Method of data collectionMethod of data collection

Islamic University – Nursing CollegeIslamic University – Nursing College

IntroductionIntroduction

The data collection methods used by The data collection methods used by researchers need to be objective and systematic.researchers need to be objective and systematic.

ObjectiveObjective::

The data must not be influenced by The data must not be influenced by anyone who collects the information.anyone who collects the information.

SystematicSystematic::

The data must be collected in the same The data must be collected in the same way by everyone who is involved in the way by everyone who is involved in the collection procedure.collection procedure.

OperationlizationOperationlization::Is the process of translating the concepts of Is the process of translating the concepts of

interest into a researcher to observable and interest into a researcher to observable and measurable phenomena.measurable phenomena.

N.B:N.B: There may be a number of ways to collect There may be a number of ways to collect the same information.the same information.

Example:Example:Measuring anxiety by measuring Measuring anxiety by measuring sweat glandsweat gland activity or by administering an activity or by administering an anxiety scaleanxiety scale..

The success of the study depends to a large extent The success of the study depends to a large extent on the quality of the data collection methods chosen on the quality of the data collection methods chosen and employed.and employed.

There are many types of methods for collecting There are many types of methods for collecting information.information.

Determining what measurement to use in a Determining what measurement to use in a particular investigation may be the most difficult and particular investigation may be the most difficult and time consuming period in study design.time consuming period in study design.

Measuring Variables of InterestMeasuring Variables of Interest

The method of The method of data collectiondata collection must be must be appropriateappropriate

to the to the problemproblem, the , the hypothesishypothesis the the settingsetting, and the , and the

populationpopulation..

Selection of the data collection method begin during Selection of the data collection method begin during

the the literature reviewliterature review. The researcher begins to . The researcher begins to

explore how pervious investigators defined and explore how pervious investigators defined and

operationalized variables similar to those of interest operationalized variables similar to those of interest

in the current study.in the current study.

OperationalOperational definition definition translatestranslates the conceptual the conceptual definition in to behaviors or verbalizations that definition in to behaviors or verbalizations that can be can be measuredmeasured for the study. for the study.

The construction of new instruments for data The construction of new instruments for data collection that have reasonable collection that have reasonable reliabilityreliability and and validityvalidity is the most difficult task. is the most difficult task.

ConsistencyConsistency means that the data are collected means that the data are collected from each subject in the study in from each subject in the study in exactlyexactly the the samesame way or as close to the same way as way or as close to the same way as possible. It can possible. It can minimizeminimize the the biasbias introduced introduced when more than one person collects the data.when more than one person collects the data.

Inter-rater reliability Inter-rater reliability is the consistency of is the consistency of

observations between observations between two or more observerstwo or more observers, ,

it often is expressed as a percentage of it often is expressed as a percentage of

agreement among raters or observers or a agreement among raters or observers or a

coefficient of agreement that considers the coefficient of agreement that considers the

element of chance (coefficient Kappa).element of chance (coefficient Kappa).

Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods

Physiological.Physiological.

Observational.Observational.

Interviews.Interviews.

Questionnaires.Questionnaires.

Records or available data.Records or available data.

Physiological and biological Physiological and biological measurements involve the use of measurements involve the use of specialized specialized equipmentequipment to determine to determine physical and biological status of subjects.physical and biological status of subjects.

Such measures require specialized Such measures require specialized training.training.

Such measures can be :Such measures can be :1.1. Physical such as weight or temperature. Physical such as weight or temperature. 2.2. Chemical such as blood glucose level.Chemical such as blood glucose level.3.3. Microbiological as with cultures.Microbiological as with cultures.4.4. Anatomical as in radiological examinations. Anatomical as in radiological examinations.

Physiological data collectionPhysiological data collection

These measurements require special equipment to These measurements require special equipment to

make the observation.make the observation.

Example: Measuring temperature by a thermometer.Example: Measuring temperature by a thermometer.

These measurements needs careful standardization These measurements needs careful standardization

of the procedures so that the instruments were all of the procedures so that the instruments were all

used in the same way.used in the same way.

It is important for determining the effectiveness of It is important for determining the effectiveness of

certain nursing action.certain nursing action.

1.1. Objectivity. Objectivity.

2.2. Precision. (accuracy) Precision. (accuracy)

3.3. Sensitivity. Sensitivity.

Advantages of using physiologicalAdvantages of using physiological data collection methods includedata collection methods include::

1.1. Some instruments may be quite expensive Some instruments may be quite expensive to obtained.to obtained.

2.2. Often require specialized knowledge and Often require specialized knowledge and training to be used accurately.training to be used accurately.

