamleavingthemlong,Iblisterthem.

Thesestriationsoccurmostoftenonhotpeppers,butifyouseethem,harvestimmediatelysothepepperisn'toverripe.

PickledPeppers

Ingredients:8 lbs peppers (cleaned, seeds removed, sliced lengthwise and blistered or

blanched)7cupsvinegar (5%acetic acid—eithercidervinegarordistilledvinegar is

fine)11/3cupswater2tbsppicklingsalt3tbspsugar2clovesgarlic1tsppeppercorns

1tspwholecorianderseeds

Procedure:

Prepare the peppers. (They can be hot, sweet, or a mix.) Combine theremainingingredientsinalargesaucepantomakethebrine,bringtoaboil,andallowtosimmerfor10minutes.Packthepeppersintosterilizedjarsleavingoneinch of headspace; then fill the jars with brine leaving ½ inch of headspace.Adjustthetwo-piececaps,andprocessinaboilingwatercannerfor10minutes.Makes8–9pints.

15

Potatoes

OriginatingintheAndesmountainsandspreadacross theglobebyEuropeanexplorers, potatoes have become a staple crop throughout the world. In fact,thoughyouareunlikelytofindpotatoesataChineseorIndianrestaurant,Chinaand India are the world’s first-and third-ranked producers of potatoes,respectively.Potatoesarecaloricallydense,easytogrow,delicious,andpackedwithvitaminC,potassium,vitaminB6,andfiber.

Potatoesalsocontainwhatiscalledresistantstarch.Thisisstarchthatcan’tbe broken down into sugars by enzymes in the small intestine and is insteadfermentedinthelargeintestine.Researchindicatesthatthisresistantstarchhelpsin the synthesis of important short-chain fatty acids and acts as a probioticencouragingthegrowthofbeneficialbacteria in thecolon.Potatoes,especiallypurpleandredones,containasubstantialamountofantioxidantsaswell.

Becauseoftheglycemicindex11ofpotatoesandthegrowingproblemwithweightmanagementintheUnitedStates,therearemanywhowouldcounselnottoeatpotatoes(oranyotherconcentratedcarbohydratesuchasgrainsorbreads)for reasons of health. This subject is fiercely debated by experts, and I’m notabout to definitively address the issue in a book on gardening. Instead, Iwillpointoutthattheglycemicindexofapotatoisinfluencedbythevarietygrown,whereitisgrown,andevenhowitisprepared.

Potatoesareamemberofthenightshadefamily,andthefoliageandfruitsofpotatoplantsarepoisonous,containinganumberoftoxiccompounds.Solanineisthetoxiccompoundmostlikelytobeaconcernforhumans.

In general, the actual tubers of potato plants contain a safely lowconcentrationofsolanine.However,therearetwocircumstanceswherethismaynotbe true. Ifpotatoesareexposed to light, their skin starts to turngreenandsolanineconcentrationswithinthetuberincreaserapidly.Donoteatanypotatoeswith green skin! If you live in South America, there are some wild closelyrelated species that have toxic tubers. If you grow potatoes from true seed insuchanarea,besuretouseisolationpractices.Otherwise,theplantsgrownfromthetrueseedcouldyieldatoxicpotato.ThisisnotanissueintheUnitedStatesorEuropeastoxicwildpotatoesdon’tgrowinthoseareas.

There is also some concern about acrylamide—a suspected carcinogen intobaccosmoke.Theproblem is thatacrylamide is formed incarbohydrate-richfoodswhen they are cooked,2 and canprovide a level of acrylamide exposuresimilartosmoking.Ifthisisamatterofconcernforyou,twothingscanbedonetolessentheamountofacrylamidederivedfromeatingpotatoes.First,donoteatstoredpotatoesoncetheyhavebecomesoft.Thissoftnesscomesfromthestarchturning to sugar, and the higher sugar content leads to higher acrylamide

formationoncooking.Thesecondis tocookpotatoesbyfirstboilingandthencoolingthemforconsumption.Thisdecreasestheamountofacrylamideformedandsimultaneouslyincreasestheamountofbeneficialresistantstarch.

VarietySelectionThoughthereareliterallythousandsofvarietiesofpotatoes,onlyafewdozenare commercially available. The primary consideration in choosing a potatocultivaristhepurposeforwhichthepotatoeswillbeused.Differentvarietiesofpotatoeshavedifferentamountsofstarchaswellasdifferentratiosofamyloseand amylopectin. High levels of starch create qualities desirable in a bakingpotato,highlevelsofamylosearebestinmashedpotatoes,andhigherlevelsofamylopectin allow for better boiled potatoes for potato salads. All of thesecharacteristics are different for each variety of potato, so it is best to select avarietysuitablefortheenduse.

Potatoes are also susceptible to a number of diseases including late blight,scab, verticilliumwilt, potato viruses, black spot andmore. Formost of thesediseases, resistantvarietieshavebeenbred. Ifyouhavedifficultywithagivendisease,lookintheseedcatalogstoseewhatresistantvarietiesareavailable.

StartingandPlantingPotatoes canbe started either from tubers or true botanical seeds. By far themostpopularmethod isusing the tubers.Theeyes that formonpotatoesareasmallplantthat,ifplantedinsoilandallowedtogrow,willturnintoafullpotatoplantthatwillgrowmorepotatoes.

Potatoescanaccumulatemanyblightsandviraldiseasesthatcanbepassedinthetubers.Forthisreason,usingpotatoesfromthesupermarketisaverybadidea. Will it work? Usually it will. I’ve done it. But just because I’ve donesomething foolish and gotten away with it, that doesn’t mean it should beemulated. The fact is that potatoes in the supermarket are not screened fordiseases,andusingthemasseedstockcanbearecipeforcropfailure.

ThereareagreatmanysourcesforCertifiedSeedPotatoes.Thesearegrowninisolationandtestedfordiseases.Youcanusethemonyourfarmwithahighdegreeofconfidencethatyouaren’timportingsomethingnasty.

Intermsofproductivity,CertifiedSeedPotatoesareusuallysuperiortotruebotanical seed. Seed potatoes are cloned from the most productive plantsavailabletotheseedproducer,whereastheresultsofheterosexualreproductionintrueseedneverreproduceeitherparent’scharacteristicsexactly.Sousingseedpotatoes that have been certified disease-free from a reputable supplier isgenerallymostproductiveintheshortterm.

Nevertheless, I recommend growing potatoes from true botanical seedbecausemostofthepotatoescommerciallyavailablearefromjustahandfulofclonedvarietiesrepresentingatinysegmentofgeneticdiversitythatleavesourfoodsupplyfarmorevulnerablethanitshouldbetounknownpestanddiseasethreats. True botanical seed gives and preserves the greatest genetic diversity,givinggreateroddsofmaintainingacropinthefaceofunknownfuturehazards.Furthermore, it gives you the ability to save your own seeds to cut costs andincreaseself-sufficiency.

Potatoesgrowbestinloosesoilthatisrichinorganicmatter,somixintwoto four cubic feet of well-finished compost per 4 ft. x 8 ft. bed. Don’t useimmaturecompostorfreshanimalfecesasthesecansuckcertainnutrientsoutof the soil and impart off-flavors and potential human pathogens to the crop.Furthermore,freshmanurescancauseunsightlyscabonpotatoes.Potatoeswillgrow fine in soilswith a pH as low as 4.8, and in fact these lower pH levelsinhibit the fungus that causes scab, so skip the lime. Beyond that, if you addmicronutrients (including boron) and correct the soil levels of macronutrientsusingappropriateorganicamendments,you’llbefine.Potatoesalsoneedsoiltobewelldrained,butusingraisedbedssolvesthatprobleminadvance.

TheseCertifiedSeedPotatoesarereadyforplanting.

Potatoesareacoolweathercropandshouldbeplantedaboutamonthbeforethelastfrost.Thisisimportant,astheproductivityofpotatoesfallsin90-degreeweather,and95-degreeweathermayevenkilltheplants.Sogetstartedearly!

If you use true botanical seed rather than seed potatoes, start those seedsindoorstenweeksbeforelastfrostsotheycanbeplantedoutsideatfourweeksbefore last frost. Plant twice asmany seeds as you think you’ll need becausegerminationratesontrueseedaren’tverygood.IfusingCertifiedSeedPotatoes,settheminawarmwindowforaweekinadvanceofplantingtohelpthembreakdormancy. Small-and medium-sized seed potatoes can be planted whole, butlarge ones should be cut into sectionswith at least two buds in each section.Allow the cut potatoes to scab over in the open air for a day before planting.Plant either the seed potatoes or the transplants grown from true seed ateighteen-inchintervalsinalldirections.Ifyourbedsaresonarrowyoucanonlyfitintworowsatthatdistance,youcanspacetheseedpotatoesortransplantsatonefootlengthwiseandallowtwofeetbetweenthoserows.Plantthetransplantsasyouwouldanyother,andputseedpotatoestwotothreeinchesunderground.

Whentheplantshavegrowntosixinches,moundthedirtoverthemandlet

themgrowsomemore.Thiswillmaximizethetotalnumberofpotatoesgrownfromeachplant.Therearelimitstothismethod:theplantsneedfoliagetomaketubers,andthemorestemyouputunderground,thelessfoliagethereistomaketubers.Ihavetriedmoundingpotatoesashighastwofeetandhavefoundtheirproductivity to be no greater than in instances where I have planted the seedpotatoestwoinchesdeepinasix-inchtrenchandthenfilledinthetrenchwithmoredirtoncethepotatoplantshadgrowupabovetheedgeofthetrench.Youcan continuemounding up until the plants start to flower, atwhich point newtubersstopbeingproduced.

Potatoesneedsufficientwatertopreventhollowtubersandtogrowthemtooptimalsizes.Theequivalentofoneinchofwaterweeklyissufficient.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesPotato vines grow quickly. Planted as closely as I’ve recommended, all youneedtodoismakesurealloftheweedsinthebedarepulledpriortoplanting,and thevineswill shadeoutcompetition inshortorder.All thatwill remain iskeepingweedsattheedgeofthebedpulledbeforetheysetseed.

Potatoeshaveafewpests.Coloradopotatobeetlesareprettymuchagivenanytimeyouplantpotatoes.Wirewormscanbeaseriousproblem,especiallyinareasthatabutorwerepreviouslygrass.Thesetwoarethemostlikelytobeofeconomic importance, but you can also experience damage from flea beetles,aphids,andcutworms.

Coloradopotatobeetles and their larvaeeat the foliageofpotatoplants.Asingle female can lay hundreds of eggs, so if left unchecked, just a couple ofbeetles can devastate a crop in a couple ofweeks.When the beetles are donewiththepotatoes,theymayalsojumptoanyeggplantortomatoplantstheycanfind.Theadultbeetlesareuptothree-eighthsofaninchlong,arebrightyellowororange,andhave fivedistinctbrownstripesoneachwing.They layyelloweggsunderneaththeleavesinclustersofthirty,whichhatchinafewdays.Thelarvaearereddish-orangewitharowofblackspotsoneachside.

In practice, because of their high fecundity, natural predators are almostalwaysinsufficienttokeeppotatobeetlesincheckevenusingthebestpractices.Theonlyalternativesavailablearetogrowaresistantvarietyofpotato(suchasKingHarry,DakotaDiamond,orElba)orspraythemwithsomethingthatwillkillpotatobeetles.

Adult potato beetles overwinter just under the ground, so in large-scale

operations the practices of flaming, plastic trenches, and similar physicalcontrolshaveanaggregateeffect thatcanmitigate theneed forsprayingwhencombined with crop rotation involving fields separated by long distances.Unfortunately,inasmall-scaleoperationlikeaminifarm,croprotationdoesn’tgive enough separation. And, if you flame the beds in which potatoes werepreviouslygrown,thebeetlesarriveanywayfromalternatenaturalhostssuchashorse nettle or woody nightshade (two common weeds). Thus, if resistantvarietiesaren’tgrown,weareleftwithspraying.

Coloradopotatobeetlesareanimportantpestofpotatoes.

When spraying for Colorado potato beetles, I use a three-part mix thatincludesnaturalpyrethrin,rotenone,andspinosad,eachaddedinconcentrationsspecified by the manufacturers. Pyrethrin is a contact poison highly toxic tobees,sosprayitatduskonceallbeeshaveleftyourplantstoavoidhurtingthem.Itseffectslastacoupleofdaysbeforeit isrenderedharmlessthroughfreshairandsunshine.

Rotenone is an organic poison from the roots of certain tropical plants. Itneedstobeingestedtoworkandwilllastonplantsforuptosixdays.Pyrethrinandrotenonearebothneurotoxins,buttheyworkindifferentwayssothatwhencombined, resistance is less likely todevelop.Bothof thesepoisons target theadult beetles to keep them from layingmore eggs and stop them from doingdamage, though they will also kill any larvae. Spinosad is a bacterial toxin

derivedfromauniquebacteriafoundinarumdistilleryinthe1980s.Ithastobeingested, and is especially toxic to larvae. It takes a coupleofdays tokill thelarvae, but they stop feeding immediately. I have found full controlwith onlytwosprayingsaweekapart.

Wirewormsare a seriousproblem forpotatoes aswell as carrots, parsnips,beets, Jerusalemartichokes,andpracticallyanyotheredible root save those intheonionfamily.Wirewormswillalsodamagedirectlyplantedcornseeds.Theywillbeinsoilthatwaspreviouslylawnorisnearlawn.Grassycovercropssuchas ryewill likewiseattract them.Rotationswithcrops theydon’t like, suchasmustardoronions,havenopracticaleffectinreducingtheirpresence.

Up until soil temperatures reach 60 degrees, as many as a quarter ofwirewormsaretwoorthreefeetunderground—fardeeperthanyouwilldig.Butonce the soil temperatures are that high, the preponderance of the wirewormpopulation will be in the top one foot of soil. Though poisoning them is themodusoperandi in industrialagriculture, thepoisonsusedareamong themosttoxicimaginableandoftenrequirespecialpermitsforuseassomeofthem,suchas chlorpicrin and methyl bromide, are chemical warfare gases usable asweaponsofmassdestruction.Others,suchascarbofuranand imidacloprid,aresystemicinsecticidesthatareabsorbedintotheplanttissuesofthetreatedcrop,whichisavalidcauseforconcern.

Obviously,I’mnotgoingtoencouragethisapproachonaminifarm.WhatIdo,aspartofpreparingabedforpotatoesoranyotherrootcrop,isdigthroughthe soil looking forwirewormswith a fine-tooth comb.As I find them, I putthem in a jar, andwhen I’mdone, I feed them to the chickens.Also, prior toplantingIturnthechickenslooseintheyard.Theyinevitablyforagethroughthebedspullingweeds and eatingvariousbugs, includingwireworms.This is not100 percent effective, but over time it has reduced crop damage to tolerablelevels.

Withpotatoes,anotherveryviableapproach is togrow themincontainers.Aslongasthereareholesinthebottom(blockedwithawater-permeablebarrierthat will exclude wireworms) to allow for drainage, growing potatoes incontainerssuchasfive-gallonbucketsisentirelyfeasibleandworkswell.

