Memory

Chapter 9

Name the Seven Dwarves

Take out a piece of paper

Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.

Turn your paper over.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Difficulty of TaskWas the exercise easy or difficult?

It depends on what factors?

Whether you like Disney movies

How long ago you watched the movie

How loud the people are around you when you are trying to

remember

MemoryMemory

As you might have guessed, the next topic we are going to examine is…….

Memory• When it comes to memory we will be

focusing on one central question.– What causes us to remember what we What causes us to remember what we

remember and to forget what we remember and to forget what we forget??forget??

– Why do I remember my 13th birthday party or the girl I had a crush on in fifth grade, but I do not remember the name of that one teacher down the hall?

Lets start with the Lets start with the definition of memorydefinition of memory

MemoryMemory The ability of the brain to The ability of the brain to

store, retain, and then recall store, retain, and then recall informationinformation

Learning that has persisted Learning that has persisted over timeover time

The Memory process

•Storage•Retrieval/Recall

•Encoding

Storage• The creation of a permanent record of the encoded

information – storing or maintaining– Saving your project on your computer

Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

Retrieval• The calling back of the stored information

or getting information out of memory so you can use it

Finding your document or project and opening it up.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

Encoding• The process of getting information inside

of your head – processing information into your memory

system– Think of encoding like typing a project on

your computer

Typing info into a computer

Getting a guys name at a party

EncodingEncodingThe process in which you move the raw The process in which you move the raw

material or stuff that you will material or stuff that you will ultimately remember, into your ultimately remember, into your memorymemory

Two Different Ways of encoding you Two Different Ways of encoding you should knowshould know

#1 Automatic Processing#1 Automatic Processing Unconscious Encoding of incidental Unconscious Encoding of incidental

informationinformation Not having to think or even try to put this Not having to think or even try to put this

information into your headinformation into your head You encode space (like things on a page)You encode space (like things on a page) Time (sequence of days events)Time (sequence of days events) Well learned information (words in your native Well learned information (words in your native

language)language) Remembering you ate lunch yesterday even Remembering you ate lunch yesterday even

though you didn’t try to remember this though you didn’t try to remember this informationinformation

#2 Effortful Processing#2 Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and Encoding that requires attention and conscious effortconscious effort Working to remember what you wrote Working to remember what you wrote

in your notesin your notes Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful

becomes automaticbecomes automatic

Encoding

EffortfulAutomatic

Where you Where you ate ate

yesterdayyesterday

This unit’s This unit’s conceptsconcepts

How do we Encode How do we Encode Information?Information? Structural (Visual) EncodingStructural (Visual) Encoding

Encoding by forming a mental pictureEncoding by forming a mental picture Emphasizes the physical structure of the itemEmphasizes the physical structure of the item

Remembering what a word looks like – capitals or Remembering what a word looks like – capitals or notnot

Phonemic (Acoustical) EncodingPhonemic (Acoustical) Encoding Encoding by soundEncoding by sound Remembering the sound of a wordRemembering the sound of a word

-- rhyme or not-- rhyme or not Semantic (Meaning) EncodingSemantic (Meaning) Encoding

Encoding by meaningEncoding by meaning Remembering or focusing on the Remembering or focusing on the

meaning of wordsmeaning of words

Which type works Which type works best?best?

Shallow ProcessingShallow Processing Deep ProcessingDeep ProcessingVSVS

How can you become a better Encoder??

•Tools to help you put stuff into your head better so you can remember it longer

•Some of you should really pay attention here!!

Rehearsing and Over learningRehearsing and Over learning ““practice makes perfect”practice makes perfect”

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect First and last items are easier encoded so First and last items are easier encoded so

spend extra time with things in the spend extra time with things in the middlemiddle

Spacing EffectSpacing Effect Spreading out encoding will allow you to Spreading out encoding will allow you to

retain more than cramming informationretain more than cramming information Distributed practice vs. massed practiceDistributed practice vs. massed practice

Self-Reference Effect (Deep Self-Reference Effect (Deep Processing)Processing) Provide meaning to what you want to encode Provide meaning to what you want to encode

by making it relevant to your life and context by making it relevant to your life and context you are in you are in

