MemoryMemoryChapter 6

The First Memory ResearchThe First Memory Research

• Herman Ebbinghaus: In 1800s, his own subject

• Nonsense Syllables: meaningless word-like syllables (wug, gup, lix)

• Ebbinghaus: memorized lists to see how long memory lasts

• Forgetting Curve: memory fades rapidly at first and then levels off

• Overlearning: even if we know something, additional study strengthens our memory of it

• Herman Ebbinghaus: In 1800s, his own subject

• Nonsense Syllables: meaningless word-like syllables (wug, gup, lix)

• Ebbinghaus: memorized lists to see how long memory lasts

• Forgetting Curve: memory fades rapidly at first and then levels off

• Overlearning: even if we know something, additional study strengthens our memory of it

Information-Processing ModelInformation-Processing Model

A “computer-like model” describing how humans encode, store, and retrieve information.

• encoding: getting information into memory– type on keyboard = seeing or hearing

• storage: keeping information in memory– save to disk = committing to memory

• retrieval: getting information out of memory– open a file = bringing into consciousness

A “computer-like model” describing how humans encode, store, and retrieve information.

• encoding: getting information into memory– type on keyboard = seeing or hearing

• storage: keeping information in memory– save to disk = committing to memory

• retrieval: getting information out of memory– open a file = bringing into consciousness

Sequence of Information ProcessingSequence of Information Processing

The 3 Basic Stages of MemoryThe 3 Basic Stages of Memory

• 1. Sensory Register (store): receives information thought the senses

• 2. Short Term Memory (STM): also called “working memory” what we are thinking about at the moment

• 3. Long Term Memory (LTM): stored information

• 1. Sensory Register (store): receives information thought the senses

• 2. Short Term Memory (STM): also called “working memory” what we are thinking about at the moment

• 3. Long Term Memory (LTM): stored information

1. Sensory Register(Sensory Store)

1. Sensory Register(Sensory Store)

The Sensory RegistersThe Sensory Registers

• Sensory Registers: entry points for data from the senses, (mainly visual/auditory)

• Icon: image in visual sensory store, lasts less than a second (e.g., after you close your eyes)

• Echo: sound in auditory sensory store, lasts several seconds (e.g., hearing a sentence)

• Attention: determines what sensory information will be transferred to STM

• Sensory Registers: entry points for data from the senses, (mainly visual/auditory)

• Icon: image in visual sensory store, lasts less than a second (e.g., after you close your eyes)

• Echo: sound in auditory sensory store, lasts several seconds (e.g., hearing a sentence)

• Attention: determines what sensory information will be transferred to STM

Capacity of Visual Sensory StoreCapacity of Visual Sensory Store

• Investigated by George Sperling using his “Partial Report Procedure”

• The “icon” holds a tremendous amount of information

• However, only a small amount can be “attended to” and retained

• The rest fades away in a fraction of a second

• Investigated by George Sperling using his “Partial Report Procedure”

• The “icon” holds a tremendous amount of information

• However, only a small amount can be “attended to” and retained

• The rest fades away in a fraction of a second

How Attention WorksHow Attention Works

• Donald Broadbent: investigated attention in the auditory sensory store

• A different story was played to each ear over headphones. People could only really follow one.

• Broadbent’s Filter Theory: Broadbent concluded attention is like a “switch” that we turn on or off

• Donald Broadbent: investigated attention in the auditory sensory store

• A different story was played to each ear over headphones. People could only really follow one.

• Broadbent’s Filter Theory: Broadbent concluded attention is like a “switch” that we turn on or off

The Cocktail Party PhenomenonThe Cocktail Party Phenomenon

• You are at a party where people are talking in small groups.

• From across the room you hear your name mentioned and immediately your “attention” shifts to that converstation

• According to Broadbent’s Filter Theory, this should not happen

• You are at a party where people are talking in small groups.

• From across the room you hear your name mentioned and immediately your “attention” shifts to that converstation

• According to Broadbent’s Filter Theory, this should not happen

Attenuation TheoryAttenuation Theory• Anne Treissman suggests that attention is

NOT like a switch

• We turn the volume up or down on various channels to meet our needs

• In reality, there are many channels, not just two

• What we attend to (whether visual or auditory) is passed along to “Short Term Memory” (STM)

• Anne Treissman suggests that attention is NOT like a switch

• We turn the volume up or down on various channels to meet our needs

• In reality, there are many channels, not just two

• What we attend to (whether visual or auditory) is passed along to “Short Term Memory” (STM)

2. Short Term Memory(STM)

2. Short Term Memory(STM)

Capacity of STMCapacity of STM

• 7 “bits” + or - 2 (as much information as can be repeated in 1.5 to 2 seconds)– a phone number is a good example.

• Chunking: grouping information into meaningful units can increase the amount of information held in STM.

• 7 “bits” + or - 2 (as much information as can be repeated in 1.5 to 2 seconds)– a phone number is a good example.