Potatoes are susceptible to several economically important diseases,includingearlyblight,lateblight,scab,andblackleg.Blacklegisnotaproblemin raised beds because they provide adequate drainage to prevent the disease.Themostimportantweaponagainsttheotherdiseasesiscroprotationsuchthatthesamebedisnotusedtogrowanythingfromthenightshadefamily(potato,tomato, pepper, eggplant, etc.) any more often than once every four years.

Spoorsalsooverwinterincropdebrisandculledpotatoes;cropdebrisandculledpotatoesshouldberoutinelyburieddeeplyinthehottestsectionofthecompostpile.

Earlyblightaffectspotatoesandtomatoes.ItiscausedbyAlternariasolaniand showsup first on the lowest leaves of the plant; it can ultimately kill theentire plant and adversely affect the tubers. It starts as a small, sunken brownspotontheleafandthenexpands.Usually,thereismorethanonesuchspot.Asthe spot progresses, the leaf turns yellow, then brown, and dies. In myexperience, this diseasewill also affect cabbage-family crops once it is in thesoil, somakesure to rotatecropssuch thatnothing ineither thenightshadeorcabbagefamilyisgrowninthatbedforfouryearstohelpdenyitahost.

Thisstackableframewithalandscapefabricbottomallowspotatoestobeprogressivelyhilledandexcludeswireworms.

One thing that can help with this problem, as the fungus usually affectsleavesratherthanstems,istogrowyourpotatovinesonatrellisandremoveanyleaveswithinonefootof theground.Thismethodminimizesopportunities forthefungalspoorstobesplashedupontothelowerfoliagebyrainorwatering.Ihave also completely avoided this problem by planting my potatoes in anestablishedlivingclovercovercrop.

Ifallelse failsandearlyblightvisitsyourpotatoesanyway,youcanspray

with a Bacillus subtilis-based preparation used according to label directionsstarting as soon as the infection is noticed, and this will usually control thedisease.

Likeearlyblight,lateblightalsoaffectstomatoes.LateblightisalsoknownaspotatoblightandwasthediseaseresponsiblefortheIrishpotatofamine.Thewater-soakedareasontheleavesthatserveasthefirstsymptomusuallyescapenotice, but those areas then turn brown and, as the leaf dies, turn black. Thespoors are washed from the leaves into the soil where they infect the tubers.Warm,wetweatherfavorsitsgrowth,andyoumayseegrayhairymoldgrowingunder affected leaves in humid weather. Crop rotation is very important toprevent this disease and,because the spoorsoverwinteronpotatoes left in thesoil,plantsgrowing incullpiles,andso forth,meticuloussanitation isequallyvaluable.

Yet,inspiteofthebestrotationandsanitation,someofthespoorsmayblowintoyourbeds; if they takehold, itcanbeaseriousproblem.Spraysaremoreeffective as preventatives than curatives, and thosewith greatest utility in thatregardarecoppersulfateandBacillussubtilis.Aprogramofregularspraying,atleastonceeveryfourteendayswithparticularattentiontogettingtheundersidesoftheleavesisgenerallyeffective.Coppercanaccumulateinthesoilandreachtoxiclevels,soIwouldgenerallyrecommendusingtheBacillussubtilisinstead;itisalsomoreeffective.Ifyouseesignsofinfectionintheplants,youcanmixbothtogetherasthemixtureissynergistic.Ifyougrowalargecropofpotatoesand you see some of them are affected, you can cut off the affected plantsimmediatelyandburnorthermophilicallycompostthem.Thiswilloftenstopthespreadofinfection.

Thesymptomsofearlyblightwhenitstartsonthelowerleavesare

distinctive.

Potatoscabisanotherfungus.Itleavesunsightlyscab-likeblemishesonthesurfaceofpotatoesbutdoesn’tposearisktotheplantoverall,andthepotatoes,oncepeeled,areperfectlyedible.Evenso,itmakesthepotatoesunsellable.ThebestpreventativeistogrowthepotatoesinbedswherethepHislowerthan5.2;thefungusthatcausesscabdoesn’tsurvivewellbelowthatpHbutthepotatoeswill do just fine. This, however, may not be practical as crops are rotatedbetweenbedsandmostcropspreferapHof6orhigher.IfloweringthepHthatmuch isnotpractical,a rotationofat least threeyearssubstantiallydiminishesscab.Usingplentyofcomposttoenrichthesoilprovidescompetitiveorganismsthatdiminishtheincidenceofscabevenfurther.

HarvestAs long as they are not green, which indicates the presence of poisonoussolanine, potatoes can be harvested at any stage. Early or so-called “new”potatoes can be harvested a week after the potato plants start to flower. Newpotatoesdonotkeepwell, so theymustbeused soonafterharvest. Ifyouarecareful, you can gently dig around under the plantswith your bare hands andtake a few new potatoes and leave the plants otherwise undisturbed. Thepotatoesthatremainwillcontinuetomature.

Or,youcanpullupentireplantsanddigaround.Becausethesoilinmybedsisuncompressedandpracticallyideal,Icanharvestwithmyhandsandnothingmore than agarden trowel. If yourbeds aren’t yet at thepoint, you canuse adigging fork. Stick it in the dirt twelve to sixteen inches from the base of theplant,makingsuretoinsertitasdeeplyaspossible,andthenleanbackusingthedigging forkasa leveruntil the tinesemerge from the soil.Do this alongoneside of the plants and then along the other side, and thendig out the potatoeswithyourhands.

This same technique is applicable when harvesting fully mature potatoes.Fullymaturepotatoeshaveatoughenedskinandaremoresuitableforlong-termstorage. Potatoes are mature when the foliage starts to die back later in theseason.Inmyarea,thatisusuallylateAugust.

Maturepotatoesharvestedthiswayshouldbeharvestedinthemorning,laidout in the sun to dry, and then turned atmidday for even sun exposure.Afterthat,thedirtcanbebrushedoffwithalargecleanpaintbrushandthepotatoescanbestored.

SeedSavingIfyouuse tuberstostartyourpotatoes,youarebestoffnottryingtouseyourown tubers as seed potatoes except in an emergency because, as Imentionedearlier,anumberofdiseaseswilltendtoaccumulate,andwithinjustacoupleofyearsyouarelikelytohaveseeminglyintractablediseaseissues.Soifyouusetubers,youshouldorderorotherwiseobtainCertifiedSeedPotatoeseveryyear.

I have previously discussed using true botanical potato seed as the onlypracticalwayforaminifarmertosavepotatoseedsatallwithoutconcentratingdiseases. So if total self-sufficiency is your goal, using true seed—even ifproductivitymaybeabitless—isthewaytogo.

Ifyouaregoing togrowyourpotatoes from true seed, itwouldbebest tostart by ordering true seeds rather than tubers.You shouldn’t use just any oldpotato variety as a starting point for collecting true seed. Many commercialstrainsofpotatoes(thoughthebreederswillnotsaywhichonesfortradesecretreasons) have beneficial characteristics, such as disease resistance, that havebeen imparted through crosseswithwild potato varieties; these varieties havetoxicproperties that are reliably suppressed in the first-generationhybrids thatareclonedforCertifiedSeedPotatoes,buttheywouldnotbereliablysuppressedin the next generation grown from true seed. Growing random poisonouspotatoesprobablywouldn’tbeabighitwiththefamily.

In theory, if youhave the facilities tomeasure solaninecontent,youcouldselect theplantsfromthatsecondgenerationwhosetuberswerenonpoisonous,pull the other plants, and ultimately create a variety that bred true withoutpotential forpoisonouspotatoes.But inpractice, it is a loteasier to stickwithheirloomvarietiesprovidedastrueseed.

Thereareveryfewsourcesfortruepotatoseedthatyoucanusetostart.Oneunlikelybutveryproductiveplace toget a smallquantityof seed for researchpurposes is the USDA Germplasm Repository at http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/orders.html. Another source is New World Crops(www.newworldcrops.com). Some other sources can be found by using anInternetsearchengine,butthesearemostlyprivateindividualsandseedsavers.

Potatoes are an outbreeding plant, and as such you want to grow at leasttwenty potato plants to avoid inbreeding depression. Then, collect the berriesfrom thoseplants thatwere themost resistant todiseases andpests, excludingberriesfromtheruntsorthosethatseemedparticularlysusceptibletoproblems.(Warning:whenripe,theberriessmellappetizingbutarepoisonoustoeat.Keepoutof reachofchildren!)Put theberries inablenderwithacupofwater,and

processjustenoughatlowspeedtobreakuptheberriesandfreetheseed.Dumpthat into an open container to ferment for a couple of days, then pour off thewater, rinse the seed, and let it dry for a few days on paper towels beforedehydratingoveradesiccantandstoreinacool,darkplaceinasealedcontainer.

Withinjustafewyearsyouwillendupwithyourownstrainofpotatoesthatgrowsoptimallyinyourlocationandsoilandthathasalsoaccumulatedrobustmultiple-generesistancestoavarietyofdiseasesandmaybeevenapestortwo.

PreparationandPreservationMaturepotatoeslastlongestinlocationsthatarecool(42to50degrees),dark,and humid with good ventilation. They should be checked weekly and anyrotting potatoes removed before the rot spreads to other potatoes. In theseconditions,thepotatoeswillremainsoundandfreeofsproutsforupto140days;the specific time will vary with the particular potato. Commercial storagefacilitieswithcomputer-controlledstorageconditionscankeepsomepotatoesaslongas210days,butyouareunlikelytocreatesuchperfectconditionsathome.

Newpotatoes—thosethathavebeenharvestedbeforetheplantstartstodieback and have not been sun cured—can’t be stored this way as they go badquickly.Thealternativeforbothnewandmaturepotatoesisfreezing.Tofreezepotatoes,wash,dry,chopintoslicesorfriesnomorethanone-quarterinchthick,waterblanch for fourminutes, cool in icewater for fiveminutes,patdry, andthensealinfreezerbagsexcludingasmuchairaspossible.

Potatoes can also be dehydrated. Wash the potatoes, cut them into one-eighth–inch thick rounds,waterblanchforeightminutes,cool in icewater forfifteenminutes,patdry,anddehydrateaccordingtotherecommendationsofthemanufacturerofyourdehydrator.Theresultscanbestoredinairtightjarsforayearormoreand,ifyouareambitious,canbegroundintoapowderformakingyourowninstantmashedpotatoes.

OvenFrenchFries

Ingredients:

Nonstickcookingspray

Severallargebakingpotatoes

Procedure:Wash and dry the potatoes and preheat the oven to 450 degrees. Cut the

potatoes into ¼-inch strips. Spray liberally with the nonstick cooking spray,seasonasdesired,andplaceflatinasinglelayeronanonstickbakingsheetintheoven.Cookfor25minutes, turningoverafter thefirst10minutesforevenbrowning.

Ovenfrenchfries

Notes1Glycemicindexisameasureofhowmuchaperson’sbloodsugarlevelsareraisedbyeatingfood.Thehighertheglycemicindex,themore(ormorequickly)thebloodglucoselevelisraised.

12Tarake,E.et.al.(2002)JAgricFoodChem.2002Aug14;50(17):4998-5006.

16

Squash

Squashwere cultivatedmore than 8,000 years ago in theAmericas, and arenowgrowninalmostendlessvarietyineveryregionontheplanetthatsupportsagriculture.Their culinary uses extend from soups and salads to evenpies, sotheirpopularityisunderstandable.

Inaculinarysense,squasharedividedintotwocategories:summersquash(includingzucchini,pattypan,andyellow)andwintersquash(includingacorn,Hubbard,butternut, spaghetti,pumpkins,andothers).But inabotanical sense,squasharedividedintofourdistinctspecies.HubbardandbuttercupsquashareCucurbita maxima; cushaw squash are Cucurbita mixta; butternut squash isCucurbitamoschata;andacornsquash,pumpkins,zucchini,andothersummersquashareCucurbitapepo.

Allvarietiesofsquasharerichinfiber,vitaminC,andcarotenesthatexertaprotectiveinfluenceagainstcancers.Wintersquashalsoprovideusefulamountsoffolicacid,omega-3fattyacids,pantothenicacid,vitaminB1,vitaminB6,andniacin.WiththeexceptionofHubbardsquash(becausethewoodyseedcapsuleis generally too tough), all squash seeds are edible. The seeds are high inmineralssuchaszinc,manganese,phosphorus,andiron,andstudieshaveshownpumpkinseedstoreducethesymptomsofBPH(benignprostatichyperplasia).

VarietySelectionThethreemost importantthingstoconsiderinselectingvarietiesofsquashtogrow are the types of squash your family prefers to eat, the length of yourgrowing season, and disease resistance.Most supermarkets carry a variety ofwinter squash year-round and summer squash seasonally. You can try varioustypes to find out what you and your family prefer. Growing season is notgenerally a consideration for summer squash as they are harvested early, butsomewinter squash requireagrowing seasonwell in excessof100days.Thetimetomaturityforsquashismeasuredfromthetimetheseedisplanted,soif

youstartyoursquashinsidethreeweeksbeforeplantingoutasatransplant,youcanoftensqueezeavarietyofsquashintoyourseasonthatotherwisewouldn’thaveenoughtime.

Powderymildewisquitecommoninallvarietiesofsquashandis theonlydisease forwhichawidevarietyof resistantcultivars isavailable. Ifyouhaveseriouseconomic impact frompowderymildew, thenconsidergrowingsquashvarietiesthatareresistant.

Zucchiniandsummersquashareprolificandgrowinashortseason.

StartingandPlantingIntypicalgardens,squashseedsareplanteddirectlyinhillsorrows.However,both tomaximize productivity in terms of season extension and to get a headstart against pests or diseases, I recommend starting them indoors twoweeksbeforelastfrostandputtingoutthetransplantsaweekafterlastfrost.

Optimum soil pH is between 6.5 and 6.8, though squash will growsatisfactorilyatpHlevelsaslowas5.5ifthesoil’sfertilityisotherwiseoptimal.Squashgrowbestwithevensoilmoisture.Unevenmoisturecancauseblossomendrotandmalformedfruit.Asrainisunpredictable,thebestwaytoassurethemostevenmoistureuptakepossibleistoestablishdeeprootsystemsandprovideagreatdealoforganicmatterinthesoil.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyaddingatleastfivecubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bedsothattheorganicmatterwill

buffer andholdmoisture and throughdeepwatering equivalent toone inchofrainatleastonceaweek,buttwiceweeklyinhotweather.Usingraisedbedswillhelp tocompensate foroverwateringdue toheavy rainsbyallowingexcessivemoisturetodrain.

Squashrequirefullsun,sothebedlocationshouldbeoptimallylocatedforminimumshade.Somesquashvarieties,notablyyellow,pattypan,andzucchini,grow on bushes. These varieties should be spaced at two-foot intervalsthroughout the bed.Others, such as acorn squash and pumpkins, grow a longviningsystem.

For smaller squash varieties, such as acorn squash, it is fine to put yourtransplantsatone-footintervalsalongthenorthernonefootofthebedandtrainthevinesontoatrellis.Butforlargersquashvarieties,suchasHubbardsquashorlargepumpkins,thisisn’tpractical.Thelargersquashplantsshouldbeplantedat one-foot intervals along the southern one foot of the bed and their vinesallowedtogrowacrosstheyard.Thisway,therestofthebedrealestatecanbeusedforanothercrop.Youcouldgrowsmallsquashtrellisedalongthenorthernfootofthebed,largesquashalongthesouthernfootofthebed,andacropsuchaslettuceorchardinthetwofeetinbetweentomakemaximumuseofspace.

