media college - journalistic techniques

8/3/2019 Media College - Journalistic Techniques

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13 simple journalist techniques for effective interviewsBY SARAH STUTEVILLE ON MARCH 26, 2007

Journalism is a creative job.

DESPITE ALL THE professors who told me articles were a fixed formula plugged up with

simple facts and despite the avalanche of clichd crap that passes for most mainstreamjournalism, I stand by that statement.

Like any creative profession, you use your perception to re-interpret the world around you.You try to engage an audience with ideas and issues-you create something meaningfulfrom all the incoherent information and noise out there.

But heres the catch: good journalism is dependent on a total strangers cooperation andparticipation.

The finished product may be a piece of writing that you craft, but the material a result of

the interviews you conduct.At the heart of this issue is the interview. The finished product may be a piece of writingthat you craft, but the material a result of the interviews you conduct.

And while sources vary-some people know exactly what they want to say while others loveto make you sweat for a basic quote-how you conduct the interview has more to do withthe outcome than anything.

Its odd that so much emphasis is put on teaching journalists how to write an article whenthat skill is useless without also teaching journalists how to develop strong interviewtechniques.

In an effort to help other aspiring reporters develop this crucial skill-I brought togethersome of my colleagues and journalist friends to ask them what interview tips they think aremost helpful:

#1 Find a good locationAvoid Starbucks! Its often easiest to suggest a centrally located corporate coffee shop butif there is any way you can interview in a place that has some relevance to the story oryour subject youll have much greater success.

Not only because youll gain a further sense of context, people are often more comfortable

(and open) when theyre in a familiar place or what feels like their territory.

Ask to meet at your subjects house, work, or the location of an incident relevant to thestory. Even meeting at the interviewees favorite restaurant is more interesting than aStarbucks.

#2 Prepare Your Goals AheadKnow what questions youre going to ask and why youre going to ask them.

Heading to an interview with a sense of what you want to get out of it (a colorful re-enactment of an event, an on-the-record opinion on the issue youre covering, general

background, etc.) is critical to conducting a successful interview.


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You should already be thinking about what you want your piece to look like and what youneed from this interview to get your article closer to that end result.

#3 Write down your questionsBe sure and bring prepared questions with you. I usually go into an interview with twice asmany questions than I expect to ask. The security of knowing that Im not going to getstuck helps my confidence and you never know what question will get you the informationyoure really looking for.

#4 Work on your flowThis is probably the most challenging, but also the most important interview skill you candevelop.

You want to strike a balance between a conversation (which helps make your subject feelcomfortable and aids candor) and getting the job done. As your subject is answering yourquestion, be thinking about what youll ask next and why.

The flow of questions needs to seem natural and conversational, dont spin your subject offon a completely different topic just because thats the next question on your list-thinkabout segues and transitions.

This way your subject doesnt feel forced to give you sound bites and may open up a little(particularly important for anyone working on an audio piece where you may need blocksof the raw interview).

#5 Think about the mediumInterviewing techniques defiantly vary for different mediums. If youre interviewing foraudio or video you want to ask two part questions which encourages subjects to talk forlonger blocks of time.

Conversely, when youre interviewing for print, try and break questions up so you can getshorter and more concise answers (easier for taking notes and for quoting later). You canbe more conversational with interviews for print, you can say yeah, and uh-huh, etc.

Not doing this is one of the biggest challenges when youre interviewing for audio. Noddingand smiling accomplishes the same sort of conversational encouragement and keeps yourtape clean.

Another great trick for audio interviews is to have your subject re-enact the story. Itmakes for good sound and helps you avoid having too much of your own narration lateron.

#6 Bring a buddyI find having a second person as a note taker and extra set of ears can be very useful.

If you dont think another person will overwhelm or distract your subject (I find that ispretty rare) it can be a lifesaver to have that second set of notes to check your quotes andinformation.

#7 Avoid Obsessing

While good notes and recording are very important, you can do yourself a disservice byobsessing about recording every little detail of what your subject says.


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As youre interviewing you should be able to discern the gems from the chatter-focus onthe quotes and info you know youre going to use and make sure you get that right!

#8 Be a little annoyingDont be afraid to relentlessly revisit a question or topic that you feel hasnt been properlyaddressed by the interviewee. Sometimes people need time to warm up to you or a topic,or will respond better if your question is worded differently. Keep trying.

#9 Be a little sneakyContinue taking notes even after the interview is officially over. Sometimes people say themost revealing or intimate things when they feel that theyre out of the hot seat. If theydont say off the record, its all game.

#10 Empower themA great question to ask if you dont fully understand the perspective of your interviewee iswhat is your ideal solution/resolution? Obviously this only works in certain circumstances,but when appropriate it can help clarify a persons point of view or opinion.

#11 Work them upAnother great question is Why do you care about this issue? This can be an effective wayto get a strong and emotional quote about why the topic youre covering is so important.

You can also ask for the turning point in a story, the moment when everything changed orcatalyzed. This can help you shape the narrative of your story as well.

#12 Endure awkward silencesI know this is totally counterintuitive. My instinct is to keep chattering and asking questionsto keep people feeling comfortable, but sometimes, especially when youre dealing withsensitive subjects, you need to shut up and wait.

Ask your question, let them give you the rehearsed and generic answer, then sit therequietly and see what comes next. Youd be amazed how often this technique yieldspowerful results.