3.3. Just by using them, the variable of interest Just by using them, the variable of interest may be changed.may be changed.

4.4. The presence of some types of devices The presence of some types of devices might change the measurement.might change the measurement.

Example: the presence of a heart rate monitoring device might Example: the presence of a heart rate monitoring device might make some patients anxious and increase their heart rate.make some patients anxious and increase their heart rate.

Disadvantages of using physiological Disadvantages of using physiological data collection methods includedata collection methods include::

5.5. Nearly all types of measuring devices Nearly all types of measuring devices

are affected in some way by the are affected in some way by the

environment.environment.

6.6. There may not be a physiological way to There may not be a physiological way to

measure the variable of interest.measure the variable of interest.

7.7. If the device does not really measure If the device does not really measure

the phenomenon of interest, the validity the phenomenon of interest, the validity

of its use is suspect.of its use is suspect.

Sometime nurse researchers are interested Sometime nurse researchers are interested

in determining how subjects behave under in determining how subjects behave under

certain conditions.certain conditions.

Observation is not merely looking at what is Observation is not merely looking at what is

happening, but rather is watching with a happening, but rather is watching with a

trained eye for certain specific events.trained eye for certain specific events.

Observational MethodsObservational Methods

1.1. Consistent with the studies specific Consistent with the studies specific objectives.objectives.

2.2. There is a standardized and systematic There is a standardized and systematic plan for the observation and the plan for the observation and the recording of data.recording of data.

3.3. All of the observation are checked and All of the observation are checked and controlled.controlled.

4.4. The observations are related to scientific The observations are related to scientific concepts and theories.concepts and theories.

Observational must fulfill the Observational must fulfill the followingfollowing::

Nursing process.Nursing process.

Parent-child interaction.Parent-child interaction.

Verbal & nonverbal communication behaviors.Verbal & nonverbal communication behaviors.

Activities and skill attainment.Activities and skill attainment.

Environmental characteristicsEnvironmental characteristics

Description of sleep….etc.Description of sleep….etc.

Observation is suitable when Observation is suitable when dealing withdealing with::

1.1. Concealment Concealment withoutwithout intervention. intervention.

2.2. Concealment Concealment withwith intervention. intervention.

3.3. No concealment No concealment withoutwithout intervention. intervention.

4.4. No concealment No concealment withwith intervention. intervention.

Types of observational roles in researchTypes of observational roles in research::

Types of observational roles in research.Types of observational roles in research.

ConcealmentConcealment

YesYes NoNoInterventionIntervention

YesYesResearcher Researcher

hidden some hidden some interventionintervention

Researcher Researcher openopen

Some Some interventionintervention

NoNoResearcher Researcher hidden no hidden no interventionintervention

Researcher Researcher open no open no

interventionintervention

It is used when a researcher is concerned that It is used when a researcher is concerned that

the the subjects behavior will change as a result of subjects behavior will change as a result of

being observedbeing observed. The researcher . The researcher watcheswatches the the

subjects subjects without their knowledgewithout their knowledge of the of the

observation but he does not provoke them into observation but he does not provoke them into

action. (Example: hidden television cameras).action. (Example: hidden television cameras).

It usually used in observational studies of It usually used in observational studies of

children ( developmental research). children ( developmental research).

1- Concealment without 1- Concealment without intervention:intervention:

It is used when the researcher It is used when the researcher

believed that by being open to believed that by being open to

the subjects, the subjects the subjects, the subjects

behavior would change.behavior would change.

22 - -Concealment with Concealment with interventionintervention::

It this case the researcher obtains informed consent It this case the researcher obtains informed consent

from the subjects to be observed and then simply from the subjects to be observed and then simply

observes their behavior.observes their behavior.

The observer makes no attempt to change the The observer makes no attempt to change the

subjects. The problem with this type of observation subjects. The problem with this type of observation

is reactivity, is reactivity, HawthorneHawthorne effect occur when the effect occur when the

subject know that he observed and change his subject know that he observed and change his

behavior. behavior.

3- No Concealment without 3- No Concealment without intervention:intervention:

The researchers were not concealed The researchers were not concealed in their observations but they did in their observations but they did intervene with the subjects.intervene with the subjects.

It is employed when the researcher It is employed when the researcher is observing the effects of some is observing the effects of some intervention introduced for scientific intervention introduced for scientific purposes.purposes.