Ifthevinesforlargersquashareallowedtogrowacrosstheyard,youwon’tbeabletocontrolgrassandweedsinthatarea,whichcouldserveasareservoirforpestsanddisease.Tocutdownonweedsand thepests/diseases theycarry,thatareacanbeheavilymulchedwithgrassclippings,hay,orsomethingsimilar.

Squash will also grow well planted in between cornstalks as long as youspacethecornabitwider thanusual. It isalsooneof theveryfewplants thatwilldofineincompanionplantingswithonions.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesWeeds can sap nutrients, block sunlight, and give a safe haven to pests anddiseases.Bush-type summer squash are planted far enough apart that a stirruphoe,usedshallowlyonceaweek,candealwiththeweeds.Weedingislikewiseeasyonsmallersquashthataretrellised,butthesquashvinesthatareallowedtogrow across the yard outside of the beds really need to bemulched under thevines tocontrolweeds,asusingahoeorweedingbyhand just isn’tpractical.Lotsofmaterialscanbeusedformulch.Iusegrassclippingsbecausetheyarefree.Somestudiesindicatethatusingveryshinymulch,suchasaluminumfoilorMylar,mayhelpdetercucumberbeetles; theseshouldbeplacedontopofa

regularmulchbecauseallbythemselvestheywon’tholdbackweeds.Themostcommondiseaseofsquashispowderymildew.Thisappearsasa

whiteorgraypowdery-lookingmoldthatresultsindeformedanddeadleaves.Itspreadsrapidlyandcanwipeoutaplantorevenseveralplantswithinafewdaysof emerging. Prevention is better than attempting a cure, and the bestpreventativesaregrowing resistantvarieties,planting in full sun,andavoidingnighttimewatering. If the disease still takes hold, remove affected leaves anddiscard in the trash. (Makesure that the toolsyouuse tocutoff the leavesaredisinfectedaftereachcutbydippingina1:10bleachsolutionbeforebeingusedonother leavesorplants.) If that fails tohalt theprogressof thedisease, tryamilkandbakingsodaspraycomposedofonepintofmilkandthreeteaspoonsofbakingsodaforeverygallonofspray.Spraytwiceweekly,beingsuretogetboththetopsandbottomsoftheleaves.

Smallwintersquashcanbetrellisedonthenorthsideofabed.

Asyoucansee,evenlargerwintersquashgrowfineonatrellis.

Other important diseases of squash include bacterial wilt, anthracnose,angularleafspot,andmosaicviruses.Allofthesediseasesareeitherspreadbypests that can be controlled, overwinter in the previous year’s crop refuse, orboth.Sothemostimportantpreventativemeasuresarecroprotation,cleaningupdebrisattheendofeachseason,andcontrollingpests.

Bacterial wilt is spread by cucumber beetles, and organic control is quitedifficult, which is one reason organic squash varieties (pumpkins especially)fromtheU.S.arehardtofind.Preventativemeasuresincludegivingseedlingsahead start through transplanting instead of sowing seed directly, covering theplantswithfloatingrowcoveruntiltheblossomsappearsotheycanproduceatleast somemature fruit before succumbing, planting trap crops that are moreattractivethanthosebeinggrownandthathavebeentreatedwithanonorganicinsecticide,andusingorganic insecticidessuchaspyrethrinmixedwithcanolaoil or diatomaceous earth prophylactically. In nonorganic gardens, carbarylapplied regularly according to package directions from the moment of seedemergenceiseffective.

Anthracnose fungus overwinters in crop debris and in seed collected frominfectedfruit.Itusuallystartsasyellowspotsonolderleaves,butespeciallyinwarm,dampweatheritcanquicklyspreadtoaffectyoungerleaves,stems,andfruit.Asthediseaseprogresses,thespotsgetlargerandturnbrown,followedbythevinedying.Croprotationandcleaninguptheprioryear’sdebrisarethemostimportantstepstopreventanthracnose.Ifyourseedisofdubiousorigin,youcantreat it with hot water as described in the chapter on peppers, but this will

substantially reducegermination ratessostart three timesasmanyseedlings ifyoudothis.Onceanthracnosehasmadeitselfknown,ifyoucatchitearlyyoucancutoffandthrowawayinfectedleaves—thismaypreventfurtherspreading.Thereafter, spray neem oil according to package directions every seven to tendays as a preventative,making sure to get the undersides of leaves.Once thedisease is clearly actively spreading, SoapShield1 copper fungicidal soapwillcontrolitifusedquickly,aswillBordeauxmixturesofcoppersulfateandlime.

Angularleafspotoverwintersincropdebris,socroprotationandsanitationwill effectively prevent it. Angular leaf spot gets its name from the spots itproducesonleaves;theyareconfinedtotheleafareabetweenveins.Thespotsstartaswater-soakedspotsthatlaterturnbrownanddeveloptears.Itspreadslikewild fire in wet weather and is spread by people working with damp fruits,leaves,andvines.Preventionisbetterthancure,butifpreventionfails,acopperfungicidewillusuallyworkifusedsoonafterdetection.Copperfungicides,usedexcessively, can harm soil biology and the runoff can harm fish. So, again, aconcentrationonpreventioniswise.

Squash are affected by both squash mosaic and cucumber mosaic,transmitted by cucumber beetles and aphids, respectively. Cucumber beetlecontrol has already been discussed in relation to bacterial wilt disease, andaphidscanbecontrolledinavarietyofways.Insecticidalsoapappliedaccordingtolabeldirectionsiseffective,asaretheencapsulatednaturalpyrethrins.Garlicoilsprayswillkillaphids,andmostvarietiesofaphidscanbedeterredorkilledwithateamadefrompotatoortomatoleaves.

Squash (as well as cucumbers and melons to a lesser degree) are alsoaffectedbysquashbugs.Theysuck theplant juicesand injecta toxin thatcanweaken and kill the vines. Even worse, in four states (Oklahoma, Kentucky,Texas, and Ohio) they have been found to transmit Cucurbit Yellow VineDisease.Squashbugs are about five-eighths inch long, dark brownormottledwith brown and gray, and hard-shelled. They are shield shaped and make adisagreeableodorwhencrushed.Theylaytheirorange-yelloweggsinclustersoftwelveormoreontheundersideofleaves.Adultsquashbugsoverwinterincropdebris, under mulches, and under boards. Avoiding mulches (other than hay,whichseemstorepelthem)inbedsthatwillbeusedforcucurbitfamilycropsisagoodidea,asisremovalandcompostingofcropdebris.

Thebestorganiccontrolof squashbugs is tocover thevineswith floatingrowcoverthatiswellanchored—sobugscan’tsneakin—fromthemomentthecropisplanteduntil thefirstflowersemerge.Thiswillat leastreducethetimeframeavailableforthemtododamage.Youcantryinterplantingbuckwheatto

attractparasiticwasps thatwillpreyon thesquashbugs,but theresultsof thisaremarginal. Likewise, interplantingwithmarigolds or nasturtiumsmay havesomemarginaleffect.Onthescaleofaminifarm,youcanpickoffthebugsandputtheminsomesoapywaterandsmashtheeggclustersbyhand.Ifinfestationcan’tbecontrolledthatway,apyrethrin/rotenonesprayusedaccordingtolabeldirectionscancontrolthem.

The larvaeof squashvineborers burrow intovines anddestroy the tissue,therebykillinganypartof thevinebeyondwhere theyentered.Theadult is amothwhosecolorationoftenleadstoitbeingmistakenforabeeorwasp.Itlayssmall blackishpinhead eggs, usually along the six inchesof a vine just abovewhereitemergesfromthesoil.Whentheeggshatch,thelarvaeburrowintothevine, growing as they eat until they are ultimately large enough that theirburrowingphysicallydisruptstheplant.

Squashbugsinjectapoisonintothevine.

Squashvineswillput roots into thesoilanywhere thevine iscoveredwithsoil,soonethingthatwillhelpdiminishthedamagefromborersisburyingpartsofthevineasitgrowssothatthevinehasadiversifiedsourceofnutrientsandwater.Another thing you can try iswrapping some aluminum foil around thebottomsixinchesofthevinesothemothhasnoplacetolayitseggsorhasto

settleforalessdamagingplace.Observing your plants daily and particularly looking for “frass”—the

sawdust-likeleavingsthatborersleavebehindthemastheyeatintothestems—canallowyoutoreactbeforetoomuchdamageisdone.Ifyoucatchitbeforethevinewilts,youcankilltheborerinthevinebypokingthroughitwithapinandleavingthepininplace.Youcansometimescutthestemalongitslength,extracttheborer,pushthevinebacktogetherwhereitwascut,andburythecutsectioninsoil.

Industrialagriculturedependsoninsecticidessprayedonaregularscheduleto kill the larvae as they emerge from the eggs, but they are seldom a largeenough problem on a mini farm to justify default use of insecticides “just incase.”

Particularlyinsummersquash,blossomendrotisapossibility.Asthenameof the condition implies, the blossom end of the squash simply rots. Thisproblem is caused by uneven uptake of calcium due to variations in wateravailability,suchastwoweekswithoutwaterfollowedbyasuddensoakingrain.Oftenthefirstfruitsofsummersquashwillhavethisproblem,anditisnothingtoworryabout.Overalltheproblemcanbepreventedbymakingsurethebedshaveplentyofcomposttobufferthewatersupplyandwateringregularly(onceaweekinnormalweatherbuttwiceaweekifitishotanddry)anddeeplytotheequivalentofaninchofraineachtime.

HarvestSummer and winter squash are harvested differently. Summer squash areharvestedwhile still immature, like cucumbers, so the plants will continue tomakenewflowersandsquash.For thebest flavor,yellowsquashandzucchinishouldbeharvestedwhennomorethansixinchestoeightincheslong,andpattypan squash should be harvested when no more than four inches in diameter.Onceyouallowasummersquashtomature,theplantstopsmakingnewones,somakesurenoneescapesyournotice,whichcaneasilyhappenunder theheavycover provided by squash leaves. A couple of times I’ve missed squash thateasilygrewtoseveralpounds.Notonlydidtheplantstopmakingmoresquash,butthelargesquashwasnotverytasty.

Winter squash,on theotherhand, areharvestedwhenmatureand theyarecured for longer keeping. In fact, in most cases the flavor of winter squashvarieties improvesover thefirstseveralweeksafterharvest.Wintersquashare

harvestedwhentheyhavedevelopedfullcolorandtheirrindsarehardenoughthattheycan’tbedentedwithathumbnailandtherindhasbecomedulllookingasopposedtoglossy.Don’tpullthemoffthevine,ortheirkeepingqualitywillbe adversely affected. Instead, cut the vine using pruners or a sharp knife,leaving two or three inches of vine still attached to the squash. With theexceptionofacorn types,otherwinter squash should thenbecuredby leavingthem in the shade at temperatures exceeding 80 degrees for five to ten daysbeforestoring.

SeedSavingThe biggest challenge with seed saving is that squash require bees or otherpollinators to pollinate, and interbreeding between varieties within the samespeciesisquiteeasy.Ifyouwanttosaveseed,Iwouldrecommendgrowingonlyonetypeofsquashofagivenspecieseachyear.

Cucurbitapepo:Yellow,zucchini,pattypan,acorn,spaghetti,andcommonpumpkin

Cucurbita moschata: butternut, Naples, Kentucky field pumpkin, neckpumpkin

Cucurbitamixta:cushawsquash(lookslikeapumpkin)Cucurbitamaxima:buttercup,Hubbard,banana,Lakota

Squashflowersareveryattractivetobeesandrelyonthemforpollination.

There is roomfor confusion,particularlywith squashknownaspumpkins,becausetherearemanyvarietiesofpumpkinsandthetermencompassessquashfrommorethanonespecies.Justtobeonthesafeside,whenorderingseedsforsquash,checkthecatalogtomakesurewhatspeciesitis.

Wintersquashusedforseedsshouldbetakenthreeorevenfourweekslaterthan the squash would normally be harvested. Also, those squash that growclosesttotherootoftheplantarelikelytoproduceseedswiththehighestrateofgermination. Scoop out the seeds, swirl them around in a bowl of lukewarmwater, dry off with some paper towels, and allow them to sit for a couple ofweeksbeforedryingfurtheroveradesiccant.Storeinanairtightcontainerinacool,darkplace.

Summersquasharetreatedidentically.Ifyouleavethemlongenough,theywillgetlargeandgrowatoughrind.Oncethisrindistoughenough,youcan’tdent it with your thumbnail. Let the squash mature for another three weeksbeforeharvesting.

PreparationandPreservationSummer squash can be kept in a plastic bag in the crisper drawer of yourrefrigerator,butitwillonlykeepforthreetofivedays.Likesweetcorn,itisoneofthosevegetablesbesteatenorpreservedsoonafterharvest.Thebestwaytopreserve summer squash is freezing. Cut off the ends, slice uniformly, waterblanchforthreeminutesorsteamblanchforfiveminutes,coolinicewaterforfiveminutes,patdry,andthenstoreinfreezerbagswithasmuchairexcludedaspossible.

Winter squash should be stored at a temperature of 50–55 degrees.Acorntype squashwill keep for one or twomonths, butternut, turban, and butternutsquashwillkeepfortwoorthreemonths,andHubbardsquashforaslongassixmonths.Storage lifecanbeenhancedeven longer if,after thefruitshavebeencuredandbeforeyoustore them,youwashthesurfaceusingaclothdippedinsoapywater(dishliquidisfine)thatcontainsonepartbleachforeverytenpartsofsoapywater.Thiskillsmanyofthepathogensthatwouldnormallyaffectthesquash, thus prolonging storage life.Check your stored squash frequently anddiscard those showing signs of rotting promptly so spoors don’t spread toadjacent fruit. The optimal humidity for storage is 50 percent to 70 percent.Higher than thatwill decrease storage life due to increased rotting, and lowerthan thatwilldecrease storage lifedue todehydrationof the fruit.Don’t storewintersquashnearapplesastheethylenegasthatapplesgeneratewillcausethe

squashtorot.Theseedsofanyediblesquash (includingpumpkins)canbeeaten (though

those of the largest varietiesmay be too tough), and theymake a tasty high-energy snack. There are several ways to prepare them depending upon one’spreferencesandhealth-consciousness.Topreservethehealthfulcharacteroftheoilsinsquashseeds,theyshouldn’tbecookedatatemperaturehigherthan170degrees.Ontheotherhand,cookingathighertemperaturesispreferredbymanybecauseitresultsinadifferenttaste.Seedspreparedeitherwaywillkeepforaweekifstoredinanairtightcontainerintherefrigerator.

Toprepareinthisfashion,cleantheseedsbyswishingthemaroundinabigbowlofwarmwater, then strain themoutof thewateranddry themonpapertowelsovernight.Preheatyourovento160–170degrees,andspreadtheseedsinasinglelayeronabakingsheet.Bakefortwentyminutes,useaspatulatofliptheseeds,andthenbakeforanothertenminutes.

Togoall-outon snack food, clean the seedsasabove,preheat theoven to450degrees,mixtheseedsinalargebowlwithcanolaoilandabitofAdobo,2andthenputinasinglelayeronthebakingsheet.Cookfortenminutes,flipwithaspatula,andthencookforanothertenminutes.