#13 Ask for what you needSeriously, sometimes interviewees are frustrating not because theyre trying to bust yourchops but just dont understand what you want from them.

I find that many interview subjects get a kick out of having you pull back the curtain alittle and tell them about your process.

You can say, Listen, I really need a quote from you encapsulating your feelings on thisissue, or I really need you to walk me through the chronology of this, or even, I reallyneed you to take me to a location that is relevant to this issue so I can set a scene.

For the most part people want to be helpful and you just need to tell them how they can.

***

As you gain more experience interviewing, youll hone your own techniques. Yourpersonality as an interviewer also plays a huge role in how you develop your approach.


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In the meantime use these hints to help you mine the information you need to get down tothe creative business of crafting a great piece of journalism.

One tip someone told me is that if you haven't got what you need from the interview, ifthere's one killer question that you haven't quite been able to work in, or get a decentanswer to, then pack up and leave. On your way out, ever so casually, ask your question.Make it sound like you almost forgot it - "Oh, by the way ..." or "Out of interest ..." arequite good openers for this. You may find your subject opens up so much that you have tosit down and do the whole interview again!

Those a pretty good tips! I especially like (and agree with) the tip regarding awkwardsilences. Classic interrogator's technique. If you can train yourself not to feel awkward,then the interviewee will be the only one ... and the tendency is for an uncomfortableperson to fill that silence.

One tip I'd add: It helps to phrase certain questions in an open-ended way. "Tell me about

...", "How did you feel ...", "What do you think about". You can always narrow things downin your follow-ups if you need more specific info, but open-ended Qs work well to getthings rolling.

Derek C. Wallace

Excellent tips, as always, Sarah!

One article I'd be very curious to see from you (and maybe you've already done this one, if

so, forgive me and link away!) is the role of objectivity in journalism and how you balancethat out with your personal desire to report on issues that mainstream media doesn't cover

(which in itself reveals a bias). Can reporters ever truly be "neutral"? Or is everything we

write a reflection of our biases and, hence, propaganda?

Ian, I'd love to conduct that interview with Sarah! One independent journalist to another!

:)

Harry

The way to keep your thoughts out of the interview is to keep them out of the questions.

You do this by keeping descriptive words out of the questions. You ask "what did you think

of the accident" and not "what did you think of the ++++++ accident'? If you want a bad

example, watch Sean Hanity, he spends 2 minutes giving his opinion in a question and

then lets you answer in one minute. I have done an interview for hours and never gave my

opinion. My opinions were not in the written report of the interview as I did not put them in

the interview questions.


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Interview TechniqueInterviewing is a vital skill for any journalist. It is one of the most important ways to gatherinformation and create content for a story. Good interview technique requires practice sodon't expect to master it immediately. The next few pages should give you a reasonable

understanding of how interviews work, what to do and what not to do.

Interview Questions

Most interviews seek to achieve one or more of the following goals:

1. Obtain the interviewee's knowledge about the topic2. Obtain the interviewee's opinion and/or feelings about the topic3. Feature the interviewee as the subject

It's important that you know exactly why you are conducting an interview and which

goal(s) you are aiming for. Stay focused on questions and techniques which will achievethem.

Do your homework. You will be expected to have a basic knowledge of your subject. Donot roll up to an interview with a band and ask them how many albums they have released you should know this already. If you show your ignorance, you lose credibility and riskbeing ridiculed. At the very least, the subject is less likely to open up to you.

Have a list of questions. It seems obvious but some people don't think of it. While youshould be prepared to improvise and adapt, it makes sense to have a firm list of questionswhich need to be asked.

Of course many interviewees will ask for a list of questions before hand, or you mightdecide to provide one to help them prepare. Whether or not this is a good idea depends onthe situation. For example, if you will be asking technical questions which might need aresearched answer, then it helps to give the subject some warning. On the other hand, ifyou are looking for spontaneous answers then it's best to wait until the interview.

Try to avoid being pinned down to a preset list of questions as this could inhibit theinterview. However, if you do agree to such a list before the interview, stick to it.

Ask the subject if there are any particular questions they would like you to ask.

Back-cut questions may be shot at the end of a video interview. Make sure you ask the

back-cut questions with the same wording as the interview even varying the wordingslightly can sometimes make the edit unworkable. You might want to make notes of anyunscripted questions as the interview progresses, so you remember to include them in theback-cuts.

Listen. A common mistake is to be thinking about the next question while the subject isanswering the previous one, to the point that the interviewer misses some importantinformation. This can lead to all sorts of embarrassing outcomes.

Open-Ended Questions

The ability to ask open-ended questions is very important in many vocations, including

education, counseling, mediation, sales, investigative work and journalism.


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An open-ended question is designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using thesubject's own knowledge and/or feelings. It is the opposite of a closed-ended question,which encourages a short or single-word answer. Open-ended questions also tend to bemore objective and less leading than closed-ended questions (see next page).

Open-ended questions typically begin with words such as "Why" and "How", or phrases

such as "Tell me about...". Often they are not technically a question, but a statementwhich implicitly asks for a response.

Examples

Closed-Ended Question Open-Ended Question

Do you get on well with your

boss?Tell me about your relationship with your boss.

Who will you vote for this

election?

What do you think about the two candidates in this

election?

What colour shirt are you

wearing?That's an interesting coloured shirt you're wearing.

How do you feel?

Perhaps the most famous (or infamous) open-ended question is "How does this make youfeel?" or some variation thereof. This has become a clich in both journalism and therapy.The reason it is so widely used is that it's so effective.