Visual ImageryVisual Imagery Link what you want to encode to a mental Link what you want to encode to a mental

image, story, or pictureimage, story, or picture

Method of Loci (also called memory palace)Method of Loci (also called memory palace)• People picture themselves walking through a People picture themselves walking through a

familiar place, noting items as they gofamiliar place, noting items as they go• Repeat walk to rememberRepeat walk to remember

Peg Word MethodPeg Word Method• Remember a rhyme that associates numbers with Remember a rhyme that associates numbers with

wordswords

one bun (Article I - Legislative) one bun (Article I - Legislative) two shoe (Article II – Executive)two shoe (Article II – Executive) three tree(Article III - Judicial) three tree(Article III - Judicial) four door (Article IV – Relations Among four door (Article IV – Relations Among

States)States) five bee hive (Article V – Amending the five bee hive (Article V – Amending the

Cons)Cons) six sticks (Article VI – Federalism)six sticks (Article VI – Federalism) seven heaven (Article VII – Ratification)seven heaven (Article VII – Ratification)

Remembering the Articles of Confederation….

Peg Word System Peg Word System

Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices Use a memory trickUse a memory trick ROYGBIVROYGBIV Tying a ribbon on your fingerTying a ribbon on your finger ““I before e, except after c”I before e, except after c” Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

ChunkingChunking Organizing information into meaningful Organizing information into meaningful

groups vs. random informationgroups vs. random information

Minimize InterferenceMinimize Interference Go to sleep after learning something to Go to sleep after learning something to

prevent learning newer materialprevent learning newer material

Things to remember about Encoding

• The next-In-Line effect: The next-In-Line effect: • we seldom remember what the

person has just said or done if we are next.

• Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it.

Storage

How we retain or keep the information we have encode over

time??

Three Box Model of Memory (or three stage modelthree stage model)• Basically says memory storage is broken down into

three memory systems based on durationduration or lengthlength of memory retention

#1 Sensory Memory#1 Sensory Memory• Stores incoming sensory information (smells, smells,

sights, noises, things we touchsights, noises, things we touch) in detail but only for an instance

• Lasts Milliseconds to secondsLasts Milliseconds to seconds– Most of what we sense we forget almost immediatelyMost of what we sense we forget almost immediately– If it is not important we don’t encode and store it

• Iconic MemoryIconic Memory– VisualVisual sensory memory – (a split second perfect photograph of a scene)

• Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory– AuditoryAuditory sensory memory – (a split second memory for sounds)

#2 Short-term Memory#2 Short-term Memory• The conscious, activated memory that

contains information you are aware of at any point in time – Also can be called working memoryworking memory

– Can last seconds to minutes

• There is a limitedlimited capacity and duration– The average stmstm can only fit 7 units – (that is why phone numbers are 7 digits long)(that is why phone numbers are 7 digits long)

• Can be increased by chunking

Storage and Short-Term Memory

• Can store 7 (plus or minus two) chunks of information.

• George Miller– “The Magic Number 7+-

2”

• Simon– “We can only chunk

groups of three”

Breaking Through the Magic 7 Barrier

•Row 1: 6293•Row 2: 73932•Row 3: 835405•Row 4: 3820961•Row 5: 18294624•Row 6: 9284619384•Row 7: 1992199319941995

#3 Long-term Memory#3 Long-term Memory• The relatively permanent storehouse of memoriesThe relatively permanent storehouse of memories• Can last days to years (sometimes a lifetime)Can last days to years (sometimes a lifetime)

• ConsolidationConsolidation– The process of converting stm into ltmThe process of converting stm into ltm

• Two TypesTwo Types– Flashbulb memoryFlashbulb memory

• A vivid clear memory of an emotionally significant A vivid clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event – 911moment or event – 911

– Photographic memoryPhotographic memory• It is just a really good memoryIt is just a really good memory• VERYVERY few people have this few people have this• True photographic memory is someone who can see a list of True photographic memory is someone who can see a list of

70 digits for less than a minute and recite them forward and 70 digits for less than a minute and recite them forward and backwards and remember them up to 15 years later!!!!backwards and remember them up to 15 years later!!!!

Storage and Long-Term Memory• We have yet to find the limit of

our long-term memory.

• For example, Rajan was able to recite 31,811 digits of pi.

• At 5 years old, Rajan would memorize the license plates of all of his parents’ guests (about 75 cars in ten minutes). He still remembers the plate numbers to this day.

How does our brain store long-term memories?