Theseedsofthisacornsquashwillmakeanutritioushigh-energysnack.

BakedAcornSquash

Ingredients:2acornsquash(willalsoworkwithbutternut,buttercup,delicata,etc.)

4tbspbutter

¼cuppackedbrownsugarsaltandpeppertotaste

Procedure:Preheatovento400degrees.Cutthesquashinhalflengthwiseandremove

the seeds.Cook the halves in a shallowpanwith the cut side down for thirtyminutes. Turn them with the cut side up, then add the butter, sugar, salt andpepper.Returntotheovenandcookforanother30-40minutesuntilaforkcanbeeasilyinserted.

SummerSquashCasserole

Ingredients:2lbssummersquash(yellow,zucchini,pattypan,oranycombination)1beatenegg

2cupschoppedtomatoes

1onion,chopped1cupbreadcrumbs

2tbspmeltedbutter

½tspsalt

Procedure:Preheattheovento350degrees.Slicethesquashandcookinabowlinthe

microwave for 5 minutes, stopping to stir at the halfway point. Thoroughlycombine thebreadcrumbs, salt,beatenegg, and tomatoesand salt thoroughly,thenstir in thesquash.Use thebutter togreaseacasseroledish.Dumpall theingredientsintothecasseroledishandbakefor45minutes.

Note1SoapShieldisaregisteredtrademarkofGardensAlive,Inc.2“Adobo”inthiscaseisaseasoningavailableintheLatinsectionofthesupermarket.IusetheAdoboconCuminforthisrecipe.

17

Tomatoes

Ifthereisanyonethingthatmotivatesmorepeopletotakeupgardening,itisthe desire to eat a tomato right off the vine.The tomatoes in the supermarketusually look perfect, but they taste unripe and have little flavor.Many peopleremember the taste of tomatoes right out of their mother’s or grandfather’sgarden,andtheyknowtheydon’thavetosettlefortheunappetizingfareatthestore.

Not only are tomatoes a nutritional powerhouse rich in vitaminsA and CalongwithvariousmineralsandBvitamins,butstudyafterstudyhasshownthata diet rich in tomatoes is protective against a variety of cancers, includingprostate and pancreatic cancer. Other studies have shown that importantantioxidants in tomatoes, such as lycopene, are present in greater quantitieswhen the tomatoes are raised organically, so growing your own would be atremendousbenefitinmorethanjusttaste.

One thing you may find helpful in your quest for higher levels of self-sufficiencyishoweasyitistomakeyourownspaghettisauce,salsa,andevenketchupfromyourowntomatoes.

VarietySelectionThere are literally hundreds of different varieties of tomatoes encompassingcolors from yellow to purple, aswell as variations in growing habits, diseaseresistance, earlyor latematurities, anda rangeof flavors thatmakes tomatoesthesubjectoftastingssimilartowine.Thereisnowaytoevenmakeadentinallthevarietiesavailable,butthereareanumberofwaystomakesenseofthem.

Tomatoes are either determinate, meaning bush-like, or indeterminate,meaningvine-like.Determinatevarietiescanbegrownusingjustashorttomatocage,but indeterminatevarietieswillneeda trellis tomaximize theirpotential.Determinate tomatoes also tend to ripen more closely together, whereas thetomatoes on indeterminate vineswill ripen at different times. For purposes ofprocessing large numbers of tomatoes for spaghetti sauce or ketchup,determinate varieties are usually best, but for adding to salads throughout thesummer or for drying in batches, youmight find indeterminate varietiesmoreconvenient.

Thematuritydatefortomatoeslistedinseedcatalogsisbasedonthenumberofdayssincetheywereputinthegardenastransplants.Usually,youwillwanttomatoesforbothearlyintheseasonandlaterintheseason,soyoumightgrowacoupleofvarietiestohaveyourharvestspreadout.

Thoughinmostrespectstomatoescanbereadilysubstitutedforeachother,therearedifferencesinmoisturecontentthatmakesometomatoesmoresuitableforsaucesandothermoresuitableforfresheating.Forexample,theItalianplumvarieties tend to have a lower moisture content, so they don’t have to besimmeredaslongtomakeathicksauce.

Tomatoescomeinavarietyofcolorsrangingfromwhitetopurple.Thereareevenvarietiesthatremaingreenwhenripe!Ingeneral,thetomatoesratedmosthighlyintastetestsarepink,purple,orblackvarieties.(Theselatteraren’treallyblack. They have a complex darker color.) Examples include Pruden’s PurpleandBrandywine.However,onlyyourtasteandopinionmatter.

In my garden, I usually grow an indeterminate cherry tomato for saladtomatoes all season, an early slicer for sandwiches and a late slicer for evenmoresandwiches,andagroupofdeterminatepastetomatoesforsauceandsalsa.I like Peacevine cherry for salads; Moskvich and Stupice for early seasonslicing; Brandywine and Pruden’s Purple for late season slicing; and AmishPaste, Black Plum, and Plum for sauces among others. But those are justmyownpreferences.

StartingandPlantingTomatoes are a warm weather crop and, as long as they are supplied withsufficientwater,themoresunandheatthebetter.Thismakestomatoesabitofachallengefornortherngrowers,butbreedershaveputagreatdealofeffortintoproducingearly tomatoes,especially inEasternEurope.Sowithpropervarietyselection, tomatoes certainly belong in gardens across the continental UnitedStates.

Ifyou’veeverhadtomatoesrotinthegardenandbeenfacedwithdozensifnothundredsofvolunteerplantsthefollowingyear,youknowthattomatoescanbedirectlyseededinthegarden.Volunteersneedtoberuthlesslyculledbecausethey can serve as a reservoir of disease (for both tomatoes and potatoes) thatnegatesthevalueofcroprotation.Evenso,puttingseedsinthegrounddirectlyisnotvery reliableand inmostpartsof thecountry, tomatoescoulddefinitelybenefitfromaheadstart.Maturitydatesgivenfortomatoesincatalogsassumethe use of transplants started six weeks earlier, so a bit of math shows thatsowingthemdirectlyfromseedwon’tallowforenoughtimebeforefrostsetsininthefallinmostofthecountry.Startthemindoorssixweeksbeforelastfrost,andplantthemoutrightafterthelastexpectedfrost.

If you are growing indeterminate tomatoes, plant them spaced eighteeninchesapartinthenorthernonefootofthebedandtrainthemontoatrellissixfeet tall. Prune the tops back once they reach that high. If you are growingdeterminatetomatoes,usethecheapwiretomatocagesandspacethemeighteeninches to twenty-four inches apart. Ideally, thesewill be in a bed that has thelong sideson theeast andwest so the tomatoeswillbenefit fromsunonbothsidesofthebed.

Thesoilfortomatoesshouldbedeeplyworked,incorporatingalotoforganicmatter. Iwould recommendat least fivecubic feetofcompostper4 ft.x8 ft.bed.ThepHshouldideallybeinthe6.5to7range,thoughcloserto6.5isbetterfor prevention of a condition known as yellow shoulder. Uneven uptake ofcalciumdue tounevenuptakeofwatercausesblossomendrotandsplitting intomatoes.Theorganicmatterwillhelpholdandbufferthewaterwhileusingaraisedbedwillhelppreventanoverabundance.

Toomuchnitrogencancausetomatoplantstocreatelotsoffoliagebutblandtomatoes.Sowhenyouaddamendmentsinaccordancewithasoiltest,useslow-releasenitrogensourcessuchasalfalfameal,cottonseedmeal,andcompostasopposedtosodiumnitrate,urea,orbloodmeal,anddon’taddanymorethanthesoiltestingindicates.Ifyoumixatablespoonofgardengypsumintothesoiloftheholewhereyouplanttomatoes,itwillalsohelppreventblossomendrot.

Tomatoeswillsenddownrootsanywherethestemiscoveredwithsoil.Forthemostrobustrootsystemandplants,putthetomatoesdeepinthesoilwiththestem horizontal and only four inches of the plant above ground.As the plantgrows,stripofftheleavesthatarewithinafootoftheground,asthisstepwillhelppreventavarietyofblightsandotherdiseases thatstartwith infectingthelowerleaves.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesBecause tomatoesare plantedwith suchwide spacing, controllingweeds viacarefulperiodichoeingisstraightforward,andthefoliageisoftensoplentifulatclose spacing that much weed competition is shaded out once the plants aregrowingwell.

Because tomato foliage is poisonous tomost things, tomatoes only have afewnotablepests;amongthesearehornworms,cutworms,fleabeetles,aphids,whiteflies,androot-knotnematodes.

Aphidswill always exist to some degree on tomato plants and they don’t

usuallyposeaproblem,butiftheirnumbersbecometoolargetheycanweakenthe plants. They can be controlled with a couple sprays of insecticidal soap.Cutwormswillexistinanybedthathashadfreshorganicmatter(suchascovercropsorheavyweeds)cutandturnedintothebedwithinacoupleofweeksofplanting.Protecttheseedlingswithcardboardcollarsfourincheslongandburiedaninchdeepinthesoilwhentheyarefirstplanted,andyou’llhavenotrouble.

Tomato hornworms are such a unique creature that once you’ve seen one,you’ll never forget it. They have a prominent horn at one end, are as long asthree inches,andaregreenwithstripesandeye-likemarkingsover theirbody.Theygobblefoliageextensively,evenchoppingoffentirebranchesoftheplantattimes.Youcanpicktheseoffandfeedthemtothechickens.I’veneverfoundmorethanafewoftheseinasingleseason,butifyourplantsaresufferingfromanextensiveinfestation,theycanbecontrolledovernightwithasinglecompletespraying with a Bacillus thuringiensis preparation used according to labeldirections.

Laythestemhorizontallywhentransplantingformaximum-strengthroots.

Whiteflies are not usually a problem when using homegrown transplants;they often hitchhike on plants purchased from nurseries or garden stores. In

smallquantities,thesedon’tadverselyaffecttheplant.Inlargepopulationstheycanleavealotofhoneydewontheplantthatgivesroomforsootymoldtotakehold. Sooty mold looks like a sooty coating on leaves and fruits. It doesn’tactuallyinfecttheplantbutratherlivesinthehoneydewonthesurface.Itisn’teconomicallyimportantunlessitbecomessoextensiveastoblocksunlightandphotosynthesis.Whitefliesareubiquitousingardenstores,greenhouses,andthelike because over the decades they have become immune to practically allinsecticides.Ifyoudevelopasubstantialinfestationofwhiteflies,abouttheonlythingthatwillcontrolthemisalighthorticulturaloil.Don’tusesuchoilsduringadroughtortheycankilltheplant.

Tomatohornwormshaveauniquebeauty,buttheyarevoracious.

Flea beetles resemble fleas.A fewof themwon’t hurt anything, but if thepopulationsarehigh,theycandefoliateandweakentheplants.Iftheirdamagecrosses an economic threshold, they can be easily controlled with apyrethrin/rotenonesprayusedaccordingtopackagedirections.

Perhaps themost dreaded pest of tomatoes is root-knot nematodes. Thesemicroscopic worms burrow into the roots causing knots that interfere withnutrientabsorptionandthefullcycleofphotosynthesis.Thepreparationsusedtocontrolthemonacommercialscalearebreathtakinglytoxicandexpensiveandthusimpracticalonaminifarm;theyarebetteroffprevented.Luckily,theycan

be prevented easily through crop rotation and sanitation. At the end of theseason, pull out all plants, including as much of the roots as you can, andcompost them. If you develop an infestation in a bed, I would recommendgrowingmustardinthatbedforacoupleofyears,followedbyonionsthenextyear.Thentryacropsuchasbeetsthatissusceptibletorootknotnematodesandwherethedamagewilleasilybeseentofindoutifyou’vesuccessfullyabolishedthem.Ifnot,gobacktothemustardandonionsforanothercoupleofyears.

Acommonbutseldomrecognizedpestoftomatoesisthetomatorussetmite.Thesymptomsstartwiththelowerleavesturningbrownandthenmoveuptheplantwiththestemtakingonabronze-likeappearance.Iftheyappear,youcancontroltomatorussetmiteswithacommercialwettablesulfurpreparation.

Diseases of tomatoes include fusarium wilt, verticillium wilt, and mosaicviruses,amongothers,thoughtomatoescanalsobeaffectedbypotatoearlyandlateblight,manifesting identical symptoms topotatoes.Thekey tocontrollingdiseases is crop rotation and sanitation.Only once have I ever had a problemwithdiseaseintomatoes,andthoseseedlingswerebroughthomefromanursery(purchased after an unexpected late and hard frost killed our seedlings).Otherwise, by following the simple precautions of rotation, sanitation, andkeepingtobaccoproductsawayfromtheplants,I’veneverhadaproblem.

Fusarium wilt affects all nightshade family plants including tomatoes,eggplant, peppers, and potatoes. Fusarium usually times its arrival for dampweatherwhenthereisalreadylotsoffull-sizedgreenfruitontheplant,turningtheleavesyellow.Thereseemstobenorhymeorreasontowhichleaveswillbeaffected, and sometimes itwill infect one half of the leaves but not the other.Thoseleaveslosethepowerofphotosynthesis,andthefruitdoesn’tgetenoughenergy to ripen.Fusarium is a soil-born fungus that canbe controlledbycroprotation. If problems persist, there are many varieties of tomatoes that areresistant,soifyouchoosearesistantvarietyitwon’tbeanissue.

Verticilliumwiltusuallystartsontheolderleaveswiththeedgesturningfirstyellow then brown.Unlike fusarium, it doesn’t kill the plant, but it definitelyhurtsproductivity.Croprotationandsanitationareyourbiggestpreventatives,asthepathogen is soil-born. Ihave foundanother solution.What Ido is sowmytomatobedinclover,andgrowindeterminatevarietiestrellisedonthenorthsideof the bed. The clover creates a dense ground cover that keeps rain fromsplatteringfungusspoorsfromthesoilupontotheleaves.Iplantthetransplantsin the clover patch, take off the bottom leaves once they get big enough, andtrain them onto a trellis. For determinate plantswhere trellising isn’t feasible,theytendtoshadeoutthecloversotheprotectionisn’tasfull,butanumberof

verticillium-resistantvarietiesoftomatoarealsoavailable.There are manymosaic viruses, but they all have the same symptoms on

tomatoes. The leaves develop a mottled appearance, wilt, and grow small—almost likeafern.Theresult isaplant thatfails tothrive.Plants infectedwithsuchvirusesshouldbediscardedintherubbish.

Nowforthegoodnews:yourtomatoeswillneversufferfromthisvirus.Thereasonisbecause99.9percentofthetime,mosaicviruscomesfromtobaccoincigaretteswhen the gardener fails towashhis or her hands after smoking andthen transmits the virus to the tomatoes. If you smoke, all you need to do isavoid smoking in or around your garden andwash your hands after smokingbeforetouchingtomato(orpotatoorpepper)plants,andyouwillneverseethisvirus.

PinchingandPruningTomatoesAs mentioned earlier, tomatoes can be divided into determinate andindeterminate types. Determinate plants only reach a certain size and do notrequire extensive pruning or a trellis; indeterminate plants, given properconditions, will literally growwith no limits. Determinate plants only need acage or a stake—though I much prefer cages. Indeterminate plants will growadjunct stems at leaf axils in an infinite variety and, if left unchecked, willoutgrowpracticallyanytrellisandstartcreepingalongtheground.