In journalism, stories are all about people and how they are affected by events. Audiences

want to experience the emotion. Even though modern audiences tend to cringe at thisquestion, it's so useful that it continues to be a standard tool.

In psychology, feelings and emotions are central to human behaviour. Therapists arenaturally keen to ask questions about feelings.

Leading Questions

A leading question is a question which subtly prompts the respondent to answer in aparticular way. Leading questions are generally undesirable as they result in false orslanted information. For example:

Do you get on well with your boss?

This question prompts the person to

question their employment relationship.

In a very subtle way it raises the

prospect that maybe they don't get on

with their boss.

Tell me about your relationship with your boss.

This question does not seek any

udgment and there is less implication

that there might be something wrong

with the relationship.


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The difference in the above example is minor but in some situations it can be moreimportant. For example, in a court case:

How fast was the red car going

when it smashed into the blue

car?

This question implies that the red car was at fault,

and the word "smashed" implies a high speed.

How fast was each car going

when the accident happened?

This question does not assign any blame or pre-

udgment.

Obtaining Responses to Suit the Edit

In journalism, leading questions can be used in various ways. For example, a journalistmight want a particular type of answer to edit alongside some other content. This can begood or bad, as illustrated by the following example.

A hypothetical journalist is doing a story on the moon hoax theory. First of all the journalist

gets the following statement from an advocate of the theory:

"Photographs of the moon landing show converging shadows were they should be parallel.This could only happen in a studio so the photos must be fake."

The journalist then interviews a NASA engineer. This response will be edited to appearimmediately after the accusation. There are several ways to ask the question, each withvery different results:

How do you explain the missing stars from

the Apollo photographs?

This question leads the engineer enough to

answer the specific question, while being

open-ended enough to get a complete

answer. This is good.

How do you respond to people who say the

pollo photographs were fake?

This question elicits a tenuously-relevant

reply without actually answering the

accusation. The engineer will give a broad

answer such as "I think these people have

got it wrong". This gives the impression

that the engineer is being evasive and

can't answer the question.

How do you respond to conspiracy theorists

who accuse you of faking the landing and

lying to America?

This question adds some spice with

provocative phrases designed to encourage

a stronger response.

Of course the ethical journalist will avoid using leading questions to mislead.

Children

Children are particularly susceptible to leading questions. Studies have shown that childrenare very attuned to taking cues from adults and tailoring their answers based on the way

questions are worded.


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Tips

These are very general tips which apply differently to different situations. Use yourjudgment to decide when and how to use them.

Dress appropriately, or at least dress with a purpose. Your appearance will influence theway interviewees respond to you.

Try to be unique, so it's not just another interview rehashing the same questions thesubject has answered many times before. Don't push this too far though if you try to becute or disarming it may backfire.

Be honest. Sometimes it's tempting to lie or omit important information when securing aninterview. This isn't just unethical, it will damage your career in the long run.

Don't have an attitude if you want a quality interview. A confrontational approach is lesslikely to get good information.

Stay neutral. Try not to ooze bias. Don't appear to be persuaded by the subject's

opinions. Don't judge or directly criticise the subject.

Don't interrupt. This can upset the subject's train of thought.

Minimize your own vocals (in video and audio interviews). Ask questions clearly andsuccinctly, then let the person speak without any more words from you. Learn to reactsilently as the subject talks rather than saying things like "uh-huh, right, I see", usenods and facial expressions.

Don't over-direct. Try not to give the subject too many instructions or be too specificabout what you want them to say. In most cases it's better to let them speak freely.

Show empathy. Often you will need to cover sensitive or distressing topics. Show somecompassion for the subject without getting too emotional. Ask for permission before askingdifficult questions, e.g. "Is it okay to talk about...?"

It's not about you. Don't talk about yourself or add your own opinion. Your questions canbe long enough to add information or interest about the topic, but the interviewee is whothe audience wants to hear from.

Take an interest in psychology. Interviewing is very closely associated with psychology.The better you understand how people think, the better you will be able to extract theirthoughts from an interview.

When you finish the interview, put your notebook or recorder away and have aninformal chat. As well as being polite and leaving a good impression, you might besurprised at what additional information flows when the subject thinks it's all over and ismore relaxed.

If you missed a question from the interview, you might be able to call the subject backlater and get the answer. You get one shot at this call them back twice and you'llprobably be out of luck. Obviously the call-back will be more difficult for video interviews,but you might still be able to voiceover the answer yourself during the story.


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Example Talent Release Form

Talent Release Form

Talent Name: ____________________ Project Title: ____________________________

I hereby consent for value received and without further consideration or compensation tothe use (full or in part) of all videotapes taken of me and/or recordings made of my voiceand/or written extraction, in whole or in part, of such recordings or musical performancefor the purposes of illustration, broadcast, or distribution in any manner.

at __________________________ on ________________________(Recording Location) (Date)

by __________________________ for ______________________________(Producer) (Producing Organization)

Talent's signature__________________________________________________Address ________________________________ City _____________________State ____________________ Zip code _____________Date: ____/____/______________________________

If the subject is a minor under the laws of the state where modeling, acting, or performingis done:

Legal guardian _________________________ ___________________________(sign/print name)Address _____________________________ City ________________________

State ______________________ Zip Code ___________Date: ____/____/____

Note: This sample is a guide only. You may need to modify it for your purposes.