• Memories do NOT reside in single specific spots of our brain.

•Seems the hippocampushippocampus is the essential part of the brain for memories•But visual memories may be stored in the visual

cortex

RetrievalRetrieval

How do we recall the information we thought we remembered and stored?

Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!

The getting of information and memories out of our heads

Recall versus RecognitionI probably cannot recall the Smurfs,

but can I recognize them?

Clumsy Smurf or Inept Smurf

Papa Smurf or Daddy Smurf

Lazy Smurf or Lethargic Smurf

Practical Smurf or Handy Smurf

Intellectual Smurf or Brainy Smurf

• RecallRecall– Remembering without any external cues – The retrieving of information you learned

earlier – What we usually think of as memory– Fill in the blank tests, short answer, essay

• RecognitionRecognition– The process of identifying information

using external cuesexternal cues– Multiple choice and matching test

questions

Recall vs Recognition

• Celebrity Yearbook Photos

Memory is often triggered by… Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

• Things that help us remember.– Pictures, smells, touches– Smell is usually the strongest

•We often use a process called primingpriming

•the activation of associations in our memory to help us retrieve information.•Recalling a particular word or memory becomes easier if another related word is recalled first•Example – thinking of me may help you

remember a psychology concept or term

Not Clues!!Not Clues!!

•How do our physical condition and mood affect our ability to

retrieve memories??

The Pollyanna The Pollyanna PrinciplePrinciple

Stress and Memory

• Stress can lead to the release of hormones that have been shown to assist in LTM.– i.e. adrenaline

– Similar to the idea of Flashbulb Memory.

State-dependent memory• Retrieval is best when the

retrieval state is the same as the encoding state

– If you are tired when encoding, retrieval will be best when you are also tired

– If you study on your favorite chair at home, you will probably score higher if you also took the test on that chair.

Mood-Congruent Memory• The tendency to recall experiences

that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

• If you are depressed, you will more likely recall sad memories from you past.

Types of Long Term MemoriesTypes of Long Term Memories

Declarative Memories Declarative Memories Vs.Vs.

Non-Declarative MemoriesNon-Declarative Memoriesandand

ProspectiveProspectiveVs.Vs.

Retrospective MemoryRetrospective Memory

Declarative Memories• Also called explicit memoriesexplicit memories

– The memories that relate to facts and take effort to recall

• Two typesTwo types– Semantic MemorySemantic Memory

• Memory of facts and general information• State capitals or rules of a game

– Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory• Memories of specific events – personal memories• Think of this like episodes of your life, like

remembering your 16th birthday

Non-declarative MemoriesNon-declarative Memories• Also called Also called implicit memoriesimplicit memories

– Unintentional memories Unintentional memories • that we might not even realize we have and do that we might not even realize we have and do

not take conscious thinking to recallnot take conscious thinking to recall

– Processed all over the brainProcessed all over the brain

• 2 Types2 Types– Procedural MemoriesProcedural Memories

• Memories of skills and how to perform themMemories of skills and how to perform them• Riding a bike or driving a carRiding a bike or driving a car

– Classically condition MemoriesClassically condition Memories• Jumping when you hear the toilet flushJumping when you hear the toilet flush

Prospective vs. Retrospective Memory

• Prospective Memory– Remembering to perform actions in the future– Remembering to take the trash out or walk

the dog, or to call someone– Those who appear bad at prospective memory

are often characterized as “absent minded”

• Retrospective Memory– Remembering events from the past or

previously learned information– Trying to remember what was said in your last

class

PRIMING EFFECT

• Priming effect occurs when people respond faster or better to an item if a similar item preceded it. – Example - - table - chair

•For the most part, the priming effect is considered involuntary and is most likely an unconscious phenomenon.

Priming

Constructing Fake Constructing Fake Memories and Memories and

Forgetting Real OnesForgetting Real Ones

Forgetting and Distortions of Memory

• In the 80’s and 90’s “recovered memories” were big headlines.

• Individuals of all ages were claiming to suddenly remember events that had been “repressed” and forgotten for years.

• Often these memories were of abuse. • Sometimes these recovered memories

were corroborated with physical evidence and justice was served.