Because of soil-borne diseases, it is important to keep tomatoes off theground. Thus cages for determinate tomatoes and trellising for indeterminatetomatoesareabsolutelynecessary.Pruningindeterminatetomatoesisanexerciseindiscretion;understandingwhyitisneededwillhelpputitincontext.

The more vegetative growth a tomato plant produces, the more of thatgrowth will be shaded thus consuming more sugar than it produces.Furthermore, themorevegetation, themore fruitclusters, thesmaller the fruit,andthelateritwillripen.Toomuchvegetationwillalsofavordiseaseconditionsdue to the prolonged time required formoisture to evaporate from the leaves.Thereisanoptimaltrade-offbetweenthenumberofstemsandthesize,andthenumberandspeedofmaturationoffruits.Inmostcases, this is just threeoratmostfouradjunctstems.

Excessstemscanbeeasilypinchedoffwhentheyaresmall.

How high up on the plant these stems grow is important.You don’twantthemgrowingfrombelowthefirstfruitclusterbecausetheywillputtoomuchstrainontheroot.Youdon’twant themgrowingtoohighontheplantbecausethentheywillbetooweaktosupportfruitsoftheirown.WhatIrecommendisallowing a new stem to grow from the leaf axils immediately above the first,second,andthirdfruitclusters;andruthlesslypinchingoffanyothers.

Inbetweentheleavesandthestems(anareaknownastheaxil)iswherethenewstemsemerge.Onceyouseeitgrowingsmallleaves,you’llknowitisanewstem. These new stems are most easily removed by “pinching.” Just graspbetween your thumb and forefinger and literally pinch it off. This methodexposestheleastamountofremainingtissuetodisease.Sometimes,though,theplants get away from you and you’ll have a stem three feet long before yourealizeit;suchstemsthatcan’tberemovedbypinchingshouldberemovedwiththeleasttissuedamagepossiblebyusingarazorknifeinpreferencetotoolssuchasscissorsorpruners.

Indeterminatetomatoesshouldalsobe“topped.”Aboutamonthbeforeyourfirstexpectedfrost,youwanttocutthetopoffofanygrowingstems.Thiswillforceallenergyproductiontogointoripeningthefruit.

Becausedampconditionsfavorthespreadofdisease,neverprunetomatoeswhentheplantsaredamp.Andbecausediseasesspreadeasilybetweenplants,Irecommend dipping any tools used in a 10% bleach/water solution after eachcut.

HarvestTomatoes canbe eaten at any time and size. Though green tomatoes containsmall amountsof thepoisonousalkaloid tomatine,nocasesofpoisoninghavebeen reported from their consumption and studies indicate that the tomatinebinds to cholesterol in the digestive tract, preventing absorption of both thetomatine and the cholesterol. In the concentrations present in green tomatoes,consumption has been shown to lower bad LDL cholesterol, inhibit certaincancers,andenhanceimmuneresponse.1Sogreentomatoesaresafe toharvestandeat.

Evenso,Imuchprefermytomatoesripe—especiallyforfresheating—andIsuspectmostfolkssharemypreference.Vine-ripenedfruitsarebyfarthemosttasty,withthoseripeningindoorsratingaveryclosesecond.

Timingtheharvestisstraightforward:pickthetomatowhenithasdevelopedmaximumcolorforitsvarietybuthasnotbecomesoft.Therearetwoexceptionsto this rule. The first is cherry tomatoes because of their tendency to split.Harvestthesewhenthecolorhaschangedbutbeforemaximumripenesstoavoidsplitting.The second is anyvarietyof tomato that is prone to cracking.Theseshouldalsobeharvestedbeforemaximumcolor.

Problems with cracking can occur in any tomato that has been water-deprived for an extended period of time and then given an overabundance ofwater.Incorporatingplentyoforganicmatter intothesoilasabuffer toabsorbandreleasewaterasneededwillbehelpful,aswillgrowinginraisedbedsandmakingsure tomatoesarewateredproperly.Butevenwith thebestcare, somevarieties are prone to splitting as ripeness approaches, and these should beharvestedbeforetheycrack.

Tomatoesharvestedalittleearlywillcontinuetoripenindoors.Ideally,putthem in a closed paper bag at room temperature.A paper bagwill retain andconcentrate ripening factors such as the ethylene gas released by the ripeningfruit that also triggers further ripening, but it will also keep the fruit frombecomingwater-ladenand rottenaswouldhappenwithaplasticbag.Youcanhastentheripeningprocessbyputtingaripe(butnotoverripe)bananainthebagwiththetomatoes.

If you know a frost is coming and you have a lot of green fruits on yourplants,youcaneitherharvestthegreenfruitsandusetheminappropriaterecipesorcutthevinesandhangthemupsidedownindoorsinthedark.Surprisingly,alotofthefruitwillripen.

SeedSavingTomatoesusuallyself-pollinate.That is, thepollen fertilizes theovumwithinthe flower, sometimesbefore the flowerevenopens.Tohelp thisprocess,youcangiveyourtomatoplantsalittleshakenowandthen.Eventhoughtomatoesare self-pollinating, they can also be cross-pollinated by insects, so maintainseveral feetof separationbetweenplantsofdifferentvarieties fromwhichyouwanttosaveseeds.Also,useonlyopen-pollinatedorheirloomvarietiesforseedsaving as hybrids will notmake seed that re-creates the characteristics of theimmediateparent.

When you save tomato seeds, you want to save them from the very besttomatoesontheverybestplants.Pickthetomatoslightlybeforeitisfullyripe.Ifyouwaituntilitisfullyripe,itwillhurtthegerminationratesoftheseedsyousave.Tomatoseedsareprocessedusingafermentationmethod.

Cutthetomatoacrosstheequator,anduseyourcleanfingersoraspoontoscoop the gelatin and seeds (but not the meat of the tomato) into a cleancontainer. I use small plastic cups, but canning jars will also work fine. Addwater equivalent to about half the volume of tomato gelatin in the cups, andswirl itaroundwithaspoon.Cover the topwithcheesecloth tokeepoutbugs,andsetasidefortwotofourdaysuntilamoldstartsgrowingontop.Iffourdayshave elapsed and there is still no mold, don’t worry. Add water to the cups,swishitaround,andpouroffanymoldorfloatingseeds.Rinseoffwithwaterafewtimes,andthenspreadtheseedsonmultiplelayersofpapertowelstodry.Afteraboutaweek,puttheseedsonapaperplatetodryfurther.Afteranotherweek,youcandryfurtheroveradesiccantbeforestoringforuptofouryearsinasealedcontainerinacool,dry,darkplace.

PreparationandPreservationIfyouwashanddryyourtomatoeswhenyoubringthemin,they’llkeepforaweekwithoutlossofflavorjustsittingonthekitchencounterandlongeriftheyarenotyetripe.Theywillkeepforyetanotherweekintherefrigerator,butatthecostofsomelossofflavorandasortofgraininessbeingimpartedtotheflesh.Betweenthetwomethods,youcansaveupyourtomatoesforacoupleofweeks(ifyouaresavingforabatchofsauce).

Tomatoes can also be dehydrated, canned, and even frozen. Thoughvegetables are usually blanched before dehydrating and freezing, this is notneededwithtomatoes,thoughmanyprefertoremovetheskinandtheprocedure

fordoingsotendstoblanchthemabitanyway.Many recipes call for removing the skin from the tomatoes because,

especiallywhencanned,theskincanbecometoughandadetractingannoyancein somedishes.Onceyouget thehangof removing the skin, it is easy.Bringsomewaterinapottoagentleboil.Makesureitisdeepenoughtofullycoverthetomato.Lowerthetomatointothewateronaslottedmetalspoon.Leaveitinthe water until the skin starts cracking—about a minute—and then put thetomatoinicewaterforthreeminutes.Theskinistheneasilyremoved.Oncetheskinisremoved,youcanalsoremovethehardcorefromthetomatobyusingasimpleapplecorer.Oncethetomatohasbeenskinnedandcored,youcancutit,removethegelatinousportioncontainingtheseeds,andeitherfreezedirectlyina freezer bag fromwhich air hasbeen excludedor dehydrate according to thedirectionsthatcamewithyourdehydrator.

For making sauces, I don’t bother with removing seeds, skins, or cores.Instead,Iboilupthetomatoesinabigpotuntiltheyaremushyandthenprocessthemthroughahand-crankedstrainerthatseparatesouttheseportions.

Canning tomatoes is a borderline proposition; that is, the pH of tomato isrightontheborderlinebetweenfoodsthatcanbesafelycannedinawaterbathandfoodsthatrequirepressurecanning.Mostrecipesincanningbooksspecifytheadditionofanacidifyingsubstance—usuallycommercialbottledlemonjuice—as a means of lowering the pH sufficiently to allow for safe water bathcanning.Thereasontheyspecifycommerciallybottledlemonjuiceisbecauseitcontains a predictable and standardized amount of citric acid. The problem isthatthestuffusuallycontainspotassiumsorbateasapreservative.EventhoughasfarasIknowpotassiumsorbateisnotharmful,ithasbeenmyexperiencethatwhen used in products that are cooked, it imparts off flavors. So instead Irecommend that you go on the Internet to any wine-making hobby store andorder pure citric acid. Substitute one-quarter teaspoon of citric acid for onetablespoon of lemon juice, and you will achieve the same effect withoutimpartingunintendedoff flavors.Also,keep inmind that ifyouaddanyothervegetable ormeat to a tomato recipe (except salsa because salsa is actually apickle),youwillneedtopressurecanthatproductforthelongestlengthoftimeforanyoftheingredients.Failuretodosocanresultinbotulism.

There are a host of recipes for relishes, salsas, chutneys, and pies (for theadventurous)made fromgreen tomatoes.Some like to slice them,dip them ineggandthenseasonedflour,andfrythem.Alloftheserecipesarewonderful.

HomemadeKetchup

Ingredients:20–25lbstomatoes3cupsvinegar1cupchoppedonions1cupchoppedsweetredpepper1cupsugar1clovegarlic2tspceleryseed1tspsalt1tspwholeblackpepper2tspwholeallspice2tspmustardseed

1stickofcinnamon

½tspcayennepepper

Astrainercomesinhandyformakinglargebatchesofsauceandketchupforcanning.

Procedure:Cleanandweighthetomatoes.Iuseakitchenscale,butforthisquantityof

produceyoucanusethebathroomscale.Cutthemupwholeandputtheminalargepotwithalittlewatertopreventscorching.Addtheonions,garlic,sweetpeppers,celeryseed,salt,andcayennepepper,cookingthemovermedium-lowheatuntil theyaremushy.Whileyouarewaitingonthat,puttheblackpepper,allspice,mustardseed,andcinnamoninaspicebag.Bringthe3cupsofvinegartoasimmerinasmallerpot,putthespicebaginthevinegar,andallowthattosimmerfor20–30minutes.Removethespicebagandturnoff theheatonthatburner.

Once the tomatoes and other ingredients in the pot are mushy, carefullyprocessthemthroughahand-crankedstrainer.Cleanoutthepot,dryit,andthenputtheliquidthatresultsfromthestrainingbackintothepot.Addthevinegarandsugar.Bringtoasimmerfor30minutes.

Afterthis,youneedtoeitherletitsimmerwhilestirringforabout12hourstogetridoftheliquid,orputitinalargecrockpot.Irecommendthecrockpot.Once the ketchup has simmered for about 12 hours and become thicker, fillsterilizedpintjarsleavingone-quarterinchofheadspaceandprocessinaboilingwatercannerfor30minutes.

Allowthistosetforacoupleofweeksbeforeuseforfullflavortodevelop.You’llbeamazedathowgoodthisis!Note

1.McGee,H. (2009), “AccusedbutProbablynot aKiller,”NewYorkTimes, July18,2009, ISSN0362-4331

18

Turnips,Rutabagas,andRadishes

Some variants of turnips, rutabagas, and radishes have been cultivated forhundreds and even thousands of years for good reason: they are versatile,nutritious,anddelicious!Boththerootsandleavesofallthreeareedibleandcanbe cooked in a variety ofways.All three roots are high in vitaminC, folate,thiamine, niacin, and a number of essentialminerals including potassium andcopper. Their omega-3 to omega-6 fat ratio is 3:1, and they are a substantialsourceofcardio-protectivedietaryfiber.

Butthegoodnewscontinuesintotheleavesofthesestaplecrops.Thegreensarestronglyanti-inflammatory,andasingleservingcontains350percentoftheRDAofvitaminAalongwithawhopping1,050percentoftheRDAofvitaminK,aquarteroftheday’ssupplyofvitaminEandcalcium,alongwithvaluablequantities of folate, copper, manganese, and more. In essence, just like theircloselyrelatedcousinsbroccoliandcabbage,turnips,rutabagas,andradishesaresuperfoods.

TurnipswereastaplecropforsettlingtheAmericanWestbecausetheykeepwellinrootcellarswhilesupplyingvitalvitaminCthroughouttheharshwinters.Turnips, and turnip greens in particular, tend to be more appreciated in theAmerican South than in the rest of the country, but their taste and nutritionalpropertiesargueinfavorofaplaceinthegarden.

Eaten raw, a small slice of turnip, rutabaga, or radish will share acharacteristicpungencyfrom theallyl isothiocyanatecreatedbydamage to thecells. These isothiocyanate compounds are a defense mechanism to keepherbivoresfromeatingtheplants,butinthesmallquantitiesnormallyconsumedin food, they are perfectly safe. Even better, these isothiocyanates and relatedcompounds induce the production of what are called “phase 2 detoxificationenzymes”intheliverthatselectivelydetoxifycarcinogens.1,2Cookingtendstoremove the bite by eliminating an enzymatic precursor to isothiocyanateformation,butstudiesindicatethatthisdoesn’tadverselyaffecttheformationofdetoxificationenzymes.3

All of this means that turnips, rutabagas, and radishes are potent cancerpreventatives,and ifyour turnipshaveasharp tastewhenraw, that justmeanstheyaregoodforyou.

VarietySelectionYourlocalagriculturalstorelikelyonlycarriestwovarietiesofturnipatmost:Purple TopWhite Globe andGolden Ball. But if you look in the catalogs ofheirloom seed companies, you’ll find at least a dozen varieties fromwhich tochoose. As there are no particular diseases for which resistant varieties exist,yourprimaryselectioncriteriaisyourowninterestsandtastes.

This sameapplies to rutabagas.At theagricultural storeyou’llbe lucky tofindevenonevariety,butyou’llfindatleasthalfadozenvarietiesinheirloomseed catalogs. Rutabagas are sweeter than turnips, and if your family hasn’tdeveloped a taste yet for this family of root vegetables, rutabagaswould be agoodplacetostart.Just lookthroughthecatalogsandfindavarietythat lookstasty.

SeedsforPurpleTopturnipsarereadilyavailableandtheyproducereliably.

Radishes are an entirely different proposition! With at least three dozenreadilyavailablevarietiesrangingfromwhitetoredtoblackandranginginsizefrom the size of your thumb to the size of an apple, you will find a lot ofofferingsthatlooknothingatalllikethevegetableyouassociatewiththeword“radish.”Initially,Iwouldrecommendtryingaverycommonvarietythatlooksfamiliar,suchasFrenchBreakfast.Afterthat,though,youshouldbranchouttotrymanydifferentvarieties.