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Shooting InterviewsThe interview (IV) is a fundamental element ofvideo and television production, used in a hugerange of programming. Interviews are a very

efficient way of creating content cheap toproduce, effective for gathering and presentinginformation, and easy to edit into the program. Infact entire programs can be made using little morethan interviews laced with cutaways and links.

Producing a successful interview requires acombination of skills. In professional situationsthese responsibilities may be shared by theproducer, director, interviewer, camera operator,audio and lighting technicians. In other situations it

is a one-person operation.

Preparation

Interview shoots are very unforgiving. This is asituation in which you must get everything rightfirst time and make the job flow smoothly andcomfortably for everyone involved. Interviews willquickly fall apart if things start going wrong ortaking a long time. Therefore competent operators

should be able to organise and shoot interviews intheir sleep. It is a skill which must be secondnature, so you should be well practiced in this artbefore you attempt a "mission-critical" interview.

Preparing for an interview involves:

Contacting and making arrangements with theguest(s)

Choosing a location Preparing equipment Traveling to the location and setting up Final briefing and technical checks

Before you begin shooting, double check everything. If you're not 100% sure that it is allworking okay, stop and get it right. Don't use take one of the IV as a practice or testrecord.

Interview Structure

A video interview can be thought of as a conversation involving three types of people:

The interviewer is the facilitator. (S)he chooses the topic of conversation, asksquestions and guides the discussion.

Interview Terminology

IV Interview

Guest The person beinginterviewed.

One-ShotShot of a single

person, either

interviewer or guest.

Usually a mid-shot

or tighter.

Two-ShotShot of

twopeople,

e.g.

interviewer and

guest.

Back-Cut

Question

Shot of the

interviewer asking a

question, shown

from the other side

of the guest.

Noddy Shot of the

interviewer nodding

or showing an

appropriate facial

expression.


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The guest is the subject of the interview. (S)he will do most of the talking and get mostof the camera shots.

The viewer is a silent observer who has been invited into the conversation.This creates a three-way interaction. A successful interview will include all three groups inthe correct mix.

Typically, the interviewer begins by setting the scene. They invite the viewer into theconversation by introducing the location, guest and topic. At this point the interviewer isprobably speaking to the camera as if they were looking the viewer in the eye.

Next, the interviewer turns to speak to the guest. Then follows a fairly one-sidedconversation in which the interviewer asks questions which are (usually) designed toencourage the guest to talk a lot.

The way the interview progresses will depend on the situation. A short vox-pop styleinterview will last long enough to get the information from the guest and then close, oftenquite abruptly. A more in-depth or personal interview will usually go through a settling-instage where simple facts are discussed, then move gently towards the more thorny issues.

The interview is usually concluded by thanking the guest. The interviewer may then turnback to the camera and say goodbye to the viewer, as well as tidy up any scriptrequirements such as leading to the next piece in the program

Framing Interview Shots

In addition to the normal rules of framing, there are a number of guidelines specific tointerviews. Later in the tutorial we will discuss the setup required to get these shots, butfor now we'll just look at the types of shot and why they are important.

Facing Direction

In most cases the subject (interviewer or guest) is facingslightly left or right of the camera. This shows that the subjectis talking to someone else (not the viewer), but by beingrelatively front-on the viewer is still part of the conversation.

A big part of video interviews is making sure the interviewerand guest are always facing the "right way" so they are

talking to each other. If they are facing the same way theywill both appear to be talking to an unseen third person.

Avoid severe profile shots you should always be able to see both eyes. People are veryattuned to seeing someone's whole face when they talk and if the viewer can't see enoughof the face it becomes uncomfortable. Profiles are also unflattering to the guest.

Common Interview Shots

Interviews tend to use shots ranging from mid-shot to medium close-up (MCU). Widershots are occasionally used as establishing shots or cutaways.

Important: The following rule is especially important in interviews:

One Eye:

Too much

profile

Two Eyes:

Acceptable


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Shots ranging from wide shot to MCU are best for information delivery, i.e. when the

subject is talking about factual information.

Shots tighter than a MCU are appropriate for when the guest is talking about something

personal or emotional the shot pulls the viewer into the same emotional space. For this

reason it's not usually a good idea to go tighter than a MCU on the interviewer, since their

feelings are not the focus and they should be portrayed as slightly detached from theemotion of the topic (but not completely detached).

The Sequence of Shots

Most interviews start with a fairly loose shot of the interviewer and/or guest. Make sureyou leave enough room for a name/title key if necessary. It's usually best to have similarframing for both interviewer and guest at the beginning of the interview. As the interviewprogresses the relative framing can vary.

A common practice is to begin the interview with a mid-shot as the guest talks about thefacts, then slowly zoom in to a close up when the guest begins talking about their feelings.This technique is popular in current affairs programs and documentaries. Don't drag theclose-up on for too long after a while it becomes uncomfortable and makes the viewerfeel that they are invading the speaker's personal space. Watch television interviews andlearn to judge the timing of these moves.

Use appropriate, motivated framing. For example:

If the guest starts using hand gestures, zoom or cut to a shot which includes them (ifpossible).

If the interview is to be closely edited with other interviews or content, make sure yourshots will match as necessary.

And remember: Wider shots for information and casual conversation, tighter shots forintensity.

Composing Interview Shots

Once you are familiar with the basic framing requirements for interviews, here are a fewmore composition tips...