• Other times they were discovered to be fabricated or constructed memoriesconstructed memories

Constructed memory• A memory or recollection

of an event that is false or contains false details that never actually occurred – Theory that holds that

memory is not a replica of the past but a representation, or reconstructionreconstruction, of the past

– Reconstruction can lead to distorted memories of events and experiences

Elizabeth Loftus Famous Memory researcher Famous Memory researcher showed that leading questions can showed that leading questions can

easily influence us to recall false easily influence us to recall false details details

questioners can create entirely new questioners can create entirely new memory by repeatedly asking memory by repeatedly asking leading questionsleading questions Especially true in childrenEspecially true in childrenManufacturing MemoriesManufacturing Memories

Why Do We Forget??Why Do We Forget??It is inevitable we all will forget things…but why and how much?

•Retention– The proportion of learned information that is

retained or remembered– The flip side of forgetting

Forgetting as an Encoding Failure

• Forgetting is often a problem with how information was encoded

• You sometimes haven’t forgotten information– The information was actually never

encoded in your memory or not encoded at a deep enough level

– It never has a chance to enter our LTM.– Sometimes called pseudoforgetting

Encoding Failure

Forgetting as a Storage FailureForgetting as a Storage Failure• Memories, even saved ones, can decay

over time

– Decay TheoryDecay Theory• Memories just go away over timeMemories just go away over time

– Without rehearsal, we forget thing over time.

• Hermann Ebbinghaus Hermann Ebbinghaus and his Forgetting Curveand his Forgetting Curve– Said as time passes by information is forgotten

gradually– Actually spent time plotting this on a graph– Example – remembering new vocab. words and

forgetting more as time goes by– Example – first day forget very few, but

forgetting speeds up over time

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Forgetting as a Retrieval Failure

• It’s in there but you can not get it out

– Tip-of-the-tongue PhenomenonTip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon• Forgotten information feels like it is just out of

reach

• InterferenceInterference– One memory gets in the way of another

• Two Kinds of Interference– Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference– Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference

Proactive Interference

• Earlier memories Earlier memories interfere with new interfere with new onesones

– Remembering earlier addresses while having a hard time remembering your new one

If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

Retroactive Interference

• New memories reduce ability to retrieve older memories

• Remembering new sport champs and forgetting older ones – or forgetting your old phone number when you get a new one

When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last years.

Other Reasons We May Forget• Motivated Forgetting

– Forgetting can sometimes provide a protection from painful memories

– RepressionRepression• Psychogenic Amnesia• The process of moving anxiety producing

memories to the unconscious – Freud

• Physical Injury or Trauma– Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia

• The inability to remember events that occur

after an injuryafter an injury or traumatic event

– Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia• The inability to remember events that occurred

before an injurybefore an injury or traumatic event

Other Reasons We Forget• Distortions of Memory

– We sometimes construct memories that did not happen or distort the ones that we do have

– Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect• Incorporating misleading information of an event into

one’s memory• Possible planted memories• Example – sometimes used by lawyers – Law and

Order Clip

– Children’s RecallChildren’s Recall• Very open to misinformation effect• Often provide memories they think an adult expects

to hear or when asked very leading questions• Can be a problem when testifying against an

accused or falsely accused person

Other Reasons We May Forget• Source Amnesia

– Having to remember at the time of recall where memories came from

– “did I read that in the Post or NY Times?”– It is also common for people to mix up fictional

information from novels and movies with factual information from news and personal experiences

• Cryptomnesia– Inadvertent plagiarism that occurs when people

come up with an idea that they think is original when they were actually exposed to it earlier

• Confabulation– is the confusion of imagination with memory, and/or

the confusion of true memories with false memories – Trying to fill in the blanks of something you are

trying to remember with false memories

Deja Vu• Usually translated as already lived or already felt• the experience of feeling sure that one has

witnessed or experienced a new situation previously

• Possible explanations– An anomaly of memory

• an overlap between the short-term memory (events which are perceived as being in the present) and the long-term memory (events which are perceived as being in the past)

– Neural misfiring• Two neurons firing from different sources, thus

coming up with two sensations (of the same stimulus) each seeming like a different event at a different time

Memory Accuracy

Was the memory encoded?

Has the memory decayed?

Is there information interfering with the memory?

Is there a reason not to

remember?

Are there falsely

constructed memory details?

Don’t Always Trust Your Memory!!!Don’t Always Trust Your Memory!!!

• Manufactured Memories

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