StartingandPlantingTurnips, rutabagas, and radishes are grown from seed placed directly in theground. Being brassicas, they are somewhat cold-hardy and can be plantedanytimetheaveragesoiltemperatureis50degreesorhigher,butitisbesttowaitforasoiltemperatureof55forbestgermination.Theywillsproutinfromonetofivedaysdependingonsoil temperature.Theseedsshouldbeplantedone-halfinch deep. When planting turnips and rutabagas, the best technique formaximizingharvest is tospaceat three inches inalldirections,and thencomebackinaboutforty-fivedaystoharvesteveryotherplantforgreensandyoungroots. Leave the others to grow larger. Radishes can be spaced at two-inchintervals, though some varieties can grow as large as turnips, so you shouldcheck the seed packet for the final thinning distance for the particular varietyyouareplanting.

Aswithallrootcrops,deeplydugsoilfreeofrockswillencouragethebestgrowth.Plentyoffinishedcompost(atleasttwocubicfeetper32sq.ft.bed)willencouragetheproperbiologicalenvironment.Itisimportantthatthecompostbefinished,however,asturnips,rutabagas,andradishesareespeciallysensitivetothegerminationinhibitorspresentinunfinishedcompost.MaintainingasoilpHbetween6and7isoptimalfortheseplants.Thesoilshouldhaveplentyoftraceminerals either from a wide variety of additives of biological origin orsupplementedwithseasolids.Boronisakeyelementforpropergrowth.Boroniscontainedinboraxandconstitutes11.5percentofitsweight.Youneed300–400milligramsofboronper32sq. ft.bed;1½teaspoonsofboraxwill supplyjusttherightamount.(Usearealmeasuringspoon;don’t“eyeball”it.)Boraxistoxictoplantsinconcentratedform,soyoushouldmixitthoroughlywithsomeotherpowderyadditive,suchasgreensandorwoodashes,anddistributeevenly.

Themacronutrientsshouldbesupplementedasindicatedbyasoiltest.Ahigherqualitycropwithfewerpestproblemscanbeassuredbyplanting

forafallharvest.Thatisbecauseoncetemperaturesexceed75degreesandmostcertainly when you get 90 degree days, the quality of the roots suffersdramatically.Rutabagasshrinkandbecomestringy,radishesbecomewoody,andturnips become just plain unpalatable. Rutabagas and turnips require sixty toninetydays toreachharvestingsize.Evenwhenplantingsixweeksbefore lastfrost in thespring,youare ina raceagainsthotweatheron theoneendwhilecombatingrootmaggotsontheother.If,instead,youplantsixweeksbeforeyourfirst expected frost, you will get rapid germination, the season for cabbagemaggotswillbepast,andtherootswillbematuringduringcoolerdays.You’llappreciatetheresults.

Radishesmaturemuchmorequickly,sometimes inas littleas threeweeks.Sothesearealoteasiertoplantasareliablespringcropbecauseyoucanhavethemplantedandharvestedbeforewarmweather.

Weeds,Pests,andDiseasesBecauseoftheirrapidgerminationandprolificgrowth,ifplantedinaweed-freebedinitially,weedsareunlikelytobeanissue.What littleweedingisrequiredcanbedonebyhandandwillmostlybeattheoutsideedgesofthebedswheretheweedscangetlight.

Turnips,rutabagas,andradisheshavegoodnaturalprotectionfrompredationandgenerallydonotexperienceproblemsofeconomicimportanceonthescaleofaminifarm,solongascroprotationandsanitationarepracticed.

Theonlyeconomicallyseriousdiseasethatislikelyisclubroot,adiseasethatresultsinstuntedrootsunabletodrawwatersotheplantswiltanddie.ThiscanbeavoidedbykeepingthesoilpHabove6andpreferably6.5.Onceclubrootisin the soil of a bed, you can’t grow any cabbage family crops there for eightyears, so it pays to do a pH test and adjust the pH if needed so this diseasedoesn’tgainafoothold.

Mostpestsaren’tkeenonthepepperytasteoftheseplants,butanythingthataffects broccoli or cabbage can theoretically come after your turnips ifsufficientlyhungry.Iftheydo,justtreatasdescribedinthechapteroncabbageandbroccoli.TheonlypestIhaveseeninturnipsthatposesasubstantivethreat—and it is completely preventable—is cabbage root maggots. Cabbage rootmaggots are the larvae of a fly that looks like a slightly smaller and more

streamlined version of a housefly. They overwinter as pupae in the soil, andemergeatthetimeyou’dusuallyplantseeds.Oncetheplantsemerge,theylayeggs at the base of the plant that burrow into the soil and then eat the rootsvoraciously. With root vegetables, you may not even know they have beenaffecteduntilaverydisappointingharvest.

Two factors disproportionately attract this pest. The first is rotting organicmatter in thesoil,suchas immaturecompost.Thesecondisplantingwhenthesoiltemperatureisalittletoocold.Ifyouavoidimmaturecompost,plantatanaverage soil temperature of 55 degrees, andmake sure you don’t plantwherecabbage family crops were grown last year, this pest can be completelyprevented by covering your bed with floating row cover once the seeds areplanted.Removetherowcoveroncesoiltemperaturesaverage65degrees,andyouarehomefree.

HarvestYoudon’twantturnips,rutabagas,orradishestowaittoolonginthegroundasthey’ll get woody and their flavor will suffer. Once soil temperatures areaveragingabove75degrees,theyneedtobeharvestedeveniftheyaresmallerthan you’d like. Turnips for “bunching” —to be sold with greens and roottogether—shouldbeharvested at a diameter of two inches.Those thatwill be“topped,”—meaning that the roots will be sold or used without the greens,shouldbeharvestedatadiameterofthreeinches.Ifyouarelikeme,youhaveseenso-called“turnips”intheproduceaisleatthegrocerystorethatareasolidfive or six inches in diameter. These aren’t turnips—they are rutabagas.Rutabagas shouldbeharvestedat four inches foroptimumquality.The reasontheyaresolargeinthesupermarketisbecausetheysellonthebasisofweightratherthanquality.

Radishescanbeharvestedatpracticallyanystage,so longasyoudon’t letthemwaitmorethanaweekorsoaftertheyhavereachedthematuresizeforthevarietyyouaregrowing.Afterthat,theytendtosplitandbecomelesstasty.

SeedSavingTurnips,rutabagas,andradishesarebiennialsthatproduceflowersandseedintheir second year. Turnips and radishes are outbreeding plants subject toinbreedingdepressioniftoofewaregrownforseedanddependuponpollinators

such asbees for pollination as theydon’t usually self-pollinate.Rutabagas areself-fertileandnaturallyinbreeding,thoughtheywilloutbreedwiththehelpofbees.

Radishes won’t interbreed with other cabbage family crops with theexceptionofotherradishes.Soonlygrowonevarietyofradishesforseedinanygivenyear.Growatleasttwelveplantsforseed.

Turnips will interbreed with other turnips, broccoli rabe, and Chinesecabbages.Onlygrowonevarietyofturnip(andnoChinesecabbageorbroccolirabe) for seed in a season.You should grow at least six plants for seed, but Iwouldrecommendanevendozen.

Rutabagaswill interbreedwith other rutabagas andwith some varieties ofturnip that are grown as livestock feed. Rape (a relative ofmustard) can alsointerbreedwithrutabagas,aswellasSiberiankale.Thespeciesclassificationofrutabagas is a bit confused among various authorities, but they shouldn’tinterbreedwithspeciesofturnipsyou’llbegrowing.Again,tomaintaingeneticdiversity,growatleastsixplantsbutpreferablyadozen.

Despitethesedifferences,seedsavingforallthreeisthesame.Inareaswithmildwinters,youcanheavilymulchtherootsinthegroundtohelpthemsurviveover the winter. In areas with harsh winters, the roots should be dug, foliagetrimmed to two inches, and stored in peat moss at 95 percent humidity andtemperaturesbetween33and40degrees.Inthespring,planttheminthegroundattheiroriginaldepthassoonasthesoilcanbeworked.

Thebulbswillleafoutandthengrowastalkaroundthreefeettall.Thisstalkissomewhatdelicate,andIwouldrecommendstakingit.Anamazingnumberofflowerswillgrowonthestalk,andbeeswillseeminglycongregatefrommilesaround to have fun spreading pollen and fertilizing the plants. Harvest theseedpodsoncetheyturnbrown.Astheyarefragile,Irecommendstrippingthepodsintoaplasticbag.Thepodscanthenbebrokenupandtheseedseparatedfromthechafethroughwinnowing.

Lettheseedsetoutinanopenbowlforacoupleofweeksandthendryoveradesiccantforaweekbeforestoringinasealedcontainerforuptofiveyearsinacool,darkplace.

PreparationandPreservationDue to tradition,we think of rutabagas, and turnips as something only eatencookedand radishesas somethingonlyeaten raw.The reality is that theseare

interchangeable.Likewise,weeatturnipgreensbutneglectradishgreens,whicharejustasedibleanddelicious.Rutabagagreensarelikewiseedible.Thegreens,if dry, will keep in a bag in the refrigerator for a week. They can be steam-blanched for four minutes and then chilled in ice water, dried, and frozen infreezerbags fromwhichall air hasbeenexcluded.Or theycanbedehydratedafterblanchingandusedasanadditiontosoups,stews,dipsandsauces.

The roots storebest inpeator sandwith the leaves removedat95percenthumidityandtemperaturesof32to35degrees.Summerradisheswillkeepforamonthlikethis,butturnips,winterradishes,andrutabagaswillkeepforseveralmonthsthisway.

In practice, it is hard to achieve such perfect storage conditions, which iswhyyouwilloftenfindturnipsandrutabagasinthesupermarketthathavebeenwaxed.Thewaxpreventsmoisturelossforstorageinlesshumidenvironments,andbecausethehotwaxkillspathogensonthesurface,itallowsforlong-termstorageunderlessperfectconditions.Towaxturnipsandrutabagas,removethetops and thoroughlywash anddry them first. (Theymust be thoroughly driedbefore immersing in wax or dangerous splatters of wax will occur.) Heat upregularcanningwaxinapotonanelectricstoveorusingadoubleboilerifyouhaveagasstove.Usingaslottedspoon,dipthevegetableinthewaxandmakesureitisthoroughlywetwiththewax;thensetasideonsomepaperbagsforthewax to harden.Don’t hold vegetable in thewax any longer than necessary tothoroughly coat itwithwax. Peel thewax and top layer of the vegetable anddiscardbeforeeating.

Radishes,rutabagas,andturnipsalsofreezewell.Cutintouniformhalf-inchchunks, water blanch for four minutes or steam blanch for six minutes, coolthoroughlyinicewaterforanotherfiveminutes,patdry,andthensealinfreezerbagsexcludingair.Youcouldalsoopttodehydratethemforfutureuseinsoupsorstewsbyfollowingthedirectionsofthemanufacturerofyourdehydrator.

Therearealotofwaystoeatturnipsandrutabagas.Theycanbeboiledandmashed like potatoes, baked, cooked into stews, andmore.The greens can beeatenrawinsalads,steamed,orboiledinthefashionofcollardgreens.Iliketosautéthemwitholiveoilandgarlic.

Oven-RoastedRadishes

Ingredients:

1lbradishes,cutuniformlyinhalvesorquartered1leek(mildonioncanbesubstituted)1tbsptoastedsesameseedoil1tbspcanolaoil

2tbspsoysauce

Ovenroastedradisheswillhaveyoulookingatradishesinawholenewlight!

Procedure:Preheatovento425degrees.Washanddrytheradishesandcutintouniform

sections so they bake at approximately the same rate. Thoroughly coat theradisheswith the toasted sesame seed oil and canola oil bymixingwith yourhandsinabowl,andpourintoabakingdish.Putintheovenandsetyourtimerfor 20 minutes. Thinly slice the white portion of the leek, discarding theremainder.Whenthetimergoesoff,addtheleeksandsoysaucetotheradishesandmixthoroughly;thenreturntotheovenforanother7minutes.You’llnever

thinkofradishesasjustasaladgarnishagain.

Note1KeumYS, JeongWS&KongAN (2004) “Chemoprevention by isothiocyanates and their underlyingmolecularsignalingmechanisms.”MutatRes555,191–202.

2 Zhang YS, Yao S & Li J (2006) “Vegetable-derived isothiocyanates: anti-proliferative activity andmechanismofaction.”ProcNutrSoc65,68–75.

3Rungapamestry,V.,Rabot,S.,Fuller,Z.,Ratcliffe,B.,Duncan,A.(2008)“Influenceofcookingdurationofcabbageandpresenceofcolonicmicrobiotaon theexcretionofN-acetylcysteineconjugatesofallylisothiocyanateandbioactivityofphase2enzymesinF344rats.”BritishJournalofNutrition(2008),99,773–781

19

PermaculturewithPerennialVegetables

AsdescribedinMiniFarming,plantingsofberrycanes,fruitornut trees,andgrapevinesareallaformofpermaculture.Thoughsuchplantingsrequiresomedegreeofmaintenance, overall they requirevery little time, effort, andmoneyfor the amount of food derived.Unfortunately,most vegetables planted in thegarden need to be replanted every year. This entails a great deal of time andeffort.

Alittle-knownfactisthatmostofthevegetablesthatweplantasannualsforpurposes of efficiency andhighyield are derived fromwild ancestors that areperennial.Thesewildancestorsarefarlesssusceptibletopestsanddiseasesthantheir domesticated progeny and therefore don’t require the degree of crop

rotationthatwouldotherwisebeneededtomaintainahealthycrop.Itwouldn’tbepracticaltogrowperennialvegetablesexclusively,butitisentirelypracticalto dedicate three, four, or more beds to selected perennials because of thesavingsintimeandeffort.

For example, rather thangrowingkale (which isgrownas anannual), youcouldgrow seakale.Seakale is perennial andwill returnyear after year.Seakale is not onlyperfectly edible, itwas featured inThomas Jefferson’sgardenandcontainsallofthefamiliarnutritionofcabbagefamilyplants.Inaddition,aslongasthepHisadjustedtohigherthan6toavoidclubroot,seakalewillneverexperienceaseriouspestordiseaseproblem.

Seakaleisjustoneexampleofhowyoucangrowperennialvegetablesthatwere an important part of our diet until very modern times, while saving atremendous amount of time and effort in the long run. There are manyvegetables that if handled correctly can constitute more or less permanentplantings. When a bed is dedicated to this sort of crop, it is taken out ofavailabilityforothervegetablesbutrequiresfarlesstimeandefforttomaintain.

Ihavealreadycoveredasparagusinanearlierchapter.Ifproperlypreparedinitially,asparagusbedscanremainproductivefordecades.Ifyoukeepthebedweeded and harvest prudently, you’ll have plenty of asparagus every yearwithout ever having to put shovel to soil. The same applies to the herbsdiscussed in thechapteronherbs—manyof themwill returneveryyeareitherdue to their perennial nature or from self-reseeding. Examples include mints,balms,sage,andthyme,amongothers.Myminifarmhastwo4ft.x8ft.bedsdedicated strictly to culinaryandmedicinalherbs andanother4 ft. x8 ft. bedthatproducesimpressivequantitiesofasparagus.ThoughIrotatewhereIplantannualherbsyeartoyear,myherbbedsrequirelessmaintenancethananyoftheothers.