Set the interview in an appropriate location, perhaps with relevant background features.It's often desirable to make the background appear to be the guest's normal

surroundings. If you're outside you could use an identifiable building or landmark; if

you're inside you could use photos, logos, etc.

Lighting can help set the mood. For example, soft low-temperature light for an intimatefeel or harsh light for a confrontational approach.

The position and framing of interviewer and guest can affect the perceived relationship.For example, having the interviewer behind a desk can provide a sense of authority.

If there are props involved you may be able to place them in front of the interview sothey can be shown whenever they are talked about.


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Backgrounds

Check the background and make sure there's

nothing distracting from the person speaking.Often the worst visual distractions are subtlethings the camera operator didn't notice duringthe shoot, for example:

An object which appears to be growing out ofthe guest's head.

A sign in the background with some lettersobscured to make an unwanted new word.

Try to have something in the background which suits or

supports the interview (e.g. a landmark, monument, etc).

Check the microphone and cube. A wind-sock which is hanging off the mic doesn't lookgood.

Eyelines

It is very important to make sure the guest's eyes are level with the interviewer's. Anynoticeable difference makes the interview look uncomfortable, and may even give anunwanted message (such as dominant and submissive appearances).

In studio situations, chairs are adjusted to make everyone the same height.

In the field you may need to be a bit more inventive. In the situation pictured on the right,the interviewer and guest are only ever shown from the waist up. The audience need neverknow the true height relationship.

Studio Interview Settings

There are many possible settings for conducting interviews. The first one to becomefamiliar with is the seated interview. Whether it be in a permanent studio or someone's

living room, you need to arrange the interviewer, guest(s) and cameras to achieve the lookand feel which best suits your objectives.

There are a number of common floorplans from which you can choose. Often you will belimited by factors such as space and number of cameras. The guidelines below includeoptions for most settings.

Key: Interviewer Guest Camera Optional Extra Camera

Not Good: The

speakers in the

background make the

guest look he has

antennae.


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1 Guest, 1 Camera

In this simple case the interviewer and guest aregiven the same framing and appear with equalprominence. This is useful if you aren't sure whowill be doing most of the talking, or if the talk-time

is spread evenly between the interviewer andguest.

It is a fairly casual setting, especially suitable forless formal interviews.

1 Guest, 1 Camera

Taking the same situation and moving the camerato one side gives a different feel. Now the guest is

much more prominent and becomes the mainfocus. The interviewer can face the camera at thebeginning and end of the interview, but not usuallyduring. This leaves the interviewer with profileframing so your 1-shots will be reserved for theguest. From time to time you can zoom out to a 2-shot, then back in to the guest.

If the IV is to be edited, you will probably framemost of the interview on the guest. At theconclusion of the interview, move the camera to

the other side and shoot the back-cut questionsand noddies (more on this later).

1 Guest, 2-3 Cameras

Adding a second camera facing the interviewer notonly provides a second shot, but allows eachcamera to reframe its shot while the other camerais being used. This enables you to cut between arange of shots without having to constantly zoom inand out.

A third camera in the middle adds the safety andflexibility of a permanent 2-shot.


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2 Guests, 2 Cameras

This arrangement accommodates two guests in afriendly manner. It works well when the guests aresomehow connected (e.g. family members or workcolleagues), or share similar views about the

subject.

If you have one camera covering both guests, theycan be covered with a 2-shot for much of the timebut you will probably want to include some tightershots. The camera operator must move carefullybetween the guests to follow whoever is talking.With the optional extra camera this problem iseliminated as one camera is dedicated to eachguest.

2 Guests, 2-3 CamerasThis arrangement may be preferable if the guestsare likely to be antagonistic toward each other, ordon't want to sit so close together.

2 Guests, 2-3 Cameras

By seating the guests at opposite ends of a tableyou create a more confrontational situation. This issuitable for guests who hold opposing views on thesubject.


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Mobile Interviewing Techniques

Shoulder-Mounted Camera

Shooting "off the shoulder" is an easy and flexiblemethod for recording interviews. Typically this will

involve one camera, although other cameras can beadded easily enough.

This is the most common technique for field shoots inwhich speed and efficiency are important. A minimum ofequipment is required and the production team canmove around quickly and easily.

It is also a useful method if the surroundings are likely tobe included in the interview. Because the camera operator is so mobile, (s)he can movearound and show objects and scenery as they are talked about.

The standard technique is pictured here, with the camera situated just to the side of theinterviewer. This gives a nice front-on shot of the guest. The interviewer and camerashould be close together so the guest is facing just slightly off-camera.

Off-the-shoulder interviews tend to have quite a different feel to tripod/pedestalinterviews. They are less formal, less restricted, and involve more movement. Because theparticipants are usually standing or moving around, the impression is given of being "upand about" rather than sitting sedately in a studio setting. Indeed, off-the-shouldercameras are sometimes used in studio settings to achieve this effect.

The amount of movement involved depends on the production requirements. News stories

tend to be quite static, concentrating on what the guest has to say and minimisingdistractions. Programs which are more entertainment-focused may include a lot morevariety, with the camera operator moving around and showing different angles of theguest, presenter and surroundings.

Tripod-Mounted Camera

You can use a tripod in much the same way as above.

Advantages:

Nice steady shots - important if the interview will be editedalongside other tripod-mounted shots.

Reduced fatigue for the camera operator, which will make a bigdifference if the interview is going to be long or if you'll be shooting

lots of them. Off-the-shoulder shots can become wobbly as the operator begins to tire.