• Chunking: grouping information into meaningful units can increase the amount of information held in STM.

Try to Memorize ThisTry to Memorize This

T R Q E N L P T Q O I N A NT R Q E N L P T Q O I N A N

What Can You Recall?What Can You Recall?

Try Memorizing ThisTry Memorizing This

J F K L H O L B J C I A F B IJ F K L H O L B J C I A F B I

What Can You Recall Now?What Can You Recall Now?

Encoding in STMEncoding in STM

• We encode information in STM based on its sound (phonologically) not its meaning

• In STM recall tasks, people have a harder time correctly recalling the word group “mad, man, map, cap” (sound similar) than the word group “pit, day, cow, bar” (don’t sound similar)

• We encode information in STM based on its sound (phonologically) not its meaning

• In STM recall tasks, people have a harder time correctly recalling the word group “mad, man, map, cap” (sound similar) than the word group “pit, day, cow, bar” (don’t sound similar)

Maintaining STMMaintaining STM

• rote rehearsal: Most information is held in STM by simply repeating it over and over

• Like looking up a phone number and repeating it until you dial it

• Some information may get to Long Term Memory by rote rehearsal but it is not a very efficient way of doing it

• rote rehearsal: Most information is held in STM by simply repeating it over and over

• Like looking up a phone number and repeating it until you dial it

• Some information may get to Long Term Memory by rote rehearsal but it is not a very efficient way of doing it

3. Long Term Memory(LTM)

3. Long Term Memory(LTM)

Encoding in LTMEncoding in LTM

• We saw that in STM information is encoded mainly based on how it sounds

• In LTM, information is stored based on its “MEANING” and can be stored as a visual image, a sound, a smell, etc.

• We saw that in STM information is encoded mainly based on how it sounds

• In LTM, information is stored based on its “MEANING” and can be stored as a visual image, a sound, a smell, etc.

The Serial Position EffectThe Serial Position Effect

• When learning a list of names our recall is poorest for those in the middle of the list (as opposed to those at the beginning or end of the list)

• Primacy effect: recall is good for words early in the list because they had more of a chance to be “rehearsed”

• Recency effect: recall is good for words at the end of the list because they may still be in STM

• When learning a list of names our recall is poorest for those in the middle of the list (as opposed to those at the beginning or end of the list)

• Primacy effect: recall is good for words early in the list because they had more of a chance to be “rehearsed”

• Recency effect: recall is good for words at the end of the list because they may still be in STM

Maintaining Long Term MemoryMaintaining Long Term Memory

• rote rehearsal: To hold information in STM, we simply repeat it over and over BUT for LTM this is not very effective (ex. Learn the musical staff) – 1st space is F, 2nd space is A (with enough work, this

will be stored in LTM, but this is not very efficient)

• elaborative rehearsal: is the “Meaningful” linking of new information to information already in long-term memory– FACE is a trick for remembering the spaces on the

musical “staff” (much more efficient).

• rote rehearsal: To hold information in STM, we simply repeat it over and over BUT for LTM this is not very effective (ex. Learn the musical staff) – 1st space is F, 2nd space is A (with enough work, this

will be stored in LTM, but this is not very efficient)

• elaborative rehearsal: is the “Meaningful” linking of new information to information already in long-term memory– FACE is a trick for remembering the spaces on the

musical “staff” (much more efficient).

Schemata (plural of schema)Schemata (plural of schema)

• A “schema” is a framework that we incorporate new memories into

• We might have schemas for driving, attending class, etc.

• Imagine having to think about each step needed to drive your car each time you got in

• Schemas help us process daily experience

• A “schema” is a framework that we incorporate new memories into

• We might have schemas for driving, attending class, etc.

• Imagine having to think about each step needed to drive your car each time you got in

• Schemas help us process daily experience

PrimingPriming

• Sometimes related information can “prime” or “cue” us to remember

• You are taking a test and skipped question 10 because you didn’t know it

• After reading question 31 you suddenly know the answer to question 10

• Some word in question 31 “primed” your memory for the topic of question 10

• Sometimes related information can “prime” or “cue” us to remember

• You are taking a test and skipped question 10 because you didn’t know it

• After reading question 31 you suddenly know the answer to question 10

• Some word in question 31 “primed” your memory for the topic of question 10

The Biology of MemoryThe Biology of Memory• Memory Formation: a new memory is formed

when new synaptic connections are made (new dendrites and axons are formed an connected)

• Epinephrine and Cortisol: are two hormones that stimulate the brain to form new memories

• Acetylcholine: a neurotransmitter, also plays an important role in memory formation

• Hippocampus and Amygdala: are two brain areas important in new memory formation

• Memory Formation: a new memory is formed when new synaptic connections are made (new dendrites and axons are formed an connected)

• Epinephrine and Cortisol: are two hormones that stimulate the brain to form new memories

• Acetylcholine: a neurotransmitter, also plays an important role in memory formation

• Hippocampus and Amygdala: are two brain areas important in new memory formation

Biological Bases of MemoryBiological Bases of Memory

Where are Memories Stored?Where are Memories Stored?