4- No Concealment with 4- No Concealment with intervention:intervention:

when observing subjects without their knowledge when observing subjects without their knowledge

you may violate assumption of informed consent. you may violate assumption of informed consent.

The problem is often handled by informing subjects The problem is often handled by informing subjects

after the observations and allowing them after the observations and allowing them

opportunity to refuse to have their data included in opportunity to refuse to have their data included in

the study and to discuss any question they might the study and to discuss any question they might

have.have.

DebriefingDebriefing

Observation may be:Observation may be:1.1. StructuredStructured

2.2. UnstructuredUnstructured

Structured and unstructured Structured and unstructured observations:observations:

Involve specifying in advance what behaviors or events are to Involve specifying in advance what behaviors or events are to

be observed.be observed.

Preparing Preparing formsforms for record keeping such as for record keeping such as categorization categorization

systemsystem, , checklistschecklists, and , and rating scale.rating scale.

The observer watches the subject and then marks on the The observer watches the subject and then marks on the

recording form what was seen.recording form what was seen.

The observations must be similar among the observers.The observations must be similar among the observers.

It is important that observers be trained to be consistent in It is important that observers be trained to be consistent in

their observations and ratings of behavior.their observations and ratings of behavior.

Structured ObservationsStructured Observations

Unstructured observational methods:Unstructured observational methods:

Are Are notnot characterized by a total absence of structure but characterized by a total absence of structure but

usually involve collecting descriptive information about the usually involve collecting descriptive information about the

topic of interest. such as participant observation and use of topic of interest. such as participant observation and use of

anecdotes).anecdotes).

Unstructured ObservationsUnstructured Observations

1.1. It may be the only way to study the variable of interest It may be the only way to study the variable of interest

(such as studying human behavior).(such as studying human behavior).

2.2. It may be the only way to ensure the validity of the findings.It may be the only way to ensure the validity of the findings.

3.3. No other data collection method can match the depth and No other data collection method can match the depth and

variety of information that can be collected when using variety of information that can be collected when using

these techniques.these techniques.

4.4. It is quit flexible in that it may be used in both experimental It is quit flexible in that it may be used in both experimental

and nonexperimental designs and in laboratory and field and nonexperimental designs and in laboratory and field

studies. studies.

Advantages of scientific observationAdvantages of scientific observation::

1.1. The problem of The problem of reactivityreactivity and and ethicalethical concerns. concerns.2.2. Data obtained by observational techniques are Data obtained by observational techniques are

vulnerablevulnerable to the to the biasbias of the observer. of the observer.3.3. Emotions, prejudices, and values all can influence Emotions, prejudices, and values all can influence

the way that behaviors and events are observed.the way that behaviors and events are observed.NB:NB: The more the observer needs to make inference and judgment about The more the observer needs to make inference and judgment about

what is being observed the more likely it is that distortions will occur.what is being observed the more likely it is that distortions will occur. It is important to consider how observational tools were constructed It is important to consider how observational tools were constructed

and how observers were trained and evaluated when judging the and how observers were trained and evaluated when judging the adequacy of observational methods.adequacy of observational methods.

Disadvantages of scientific observationDisadvantages of scientific observation::

Interviews:Interviews: Are a method of data collection where a data Are a method of data collection where a data

collector questions a subject verbally.collector questions a subject verbally. It may be It may be face to faceface to face or performed over the or performed over the

telephonetelephone.. It may consist of It may consist of open ended or closed ended open ended or closed ended

questions.questions.Questionnaires:Questionnaires:

Are paper & pencil instruments designed to Are paper & pencil instruments designed to

gather data from individuals about knowledge, gather data from individuals about knowledge,

attitudes, beliefs and feelings.attitudes, beliefs and feelings.

Interview and QuestionnairesInterview and QuestionnairesInterview and QuestionnairesInterview and Questionnaires

1.1. The content of the schedule.The content of the schedule.

2.2. The individual items which should be:The individual items which should be:A.A. Clearly written so that the intent of the question Clearly written so that the intent of the question

and nature of the information sought are clear to and nature of the information sought are clear to the respondent (through pilot test).the respondent (through pilot test).

B.B. Items must ask only one questions.Items must ask only one questions.

C.C. Be free of suggestions.Be free of suggestions.

D.D. Use correct grammar.Use correct grammar.

E.E. Items may be open – ended or closed ended. Items may be open – ended or closed ended.