Disadvantages:

You are much more restricted in terms of movement and framing. You have another piece of equipment to carry around (and good tripods are heavy).


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Walking and Talking

A nice effect is the walking IV in which the interviewer andguest stroll side-by-side toward the camera. The cameraoperator walks backwards maintaining a constant distance.Obviously this must be well planned. The camera operator

should have someone to act as a guide the usual routine isfor the guide to place their hand in the middle of theoperator's back and walk with them.

In the example pictured here, the sound operator is doubling as the guide (he needs tokeep turning his head backwards and forwards to do both jobs).

Field Kit Checklist

Camera, tripod and plenty of tapes Batteries/power + multiboxes and extension leads Microphones Audio mixer, headset and leads Lights, stands and gels Video Monitor White balance cards Shot-log sheets, pen, etc.

Basic shot types

There is a general convention in the video industry which assigns names to the mostcommon types of shots. The names and their exact meanings may vary, but the followingexamples give a rough guide to the standard descriptions. The point isn't knowingthe names of the shot types (although it's very useful), as much as understandingtheirpurposes.

Basic shots are referred to in terms relative to the subject. For example, a "close up" hasto be a close up ofsomething. A close up of a person could also be described as a wideshot of a face, or a very wide shot of a nose.The subject in all of the following shots is a boy standing in front of a house.

EWS (Extreme Wide Shot)In the EWS, the view is so far from the subject that heisn't even visible. The point of this shot is to show thesubject's surroundings. The EWS is often used asan establishing shot the first shot of a new scene,designed to show the audience where the action istaking place.


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VWS (Very Wide Shot)The VWS is much closer to the subject. He is (just)visible here, but the emphasis is still on placing him inhis environment. This also works as an establishing shot.

WS (Wide Shot)In the WS, the subject takes up the full frame. In thiscase, the boy's feet are almost at the bottom of frame,and his head is almost at the top. Obviously the subjectdoesn't take up the whole width of the frame, since thisis as close as we can get without losing any part of him.The small amount of room above and below the subjectcan be thought of as safety room you don't want to

be cutting the top of the head off. It would also lookuncomfortable if the feet and head were exactly at thetop and bottom of frame.

MS (Mid Shot)The MS shows some part of the subject in more detail,whilst still showing enough for the audience to feel as ifthey were looking at the whole subject. In fact, this is anapproximation of how you would see a person "in theflesh" if you were having a casual conversation. You

wouldn't be paying any attention to their lower body, sothat part of the picture is unnecessary.

MCU (Medium Close Up)Half way between a MS and a CU. This shot shows theface more clearly, without getting uncomfortably close.

CU (Close Up)In the CU, a certain feature or part of the subject takesup the whole frame. A close up of a person usuallymeans a close up of their face.


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ECU (Extreme Close Up)The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail. Forpeople, the ECU is used to convey emotion.

CA (Cutaway)A cutaway is a shot that's usually of something otherthan the current action. It could be a different subject(e.g. these children), a CU of a different part of thesubject (e.g. a CU of the subject's hands), or just aboutanything else. The CA is used as a "buffer" betweenshots (to help the editing process), or to addinterest/information.

Some Rules of Framing

Look for horizontal and vertical lines in the frame (e.g. the horizon, poles, etc). Make surethe horizontals are level, and the verticals are straight up and down (unless of course

you're purposely going for a tilted effect).

The rule of thirds. This rule divides the frame into nine sections, as in the first framebelow. Points (or lines) of interest should occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or across)

the frame, rather than in the centre.

"Headroom", "looking room", and "leading room". These terms refer to the amount ofroom in the frame which is strategically left empty. The shot of the baby crawling has

some leading room for him to crawl into, and the shot of his mother has some looking

room for her to look into. Without this empty space, the framing will look uncomfortable.Headroom is the amount of space between the top of the subject's head and the top of

the frame. A common mistake in amateur video is to have far too much headroom, which

doesn't look good and wastes frame space. In any "person shot" tighter than a MS, there

should be very little headroom.


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Everything in your frame is important, not just the subject. What does the backgroundlook like? What's the lighting like? Is there anything in the frame which is going to be

distracting, or disrupt the continuity of the video?

Pay attention to the edges of your frame. Avoid having half objects in frame, especially

people (showing half of someone's face is very unflattering). Also try not to cut people of

at the joints the bottom of the frame can cut across a person's stomach, but not their

knees. It just doesn't look right.

Once you're comfortable with the do's and don'ts, you can become more creative. Thinkabout the best way to convey the meaning of the shot. If it's a baby crawling, get down onthe floor and see it from a baby's point-of-view (POV). If it's a football game, maybe youneed to get up high to see all the action.

Look for interesting and unusual shots. Most of your shots will probably be quite "straight";that is, normal shots from approximate adult eye-level. Try mixing in a few variations.Different angles and different camera positions can make all the difference. For example; a

shot can become much more dramatic if shot from a low point. On the other hand, a newand interesting perspective can be obtained by looking straight down on the scene. Beaware that looking up at a person can make them appear more imposing, whereas lookingdown at a person can diminish them.

Watch TV and movies, and notice the shots which stand out. There's a reason why theystand out it's all about camera positioning and frame composition. Experiment all thetime.

Basic Camera Moves

As with camera framing, there are standard descriptions for the basic camera moves.These are the main ones:

Pan: The framing moves left & right, with no vertical movement.