• Carl Lashley in the 1950s removed parts of rats brains in a search for memory. He could not identify any specific areas.

• Frontal and Temporal Lobes: we now know that much of our “Semantic” and “Episodic” memory is stored in these areas

• Carl Lashley in the 1950s removed parts of rats brains in a search for memory. He could not identify any specific areas.

• Frontal and Temporal Lobes: we now know that much of our “Semantic” and “Episodic” memory is stored in these areas

Where are Memories Stored? (cont.)Where are Memories Stored? (cont.)

• Cerebellum: much of our “Procedural” memory is stored here. Recall, this area is involved in coordination and movement

• Amygdala: is important in formation and storage of our “Emotional” memory

• Cerebellum: much of our “Procedural” memory is stored here. Recall, this area is involved in coordination and movement

• Amygdala: is important in formation and storage of our “Emotional” memory

ForgettingForgetting

Loss of information from LTMLoss of information from LTM

Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia• Brain trauma (e.g., being knocked out)

interrupts the transfer of information from Short Term to Long Term memory.

• Information in STM just prior to the trauma never gets to LTM and is permanently lost

• This is “biological” and differs from “psychogenic amnesia”(i.e., repressed

memories which are there but can’t be recalled)

• Brain trauma (e.g., being knocked out) interrupts the transfer of information from Short Term to Long Term memory.

• Information in STM just prior to the trauma never gets to LTM and is permanently lost

• This is “biological” and differs from “psychogenic amnesia”(i.e., repressed

memories which are there but can’t be recalled)

Interference in Long Term MemoryInterference in Long Term Memory

• Retroactive interference: Newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of old (previously learned) information.

• Proactive interference: Old (previously learned) information interferes with the retrieval of newly learned information.

• Retroactive interference: Newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of old (previously learned) information.

• Proactive interference: Old (previously learned) information interferes with the retrieval of newly learned information.

Retroactive and Proactive InterferenceRetroactive and Proactive Interference

Situational FactorsSituational Factors

• The situation or context in which you remember and try to recall can make a difference

• You regularly meet for Englidh class in classroom A (old, dark, and musty) but your exam is in classroom B (brand new, bright, and clean)

• You may do more poorly on your test in classroom B because the “situational cues” your brain has associated with the information are not present!

• The situation or context in which you remember and try to recall can make a difference

• You regularly meet for Englidh class in classroom A (old, dark, and musty) but your exam is in classroom B (brand new, bright, and clean)

• You may do more poorly on your test in classroom B because the “situational cues” your brain has associated with the information are not present!

State Dependent MemoryState Dependent Memory

• Your physiological state may get stored along with your memories as you study (for example)

• Suppose you eat candy or drink coffee as you study to “pick you up”

• You may recall better on a test if you eat the same candy or drink coffee

• Your physiological state may get stored along with your memories as you study (for example)

• Suppose you eat candy or drink coffee as you study to “pick you up”

• You may recall better on a test if you eat the same candy or drink coffee

Memory is “Reconstructive”Memory is “Reconstructive”

• memory is NOT like a snapshot

• we actually remember “parts” of events and “fill in the blanks” as we recall them

• we may (unconsciously) change and distort memories as we recall them

• many “repressed traumatic memories” recalled in therapy never really happened!

• memory is NOT like a snapshot

• we actually remember “parts” of events and “fill in the blanks” as we recall them

• we may (unconsciously) change and distort memories as we recall them

• many “repressed traumatic memories” recalled in therapy never really happened!

Special Topics in MemorySpecial Topics in Memory• eidetic imagery: ability to reproduce unusually

sharp and detailed mental images of something one has seen “photographic memory”

• mnemonics: “tricks or techniques” that help you remember (e.g., to learn the musical staff, “face” and “every good by does fine”)

• Flashbulb Memory: “vivid” memory for a highly emotional or important situation

• eidetic imagery: ability to reproduce unusually sharp and detailed mental images of something one has seen “photographic memory”

• mnemonics: “tricks or techniques” that help you remember (e.g., to learn the musical staff, “face” and “every good by does fine”)

• Flashbulb Memory: “vivid” memory for a highly emotional or important situation

Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony

• Elizabeth Loftus: demontrated that testimony can be easily distorted

• Two groups saw a film of an auto accident

• Group A was asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit?”

• Group B was asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed?”

• Group B gave higher speed estimates!

• Elizabeth Loftus: demontrated that testimony can be easily distorted

• Two groups saw a film of an auto accident

• Group A was asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit?”

• Group B was asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed?”

• Group B gave higher speed estimates!

Improving Your MemoryImproving Your Memory

practice memory skillsuse elaborative vs. rote rehearsal make connections between new and

old informationuse mental imageryuse mneumonics and retrieval cues

practice memory skillsuse elaborative vs. rote rehearsal make connections between new and

old informationuse mental imageryuse mneumonics and retrieval cues