3.3. Order of items.Order of items.

When evaluating an interview or questionnaire When evaluating an interview or questionnaire the reader should considerthe reader should consider::

When items of indirect interest are combined to obtain an When items of indirect interest are combined to obtain an

overall score, the measurement tool is called a scale.overall score, the measurement tool is called a scale.

Likert scales are Likert scales are lists of statementslists of statements on which on which

respondents indicate, for example whether they “respondents indicate, for example whether they “stronglystrongly

agree, “agree”, disagree” or “strongly disagree”agree, “agree”, disagree” or “strongly disagree” there there

may be a may be a neutralneutral category which sometimes creates category which sometimes creates

problems because it often is the most frequent response problems because it often is the most frequent response

and this response is and this response is difficult to interpretdifficult to interpret..

Fixed response items can be used for questions requiring Fixed response items can be used for questions requiring

yes or No responses.yes or No responses.

Likert ScalesLikert Scales

Fixed response items have the advantage of Fixed response items have the advantage of simplifying the respondents task and the simplifying the respondents task and the researchers analysis, but they may miss some researchers analysis, but they may miss some important information about the subjectimportant information about the subject

Interview and questionnaires commonly are used Interview and questionnaires commonly are used in nursing research.in nursing research.

Interview and questionnaires have the ability to Interview and questionnaires have the ability to obtain certain kinds of information, such as the obtain certain kinds of information, such as the subjects, attitudes and beliefs, that would be subjects, attitudes and beliefs, that would be difficult to obtain without asking the subject difficult to obtain without asking the subject directly.directly.

All methods that involve verbal reports, however All methods that involve verbal reports, however share a problem with accuracy.share a problem with accuracy.

Unstructured response format allow such information Unstructured response format allow such information

to be included, but require a special technique to to be included, but require a special technique to

analyze the responses (content analysis). analyze the responses (content analysis).

Because people are known to respond to questions in Because people are known to respond to questions in

a way that makes a favorable impression (social a way that makes a favorable impression (social

desirability), so the researcher usually is forced to desirability), so the researcher usually is forced to

assume that the respondent is telling the truth.assume that the respondent is telling the truth.

1.1. Questionnaires paper and pencil tests Questionnaires paper and pencil tests are most useful when there is a definite are most useful when there is a definite set of question to be asked.set of question to be asked.

2.2. They are desirable tools when the They are desirable tools when the purpose is to collect informationpurpose is to collect information

3.3. Less expensive than interviewsLess expensive than interviews4.4. Allow for complete anonymity.Allow for complete anonymity.5.5. No interviewer’s bias such as nod of the No interviewer’s bias such as nod of the

head of the researcher may affect the head of the researcher may affect the respondents’ responds.respondents’ responds.

Advantages of interviews and Advantages of interviews and questionnairesquestionnaires::

If questionnaires are too long , they If questionnaires are too long , they are not likely to be completed.are not likely to be completed.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of interviews and of interviews and questionnairesquestionnaires::

Are best used when the researcher may need to Are best used when the researcher may need to clarify the task for the respondent or is interested clarify the task for the respondent or is interested in obtaining more personal information from the in obtaining more personal information from the respondent.respondent.

Always higher response rate and this helps to Always higher response rate and this helps to eliminate bias.eliminate bias.

Telephone interviews allow the researcher to Telephone interviews allow the researcher to reach more respondents than face to face reach more respondents than face to face interviews, and they allow for more clarity than interviews, and they allow for more clarity than questionnaires.questionnaires.

Face to face techniques or interviews Face to face techniques or interviews AdvantagesAdvantages

It is suitable for children, blind and the It is suitable for children, blind and the

illiterate.illiterate.

It can clarify misunderstood questions.It can clarify misunderstood questions.

It has strict control over the order of It has strict control over the order of

questions.questions.

It allow for richer and more complex data It allow for richer and more complex data

to be collected.to be collected.

Using a combination of interview of Using a combination of interview of

questionnaires to study a problem (multiple questionnaires to study a problem (multiple

measures) gives a more complete picture measures) gives a more complete picture

that the use of just one measure.that the use of just one measure.

Choices between interview and Choices between interview and

questionnaires usually depends on what questionnaires usually depends on what

instruments are available and their relative instruments are available and their relative

costs and benefits.costs and benefits.

Records and available data are used Records and available data are used

when researchers are interested in when researchers are interested in

examining information in a new way to examining information in a new way to

study a problem.study a problem.