Tilt: The framing moves up & down, with no horizontal movement.

Zoom: In & out, appearing as if the camera is moving closer to or further away from thesubject. (There is a difference between zooming and moving the camera in and out,though. There'll be more about that in the intermediate tutorial.)When a shot zooms in closer to the subject, it is said to be getting "tighter". As the shot

zooms out, it is getting "looser".

Follow: Any sort of shot when you are holding the camera (or have it mounted on yourshoulder), and you follow the action whilst walking. Hard to keep steady, but very effectivewhen done well.

Note: Most camera moves are a combination of these basic moves. For example, whenyou're zooming in, unless your subject is in the exact centre of frame, you'll have to panand/or tilt at the same time to end up where you want to be.

Shooting Technique

Position yourself and your camera. If you're using a tripod, make sure it's stable andlevel (unless you have a reason for it to be tilted). If the tripod has a spirit level, check it.


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If you're going to be panning and/or tilting, make sure that you'll be comfortablypositioned throughout the whole move. You don't want to start a pan, then realise youcan't reach around far enough to get the end of it. If it's going to be difficult, you're betteroff finding the position which is most comfortable at the end of the move, so that you startin the more awkward position and become more comfortable as you complete the move.If the tripod head doesn't have a bowl (this includes most cheaper tripods), it's veryimportant to check that the framing still looks level as you pan - it may be okay in onedirection but become horribly slanted as you pan left and right.

If you're not using a tripod, stabilise yourself and your camera as best you can. Keep yourarms and elbows close to your body (you can use your arms as "braces" against yourtorso). Breathe steadily. For static shots, place your feet at shoulder width (if you'restanding), or try bracing yourself against some solid object (furniture, walls, or anything).

Frame your shot. Then do a quick mental check: white balance; focus; iris; framing(vertical and horizontal lines, background, etc.).

Think about your audio. Audio is just as important as vision, so don't forget about it.

Press "record". Once you're recording, make sure that you are actually recording. There'sno worse frustration than realising that you were accidentally recording all the time youwere setting the shot up, then stopped recording when you thought you were starting.Many cameras have a tape "roll-in time", which means that there is a delay between thetime you press record and when the camera begins recording. Do some tests and find outwhat your camera's roll-in time is, so you can then compensate for it.

Keep checking the status displays in the viewfinder. Learn what all the indicators mean they can give you valuable information.

Use both eyes.A valuable skill is the ability to use one eye to look through the

viewfinder, and the other eye to watch your surroundings. It takes a while to get used toit, but it means that you can walk around while shooting without tripping over, as well askeeping an eye out for where the action is happening. It's also easier on your eyes duringlong shoots.

Learn to walk backwards. Have someone place their hand in themiddle of your back and guide you. These shots can look great.

You'll often see television presenters walking and talking, as the cameraoperator walks backwards shooting them.

Keep thinking "Framing...Audio..." As long as you're recording, thinkabout how the frame composition is changing, and what's happening tothe sound.

Press "record stop" before moving. Just as in still photography, you should wait untilone second after you've finished recording (or taken the photo) before you move. Toomany home videos end every shot with a jerky movement as the operator hits the stopbutton.

That's all there is to it! Finally, here's a few more tips to finish off with...

Be diplomatic while shooting. Think about the people you're shooting.


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Remember that people are often uncomfortable about being filmed, so try to be discreetand unobtrusive (for example, you might want to position yourself some distance from thesubjects and zoom in on them, rather than being "in their faces").

Many people find the red recording light on the camera intimidating, and freeze wheneverthey see it. Try covering the light with a piece of tape to alleviate this problem.

Learn to judge when it's worth making a nuisance of yourself for the sake of the shot, andwhen it's not. If it's an important shot, it might be necessary to inconvenience a few peopleto get it right. But if you're going to make enemies over something that doesn't matter,forget it and move on.

Use the "date/time stamp" feature sparingly. It's unnecessary to have the time anddate displayed throughout your video, and it looks cheap. If you must have it there, bringit up for a few seconds, then get rid of it.

Modern digital cameras have the ability to show or hide this display at any time afterrecording.

Be prepared to experiment. Think about some of the things you'd like to try doing, thentry them at a time that doesn't matter (i.e. don't experiment while shooting a wedding).Most new techniques take practice and experimentation to achieve success, and goodcamera work requires experience.

If you want to be good, you'll have to invest some time.

Video Shot Log

A video shot log is a written record of the shots on a tape or disk. The shot log can be

made either as the shoot progresses or after the shoot finishes. If possible, it really helpsto do the shot log during the shoot it will be easier and save you time later.

There are no hard and fast rules regarding the format of the shot log. Basically, whateverworks for you is fine. If you are working in a larger team environment you will probablyhave a standardised format so everyone uses the same system and gets the requiredinformation.

Below is one example of how a shot log can be formatted.

SHOT LOGDate: 2004/10/12 Location: Te Awamutu, New Zealand

CameraOperator:

Jane Bloggs OtherStaff:

Sound - Billy Bloggs, Presenter -Sally Bloggs

Comments:

Timecode Take Duration Description Audio Comments

0:00:00 0:30 Bars Tone

0:01:00 1 0:20 WS House Ambient Establishing shot

0:01:20 1 0:08 Hallway ''

0:01:28 2 0:11 '' '' Use this one

0:01:39 1 2:37 IV - Joe Bloggs Lap mic Mostly good

0:04:16 1 0:30 Noddies


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Remote Interviews

In a remote interview the interviewer is geographicallyseparated from the guest. Transmission equipment enablesthe interview to take place in real time, either for livebroadcast or recording. Remote interviews can occur

between two studios, between a studio and temporary fieldlocation, or between two field locations.