You aren’t limited to sea kale, asparagus, and herbs, however.There are anumber of other vegetables that make an excellent choice for permanentplantingsinraisedbeds.

SoilPreparationandCareIn general, the beds for perennials need to be prepared just as you wouldprepare for any other crop by correcting for nutrient deficiencies, addingmicronutrients, correcting the pH, and incorporating plenty of organic matter.Becauseperennialvegetablesbydefinitionremainin thatbeda longtime,you

shouldmakesureyouincorporateatleasteightcubicfeetofcompostper4ft.x8ft.bed.

When planting more typical crops, you have the opportunity to directlyincorporate additional nutrients and compost annually via admixture, whereasyoudon’thavethisluxurywithperennialsbecausesuchdisturbanceofthesoilcouldharmorkilltheplants.

Thegoodnewsisthatmostperennialvegetablesputnowherenearthestrainonsoilastheirannualandbiennialcousins,sotheyrequirelessfertilizer.Infact,aproperlypreparedbedmay, in somecases, requirenoamendments at all forseveralyearsthereafter.Thisisanothergoodreasonwhyestablishingafewbedsofperennialvegetablesmakessense.

Atleasteveryyear,compostshouldbeaddedtothebeds.Youcan’tturnitin,so just spread it as evenly as you can on top. I prefer that it be added twiceannually:onceinthefallandthenagaininthespring.Afterawhile,you’llbeabletojudgehowmuchcompostisneededjustbydiggingupabitofsoilandlooking,butagoodguidelineisyou’llneedthreecubicfeetannuallyper4ft.x8ft.bed.Thewinterweatherhelpstobreakdownthecompostaddedinfall,andthefamousAprilshowerswillhelpincorporateboththatandthecompostaddedinearlyspring.

Thecompostshouldbewellfinishedsothatitwon’tleachnutrients.Ifyoufindthatyourcompostparticlesaretoobigtospreadeffectively,youcanuseapiece of half-inch hardware cloth to strain your compost. Put the pieces thatdon’t fit through the holes back into the pile and use the smaller pieces forspreading.

Youshoulduseasoiltestkittotestyourbedsfornitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumannually. If aperennialbed requires the additionofoneormoreofthese,youshouldthoroughlymixtheneededamountwiththecompostyouwillbeadding.Youshouldmakesuretoalsoaddmicronutrientstothecompostthatyouspreadonthebeds.Thiscouldtaketheformofkelpsolids,seasolids,someCelticSeaSalt(nomorethansixouncesper4ft.x8ft.bedannually),orsomewoodash,amongothersources.Thesewillgetleachedintothebedviarainandweather,aswellasbytheactionofearthwormsandothersoilorganisms.

Weedsare thegreatestenemyofperennialvegetablesbecause,unlikeyourannualbedsthatyoucanaggressivelyhoeorflameorfromwhicheverylivinggreenthingcanberemovedbeforeplantingcovercrops,perennialplantscan’tbedisturbedlikethatandsurvive.

An ounce of prevention will get your beds off to a good start. As most

perennialvegetablesareplantedinearlysummer,youhaveampleopportunitytopresproutandremoveasmanyweedsaspossible.Justlettheweedssproutinthebed,andthenhoethem.Youcandothisseveraltimesinthespringbeforetimetoplant.Then,justbeforeplanting,flamethebedthoroughlytokillanyseedsinthetopone-quarterinchofsoil.

Onceyouhaveplanted,youwillhavetohand-weedthebedsinmostcases,thoughtheremaybesomeinstanceswhenyoucanuseastirruphoe.Astirruphoe only disturbs the top quarter to half inch of soil and sowill do the leastdamagetotherootsystemsofdesiredplants.Inthefall,whenplantsdieback,youcanalsomulchtocreateabarrierthatwillkeepnewseedsfromfallingintothebedsandpreventmanythatarealreadyinthebedfromsprouting.Youcanuseshreddedleavesorshreddedstrawasamulch,butyoushouldmakesuretoremoveitinthespringsoitdoesn’tinhibittheemergenceofdesiredcrops.

Theonionsontherightareperennialpotatoonions.Theyaresmaller,butdelicious.

OnionsThestandardbulbingoniondiscussedinanearlierchapterisplantedannually,but if you arewilling todealwith smaller bulbs, there are several varietiesofonion that divide into clusters of onions underground and regrow every year.

These includeWelsh onion, garlic chives, potato onions, walking onions, andshallots.

Imaintainabedofpotatoonions.Lateeverysummerwhentheydieback,Ipulltheclustersofonionsandreplantabout15percentofthemequallyspacedaroundthatbedtogrowbackthenextyear.ThiswayIhaveaninfinitesupplyofsmallonionsthatgogreatinstews,andtheamountofworkIhavetoinvestisminimal.

These onions are smallish but have vastly superior flavor to the standardbulbing onions.Once you have used these in a stew, you’ll seewhy somanypioneerscarriedthesewiththemfortheirhomesteadsoutWest.

GarlicasaPerennialGarlicismostoftengrownasanannual,butonceyouhaveestablishedabedofgarlic, itcanbegrownasaperennial.Beforeyouplant thebulbs infall,makesureyoutillinagoodquantityoffinishedcompost—atleastfourcubicfeetper4 ft. x 8 ft. bed. Then make sure to add micronutrients. After that, use thetechniques covered in the chapter on onions, such as presprouting to reduceweedproblems,asmuchaspossible.Then,plantyourbulbsatasix-inchspacinginalldirections.

Inearlysummer,manyoftheplantswillformblossoms.Pinchofftheshootsoncetheyareacoupleoffeettallsotheplantswillformbulbs.(Youcancollectthemearlierandfrythemupasgarlicscapes.)Harvestthebulbsfromthelargeplants in the late summer, and let the smaller plants die back. The next year,thosesmallerplantswillsprout.

Thebiggestproblemyouwillhaveinsuchaplantingisweeds.Irecommendmulching in the fallwithdead leavesyou rakeoff theyard.These leaveswillcompost over time and enrich the soil, and they will prevent many weeds aswell.Comespring, if theyhaven’t rotteddownenough to let thegarlicsprout,gently remove them. You can control weeds the rest of the season with acarefullyusedstirruphoe.

JerusalemArtichokesA friend in Connecticut introduced me to Jerusalem artichokes several yearsago,andIhavemaintainedabedofthemeversince.Jerusalemartichokesareanindigenous root vegetable that is high in an indigestible starch called inulin.

You’llfindspecialpastasfordiabeticsmadeusinginulininsomestores.Jerusalem artichokes are propagated by ordering some tubers and planting

theminabed in thespring. In thefall,youwillharvestabout twenty timesasmany tubers as you originally planted. This will continue year after year adinfinitum. In fact, if you aren’t vigilant, they will invade and take over yourentireyard!

Jerusalemartichokesareusuallythoroughlyscrubbed,boiled,andtheneitherslicedormashedandservedwithbutter.Inthisform,theyaredelicious.Ifyouhavenevereatenthembefore,justeatalittlebitthefirstfewtimesbecauseyourlargeintestinelikelylackssufficientnumbersof thebacterianeededtoprocessinulin.Thislackofbacteriawillcausediarrhea.Ifyoueatalittleatatimeandbuildup to it, you’ll soon find thatyoucanpackawayawholeplateof thesedeliciousrootswithoutanytroubleatall.

Groundnut(Apiosamericana)Ihaveincludedthescientificnameofthisplantbecausethereareseveralplantscalled“groundnut” thatmightbeconfused.Thisgroundnut isamemberof thesame family as fava beans. It is a perennial vine native to the United States.During the regular growing season, it grows a bean vine that bears numerousbean pods. These pods can be harvested young as green beans or allowed toripenintodriedbeans.Overthecourseoftheseasonthevinesstoreupenergyinthe tubers, from which the groundnut will resprout for the next seasonindefinitely.The tubers are likewise edible and unusually rich in protein for arootvegetable.

TheseJerusalemartichokesaretasty,butstartoffeatingonlyasmallquantity.

ScorzoneraorBlackSalsifyCommonsalsifyoroysterplant(Tragopogonporrifolius)isabiennialrootcrop(which iswellworthgrowing, incidentally), but the closely related scorzonera(Scorzonerahispanica)isperennial.Commonsalsifyrootsshouldbeharvestedin their first year because, once the plant flowers in its second year, the rootsbecome unappetizing and the plant dies. Scorzonera, however, can be grownyearafteryear.Therootsofscorzoneraaretypicallythinbutcangrowaslongasthree feet, making harvest difficult. Growing it as a perennial, you can getthicker roots thathavemore foodplusare less likely tobreakbywaitinguntilthe second year to harvest. Meanwhile, simply allow it to make flowers andseedsasitwishes,andthebedwillbeliberallyreseededtoreplenishthoseplantsthatyouharvest.

Theblackskinoftherootsisinedibleandneedstoberemoved.Whenyouremove it, though, thewhite flesh almost immediately turns black.Topreventthis,haveabowlofwaterwithsaltorlemonjuicemixedinandthrowtherootsinthereassoonastheyarepeeled.Scorzoneraisusuallyboiledandservedwithother vegetables. I prefer to blanch it (and salsify), dehydrate, and serve inwinterstews.

GoodKingHenryGoodKingHenryisaperennialrelativeofamaranththatisnativetoEurope.Itis planted from seed the first year. Thereafter, each spring the new shoots areblanchedandeatenlikeasparagus,andafewleavesareharvestedthroughoutthesummerandpreparedlikespinach.

Thismulchedscorzoneraproducesabundantlywithlittleeffort.

PerennialBroccoliPerennialbroccoliisaformofbroccoli that, insteadofformingahead,sendsupslenderstalkswithjustafewflowersoneach.Theentireslenderstalkiscutand eaten.Perennial broccoli is transplanted in late summer. In northern areassuch as New Hampshire, it will need to be overwintered in a high tunnel orsimilar environment, but no such care is required south of Maryland. Onceoverwintered, it starts sending up stalks in the spring. These stalks can beharvesteduntilthenextwinterwhentheplantisoverwinteredagain.Threehigh-yieldingvarietiesofperennialbroccoliareNineStar,RedArrow,andBordeaux.

RhubarbRhubarbwasonce so valuable inEurope that its costwas four times that ofsaffron and almost three times that of opium.1 Luckily, you can grow it foryourselfattrivialcost.Inwarmerpartsofthecountry,rhubarbwillgrowyear-

round,but in colder zones itwill diebackduring thewinter and re-emerge inspring.Theleavesarepoisonousbothduetoahighconcentrationofoxalicacidand the likely presence of an anthraquinone glycoside. (This is a drasticpurgative,forwhichpurposerhubarbwasusedinmedicine.)Theconcentrationofoxalicacidinrhubarbstalks,however,issolowastobeharmless.

Anembarrassmentofriches,thisrhubarbisdestinedforastrawberry-rhubarbdessert.

Rhubarbstalkstastehighlyacidic,butalmostallofthisisfrommalicacid—thesameacid thatgivesgreenapples their tartness.Rhubarbshouldbestartedindoorsfromseedsinthespring,transplantedinearlysummer,andthenallowedtooverwinter.Youcanharvestup tohalf the stalkseachyear. Justgentlypullthemfromtheplantandstripthegreenmatteroftheleavesfromthem.

SeaKaleImentioned sea kale in the introduction to this chapter because it is such anexcellentexampleofaperennialvegetable.It is tasty,nutritious,andcangrowanywhereinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Itshouldbestartedindoorsandthentransplanted in early summer.Germination can take as long as fiveweeksbutcanbeacceleratedabit ifyoumake several shallownicks in the seedcoatingwithasharpknifeandsoakinwaterovernightbeforesowing.

It shouldbe transplanted into deeplyworked, very rich soil that is high in

organicmatter.Becauseitsoriginisnearthesea,itwillparticularlybenefitfromtheuseoftracemineralsintheformofunrefinedseasalt.Addaboutsixouncesofunrefinedseasalt(forexample,CelticSeaSalt)annuallytothebed.Itsfirstshootscanbeharvestedandtreatedlikeasparagus,butitsleavesandstalkscanbeeatenyear-round.

WatercressCloselyrelatedtoannualgardencress,watercressisareliableperennialthatisoneoftheoldestleafvegetablesknowntohavebeeneatenbyhumans.Itisrichinnumerousessentialvitaminsandisaprovencancerfighter.

Because it is semiaquatic andwillwhither and die in stillwater, it can bedifficulttomaintainsuitableconditionsforitscultureinmostgardens.However,itisinsufficientdemandthatitmightbeworthwhiletosetupadedicatedarea.

Watercress can be easily grown using the inexpensive white two-gallonbuckets,akiddiepool,andasmallpondaerator.Drillseveralholesinthebottomofeachbucketandfillthebottomhalfwithgravel.Marblechipswouldbeidealas watercress prefers its water to be slightly alkaline, andmarble is simply asupercompressedformoflimethatdissolvesveryslowly.Thenfillthecontainertherestofthewaywithrichgardensoil.Setthecontainersinthekiddiepool,fillthepoolwithsixinchesofwater,andmakesuretorunthepondaeratorforatleastfourhoursaday.Changethewatercompletelyonceaweek.Oncefreezingweatherarrives,emptythekiddiepool,andstoreyourcontainersofcressinanunheatedoutsideareauntilspring.

WoodNettle(Laporteacanadensis)I’ve listed the scientific name so there’s no misunderstanding the plant I’mdescribing. Don’t confuse wood nettle with horse nettle. Horse nettle is anunrelatedplant,allthepartsofwhicharepoisonous.Woodnettleisaperennialplant usually found in moist woodlands in dappled shade. Wood nettle is amonoeciousherb thathasseparatemaleandfemaleflowerson thesameplant.Notonlywillwoodnettlesreseedthemselvesfromthefruitstheydevelopfromtheupperfemaleflowers,buttheywillalsospreadthroughtheirrootsystem.

Ifyouhaveanareaofyourlawnthatonlygetsacoupleofhoursofsundailybut is shaded the rest of the time, wood nettle can be an ideal solution formakingthatareaproductive.Ifyoucan’tfindwoodnettleseeds,stingingnettle

(Urticadioica)willworkjustaswellintheseconditionsandisjustastasty.Starttheseedsbystoringinthefreezerforsixweeksandthenplantingthem

inwell-wateredpeatpotsthreemonthsbeforelastfrost.Transplantataspacingofonefootintoyourbed.Waterthebedabouttwiceasoftenasyouwateryourotherbeds.

Eatingaplant thatwants to stingyouas self-defense is abit tricky.Woodnettle is coveredwith hairs, and some of those hairs are hypodermic syringesthat injectamixtureof formicacid,histamine,andacetylcholine,amongothercompounds.Formicacidandhistamineinparticularwillmakeitsting.Thejuiceofjewelweedwillcuretherash,butitisbestavoidedaltogetherbyhandlingthefreshplantwithheavygloves.Oncecollected,striptheleavesfromthestem,andsautéorsteamthem.Thecookingprocesssoftenstheneedlessotheycan’tstingandinactivates thechemicals.You’llbesurprisedathowdelicioustheyare,aswellasrichinvitaminsandminerals.