Records and available dataRecords and available data

Records or available data are forms of Records or available data are forms of

information that are collected from information that are collected from

existing materials, such as hospital existing materials, such as hospital

records, historical documents, or records, historical documents, or

videotapes and are used to answer videotapes and are used to answer

research questions in a new manner.research questions in a new manner.

Records or available dataRecords or available data

1.1. Saving time.Saving time.

2.2. Allows examination of trends over time.Allows examination of trends over time.

3.3. Decreases problems of reactivity and Decreases problems of reactivity and

response set bias.response set bias.

4.4. The researcher does not have to ask The researcher does not have to ask

individuals to participate in the study individuals to participate in the study

(consent ).(consent ).

Advantages of Records or available Advantages of Records or available datadata::

1.1. Institution are sometimes refuse to allow researchers to Institution are sometimes refuse to allow researchers to

have access to their records.have access to their records.

2.2. Individuals may be identified by records.Individuals may be identified by records.

3.3. The researcher has access only to those records that have The researcher has access only to those records that have

survived.survived.

4.4. If the records available are not representative of the If the records available are not representative of the

possible records, the researcher may have a problem with possible records, the researcher may have a problem with

bias.bias.

5.5. Records could be biased such as when studying Records could be biased such as when studying

socioeconomic factors associated with the suicide rate. socioeconomic factors associated with the suicide rate.

These data are frequently underreported because of the These data are frequently underreported because of the

stigma attached to suicide.stigma attached to suicide.

Disadvantages of Records or Disadvantages of Records or available dataavailable data::

1.1. Are all of the data collection instruments Are all of the data collection instruments clearly identified and described?clearly identified and described?

2.2. Is the rationale for their selection given?Is the rationale for their selection given?

3.3. Is the method used appropriate to the Is the method used appropriate to the problem being studied?problem being studied?

4.4. Is the method used appropriate to the Is the method used appropriate to the clinical situation?clinical situation?

5.5. Are the data collection procedures similar for Are the data collection procedures similar for all subject?all subject?

Critiquing criteriaCritiquing criteria

1.1. Is the instrument used appropriate to the Is the instrument used appropriate to the research problem and not forced to fit it?research problem and not forced to fit it?

2.2. Is a rationale given for why a particular Is a rationale given for why a particular instrument was selected?instrument was selected?

3.3. Is there a provision for evaluating the Is there a provision for evaluating the accuracy of the instrument and those who accuracy of the instrument and those who use it?use it?

Physiological measurementPhysiological measurement

1.1. Who did the observing ?Who did the observing ?2.2. Were the observers trained to minimize any Were the observers trained to minimize any

bias?bias?3.3. Was there an observational guide?Was there an observational guide?4.4. Were the observers required to make inference Were the observers required to make inference

about what they saw?about what they saw?5.5. Is there any reason to believe that the Is there any reason to believe that the

presence of the observers affected the presence of the observers affected the behavior of the subject?behavior of the subject?

6.6. Were the observations performed using the Were the observations performed using the principles of informed consent?principles of informed consent?

Observational MethodsObservational Methods

1.1. Is the interview schedule described Is the interview schedule described adequately enough to know whether it adequately enough to know whether it covers the subject?covers the subject?

2.2. Is there clear indication that the subjects Is there clear indication that the subjects understood the task and the question?understood the task and the question?

3.3. Who were the interviewers, and how were Who were the interviewers, and how were they trained?they trained?

4.4. Is there evidence of any interviewer bias?Is there evidence of any interviewer bias?

InterviewsInterviews

1.1. Is the questionnaire described well enough Is the questionnaire described well enough to know whether it covers the subject?to know whether it covers the subject?

2.2. is there evidence that subjects were able to is there evidence that subjects were able to perform the task?perform the task?

3.3. Is there clear indication that the subjects Is there clear indication that the subjects understood the questionnaire?understood the questionnaire?

4.4. Are the majority of the items appropriately Are the majority of the items appropriately close- or open-ended?close- or open-ended?

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

1.1. Are the records that were used appropriate to Are the records that were used appropriate to the problem being studied?the problem being studied?

2.2. Are the data examined in such a way as to Are the data examined in such a way as to provide new information and not summarize provide new information and not summarize the records?the records?

3.3. Has the author addressed questions of internal Has the author addressed questions of internal and external criticism?and external criticism?

4.4. Is there any indication of selection bias in the Is there any indication of selection bias in the available records?available records?

Available data and Available data and recordsrecords::