Woodnettlescanbegrowninbedsandarealsofoundinthewild.

Note:1 Lloyd, J. (1921) Origin and History of all the Pharmacopeial Vegetable Drugs, Chemicals andPreparationswithBibliography,p.270

IndexofRecipes

PickledAsparagus,22ButterLemonAsparagus,23Old-FashionedGreenBeans,31PickledBeets,38-39BakedCauliflower,48PickledCabbage,49CarrotsandParsnipPickles,58LemonDillCarrots,59CannedCorn,70FreshCornSalsa,70SesameCucumberSalad,80GreeneryBroth(abaseforsoups),90Down-HomeMustard,103MuskmelonIce,110WatermelonRindPickles,111DilledSaladOnions,123SesameSnowPeas,131PickledPeppers,141OvenFrenchFries,154-155BakedAcornSquash,167SummerSquashCasserole,167HomemadeKetchup,180

Oven-RoastedRadishes,190

AlphabeticalIndex

A

Aceticacid,141Acetylcholine,201Acidity,8,38Acrylamide,144Agribusiness,xii,xiv,64-66Alcohol,134,139Alfalfameal,7,11,19,64,

106,117,172Alternaria,46,150Aminoacids,10-11,117Ammoniumnitrate,7Ammoniumsulfate,7-8Amylopectin,145Amylose,145Anthraquinoneglycoside,199Antioxidants,17,34,41,85,

110,133,144,169Aphids,75-76,108,128-129,

138,148,162,172Arginine,105

Arsenic,19Arugula,84,88Asparagus,17-25,98,194,

198,200Asparagusaphids,20Asparagusbeetles,20-21Atherosclerosis,84,113Atlantic,42-43

B

Bvitamins,51,89,169Bacillussubtilis,78,108-

109,151Bacillusthuringiensis,

45,66Bacterialinoculants,27Bacterialleafspot,

135-136Bacterialwiltdisease,74,

76,78,108,162BakedCauliflower,48-49Bakingsoda,46,78,109,

160Basil,93-94Beanbeetles,28-29Beans,25-33Beer,85Beets,33-41Benignprostatichyperplasia,158Betacarotene,34,51

BlackCrowderCowpea,126

Blackleg,46,150Blackrot,46BlackSalsify,198BlackTurtle,DryBush,

27,30Black-eyedpeas,26Bloodmeal,7,19,64,106,172Blossomendrot,159,163,

171-172BlueLake,GreenPole,26Bonemeal,19,34,117,135Borage,94-95Borax,14,34,186Boron,6,12-14,42-43,

146,186Botrytis,4,20,119-120Botulism,97,180BPH,158Broccoli,x,xii,5,14,

41-49,65,87,119,184,187,188,199,

Bt,45Bull’sBlood,34ButterLemonAsparagus,

23

C

Cabbage,41-49,84-85,99,

151,184,186-188,194Cabbageloopers,44-45Cabbagemaggots,186Cabbagerootmaggots,

45,187Caffeine,85Calcium,89,121,163,

171,184Calciumchloride,9Cancer,41,84,87-88,105,

113,158,169,177,184,200

Cantaloupes,106-107Capsaicin,133-134,139Carbofuran,149Carbon,89Carbondioxide,69Carrionbeetles,35Carrotflies,55-56Carrots,51-59,74,86,

100,125,131,149,Casaba,106Cauliflower,41-49CertifiedSeedPotatoes,

146-147,153Chantenay,52Chard,83,84,159Cheese,xviCheesecloth,178Cherrytomatoes,170,177Chervil,84,89

Chives,95,196Chlorpicrin,149Cholesterol,177Chromium,12Cilantro,70-71,95-96Citricacid,98,179Citrulluslanatus,106,Clickbeetles,55Clubroot,45,187,194Cobalt,12Coffeegrounds,85,Coloradopotatobeetles,

148-149Compost,4-5,10-15,

19-21,27,34,42,45,52,57,64,66,74,84,106,116,119-121,126,129,135,138-139,146,150,152,159,163,171-172,174,186,187,194-197

Composting,4-5,10-15,28,46,76,128,162

Copper,6,12-13,136,151,161-162,183-184

Coppersulfate,161Coriander,70,95,141Corn,61-72Cornearworm,65-66Cornsalad,83,86Coronaryarterydisease,

33Crenshaw,106Cress,83,88,201Croprotation,xv,4,

11-12,15,27,29,44,54,76,77,85,119,121,128,136,138,148,150,151,161,171,174-175,187,193

Crossbreeding,47-48Crowns,18-19,21,45,Cucumberbeetles,74-78,

108,160-162Cucumbermosaic,162Cucumbers,73-81,95,

106-108,162-163Cucumismelo,106Cucumismelovar.cantalupensis,106Cucumismelovar.inodorus,106Cucumismelovar.reticulates,106Cucurbitamaxima,157,164Cucurbitamixta,157,164Cucurbitamoschata,157,

164Cucurbitapepo,157,164Cutworm,128-129,148,

172

D

Danvers,52

Dentcorn,62,69Desiccant,37,79,110,

140,154,165,178,189Determinatetomatoes,

170-171,175-176Detoxification,184Dill,22,31,59,93,94,96,

123Dioecious,18Dolomiticlime,6,9-10Double-boiler,189Double-digging,15,19Downymildew,46Drybeans,26,29-31

E

Earlyblight,150-151EarlyJerseyWakefield,42EarlyWonder,34Earwigs,42,45Elementalsulfur,7,10Endive,84,88Enzymes,10,143,184Epsomsalt,9-10,135Ethylenegas,165,177Experts,144

F

Feces,146Fennel,96

Fermentation,48,178Fiber,41,52,73,88,125,

133,143,158,183Fibrinolytic,113Fishfertilizer,43Flameweeder,54Flameweeding,20,128Fleabeetles,48,172,174Flintcorn,62,67Floatingrowcovers,108Flourcorn,62Flowersofsulfur,7Fluorine,12-13Folate,33,51,73,87-90,

183-184Folicacid,17,158Fungicide,77,108Fusarium,128,174-175

G

Garlic,22-23,49,97-98,102-103,141,162,180-

181,190,196-197Geneticdiversity,146,188Geneticmodification,26Geneticallyengineered,

61-62Germination,27,34-35,

52-55,64,86,98,101,140,147,161,165,178,

186-187,200Glycemicindex,144Glycinebetaine,33GoldenAcre,42GoodKingHenry,198Grassclippings,107,

159-160GreenMachine,106Greenshoulders,53Greens,33,36-37,39,48,

83-87,91,99,183-184,186,188-190

Greensand,11,117,186Groundnut,197-198

H

Hale’sBest,106Heirloom,62,115,153,

178,184Henderson’s,BushLima,

27Herbalvinegars,101Herbicideresistance,26Herbs,93-104Homocysteine,33Honeydew,76,105-106,

173Hornworms,172Hydrogen,8

I

Imidacloprid,149Imperator,52Inbreedingdepression,37,

57,68,153,188Indeterminate,170-171,

175-176Indeterminatetomatoes,

xv,171,175-176Inoculant,27-28,107,

126-127Insecticidalsoap,20,29,

76,108Intermediate-day,114-115Interveinalchlorosis,9Iodine,12Iron,6,12-13,33,158,

186,189Isothiocyanate,184

J

Jacob’sCattle,DryBush,27

Japanesebeetletraps,28,65

Japanesebeetles,28,65,128

Jerusalemartichokes,149,197-198

Jewelweed,201

K

Kelp,11,13,195KentuckyWonder,GreenPole,26

L

Lacticacid,48Ladybugs,20,29Larvae,20-21,44-45,55,

76,108,121,138,148-149,162-163,187

Lateblight,145,150-151,174

LDLcholesterol,177Leafminers,35,75-76Leafhoppers,35Lecithin,66Lemonbalm,98Lettuce,65,74,83-84,87,

89-91,159Lime,5-10,19,44-45,64,

110,117,121,146,161,200

Liquidfishfertilizer,10,12

Lodging,67Long-day,114-115Lovage,94,98

Lutein,34Lycopene,105,169

M

Macronutrients,6,8,116,135,146

Magnesium,6,8-10,12,33,135,

Manganese,12-13,33,51,158,184

Marjoram,98,100Melons,73,105-11,162Mesclun,84,88-89Methylbromide,149Micronutrients,xii,11-14,

52,64,126,146,194-195,197

Microorganisms,5,8,10,43,98

Milk,68,139,160Milkysporedisease,28,65Miner’slettuce,83-84,87Minerals,11-14,17,19,

33,41,74,84,87-88,121,158,169,183,186,200-201

MiniFarming:SelfSufficiencyon¼Acre,xvMint,93,99-100Molybdenum,12-13,73MoonandStars,106

Mosaic,138,162MosaicVirus,46,106,

138,161,174-175Moth,44,65,162-163Mulch,4,20,36,55,77,

97,107,119,121,160,188,196

Mulching,20,107,119,197

Muskmelons,107-110Mustard,22,43,83-84,87,99,102-103,149,174,181,188

N

Nantes,52Neem,29,36,45,108,161Newpotatoes,145,152,

154Niacin,33,158,183Nickel,12Nitricoxidesynthesis,105Nitrogen,5,8-9,11-12,

25,27,30,43,52,64,84-85,106-107,116-117,121,125,127,171-172,195

NormalSugary,62NPK,74,106Nuclearpolyhedrosis

virus,45

O

Oceanminerals,13Old-FashionedGreenBeans,31Omega-3,84-85,158,183Omega-3fattyacids,

84-85,158,Omega-6,183Onionmaggots,121Onions,38-39,49,97,

102,113-123,125,131,149,159,174,180,181,196-197

Orache,83-84Oregano,93,98,100,Outbreeding,64,68,153,

188,Oxalicacid,37,88,199,200Oxygen,4,8,68-69,98Oysterplant,198

P

Pancreaticcancer,169Pantothenicacid,33,158Parsley,55,89,93,100-101Parsnips,51-59,149Pathogen,175Pattypan,157,159,164,

167Peas,26,125-131Pectin,145Pelletedlime,6Peppermaggots,138Peppers,11,133-141Perennialbroccoli,161,

174,181Permaculture,193-201PH,5-11,15,19,27,34,

42,44-45,52,63-64,74,106,117-118,126,135,146,152,159,171,179,186-187,194

Phosphorus,4-5,8-10,12,27,52,64,116-117,158,195

PickledAsparagus,22PickledCabbage,49Pickling,18,21-22,38-39,

49,74-75,87,111,116,123,141

Pinkroot,119-120Poisonous,17,21,88,138,

144,152-153,172,177,199,201

Pollen,36,64-65,139,178,189

Pollinated,xiii,18,57,62-68,110,134,139,178

Popcorn,62Potassium,6-12,27,

51-52,64,116-118,143,179,183,195

Potassiumsorbate,179Potatoonions,196Potatoes,5,11,14,55,95,

138,143-155,171,174,190

Powderedlime,6,117Powderymildew,77-79,

106,108,109,128,158,160

Presprouting,127,197Presproutingweeds,127,

197Pressurecanning,21,31,

37-38,70,179Pressuretreatedwood,19Protein,125,198PruningTomatoes,175Pumpkinseeds,158Purslane,83-86,90Pyrenochaetaterrestris,

120Pyrethrins,162Pyridoxine,33

Q

QueenAnne’slace,57

R

Radishes,183-191RaisedBeds,4,8,15,18,

44,55,74,84,106,120,137,147,150,159,177,194,

Recessive,62,133-134Resistantstarch,143-144Rhubarb,199-200Rockphosphate,10-11Root-knotnematodes,

138,172,174Rosemary,93,94,101,Rotenone,28,36,45,65,

108,121,149,162Rutabagas,xi,183-191

S

Sage,93,101,102,194Salsify,198Scab,145-147,150,152Sclerotina,29Scorzonera,198-199ScovilleHeatUnits,134SeaEnergyAgriculture,

13Seakale,194,200Seamineral,64Seedpretreatment,136

Selenium,12Self-pollinate,139,178,

188Shelledgardenpeas,126Shelling,67-68Short-day,114-115Silica,37,47,73,79,140Silicagel,37,47,79,140Slottedspoon,189Slugs,4,85,128,138,Sodiumbicarbonate,78,

109Soiltemperatures,4,

10-12,27,34,53,126,149,187

Solanine,144,152-153Solarization,118,121Sootymold,173Sorrel,84,88Soy,25,80,131,190-191Spacing,4,53,64,84,

86-90,94-96,99-102,114,172,197,201

Spinach,83-84,87,89-90,198,

Spinosad,29,66,149,Splitpeas,126,130-131Squash,xii,xv,73,75-76,

106,109,157-167Squashbugs,75,162-163Squashvineborers,75,

162Stirruphoe,44,65,128,

136,160,196-197Straw,4,20,36,97,119,

196Strontium,12-13Sugar,22,39,49,52,58,

62-63,67-68,106,110-111,123,126-127,129-131,141,144,167,175,180-181

Sugarsnap,126-127,129-131

Sugarbaby,106SugaryEnhanced,62,63Sulfur,7-8,10,12,117,174Sulfurcoatedurea,7Summersquash,157-158,

160,163-165,167Supersweet,62Surround,55,108,129,Sweetcorn,62-63,67-70,

165,Symbiotic,4,127

T

Tarragon,101-102Thermometer,53,136-137Thermophilically,152Thiamine,183

Thrips,120-121Thyme,93-94,102-103,

194Tobacco,10-11,138,144,

174-175Tomatine,177Tomatohornworms,95,

173Tomatorussetmite,174Tomatoes,x,xii,5,11,18,

65,70,73,95,138,150-151,167,169-181

TopCrop,GreenBush,27Traceminerals,11,19,74,

84,121,186,200Trellis,xv,28,74-76,107,

126-127,151,159-160,170-171,175

Truebotanicalseed,146-147Truepotatoseed,153Trueseed,144,146-147,

153Turnips,183-190

U

Umbel,57-58Urea,172USDAGermplasmRepository,153

V

Verticillium,145,174-175Vidalia,115,117Vinegar,22,38,48-49,58,

97,102-103,111,122-123,141,180-181

VitaminA,73,87,89,133,183

VitaminB1,158VitaminB6,133,143,158,VitaminC,34,51,73,87,

89,122,125,133,143,158,183-184

VitaminE,51,184VitaminK,33,51,87,89,

90,125,183,Vitamins,12,17,33,41,

51,84-89,105,110,169,200-201

W

Waltham29,42Watercress,83,88,200Waterlogged,8,18,44,

137,Watermelon,105-111Weeds,4,19-20,28-29,35,

43-46,53-56,65,75,107-108,118,127-128,

135-138,147,150,159-160,172,187,195-197

Wetfeet,18,137Whiteflies,172-173Wine,103,170,179Winevinegar,103Winnowing,30,37,58,

87,189Wintersquash,xv,157-

160,163-165Wireworms,4,54-56,128,

148-150Woodash,19,195Woodashes,6,11,14,34,

52,56,117,186Woodnettle,201

Z

Zeaxanthin,34,Zinc,12-13,158Zucchini,157-159,164,

167