The signature of the remote interview is the split screen(pictured right). This establishes both locations and providescomfortable transitions between them.

As you can imagine, the remote interview has numerous technical and logisticalcomplications. Before the interview begins the following preparations must be made (inaddition to normal preparations):

Establish transmission and communication links between locations, and completetechnical checks.

Prepare the guest for the interview (see below). Sometimes vision monitors are set up so the participants can see each other, but this

isn't usually necessary (or even desirable as it can be distracting for the guest).

The cameras in each location must be matched in composition, colour balance, etc. It'snot a good look when one head is much bigger than the other.

Preparing the Guest

How you prepare the guest will depend on the their level of experience. If they are new tothis type of interview they will need to be well briefed. It is a difficult and unnaturalsituation and not everyone will cope.

The guest will need to be rigged with a microphone and earpiece. While this is happening,explain briefly how things work and what to expect. If a hand-held mic is being used, makesure the guest knows how to use it. If possible, let the interviewer and guest have a shortpreparatory conversation before the actual interview begins. This ensures they are bothcomfortable with each other's audio level and quality, and helps relax the guest.

Useful advice for the guest includes:

"The interview will be similar to a telephone conversation." "Look straight at the camera. Imagine the camera lens is a small window through which

you and the interviewer can see each other."

(This is because many people tend to look aimlessly toward the ground or sky as they

talk. If they feel more face-to-face with the interviewer they are more likely to keep

looking in the right direction).

The Interview Sequence

The interview sequence will typically begin like this:


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1. Full-screen shot of the interviewer with their preamble.2. As the interviewer begins introducing the guest (e.g. "I'm joined from Auckland by..."), a

split screen is shown between interviewer and guest. Titles below each person identify the

the respective locations.

3. Shortly after the guest begins answering the first question, their shot is shown fullscreen.

4. The guest's name/title key is shown.The interview can then comfortably cut between the two full-screen shots, just as if thetwo people were sitting next to each other in the same studio. Occasionally the split screenis cut in to remind viewers of the situation and to allow the interviewer and guest tointeract together on screen.

Telephone and Audio-Only Interviews

A simpler version of the remote interview can be conducted by

telephone. This is often referred to as aphone-in interview.A graphic is prepared like the one on the right, which includes apicture of a telephone or some other icon which makes it obviouswhat's happening. If possible, use a photo of the guest. The graphic is then used when theguest is speaking (i.e. in place of video shots).

This technique can also be used with normal transmission equipment if for any reasonvideo is not available.

New TechnologiesThese days remote interviews can also be conducted via mobile video phones. This isdesirable in situations where equipment and personnel must be kept to the bare minimum,or when resources are spread very thinly. The most well-known examples are duringwartime operations when reports are filed from many journalists in difficult locations.

Expect this type of remote interview to become very common as the technology improves.

Vox Pops

The term "vox pop" comes from the Latin phrase vox populi, meaning "voice of thepeople".


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The vox pop is a tool used in many forms of media to provide a snapshot of public opinion.Random subjects are asked to give their views on a particular topic and their responses arepresented to the viewer/reader as a reflection of popular opinion.

For video and television vox pops, the interviewer approaches people "in the street" andasks them simple questions about the topic. These people will be new to interviews and will

often be nervous, flustered, giggly, etc. It's therefore important to make them feelcomfortable and relaxed.

When asking people to participate, fast is best - don't give them time to worry about howthey look or what their friends will think. Use a short, sharp standard question such as"Would you mind answering a couple of quick questions about genetically modified food forTV3 news tonight?". (Note: Everyone will want to know what channel you're with and whenthe programme will be broadcast, so it helps to get that out of the way quickly.)

As always, ask open-ended questions and avoid leading questions. At the same time, youmust be specific enough to obtain brief answers.

Camera shots are usually framed as an MCU or close up. It's important to think about theguest's looking direction, and get an equal number of left-facing and right-facing subjects.These can then be alternated in post-production. Some producers go so far as to get allanswers with a particular opinion facing one way, and answers with an opposing opinionfacing the other way. Whether or not you think this is effective is up to you you may feelthat it is too contrived.

It pays to ensure that an accurate mix of genders and races are represented, appropriateto the population being surveyed.

Here's an example of how some vox pops can add interest to a news item on geneticallymodified foods. At some point in the story the journalist would say something like"meanwhile, public opinion is still divided..."The following sequence is then inserted:

"I think we need more research. I think we've seen thisproduct arrive on our shelves in a tearing hurry, without anylong-term case histories available for us to look at anypossible harm."

"I think it will be better in the short term, but in the long runit will promote more diseases, some inherited ones like canceror something like that."

"I don't actually have that much of a problem with it. I thinkthat basically science enters every part of our existenceanyhow. Scientists have been genetically modifying animalsand things since the beginning of time, so no, I don't have

much of a problem with it."


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"I don't really have a problem with it myself. I mean, it'scoming up to the year 2000, the new millennium, we're goingto have new changes, aren't we? People have got to get usedto it. If they don't like that, if they can't stand the change,well... get out of the way and let those who can stand thechange look after it."

"I'd prefer not to have it, not to use any of it, but I'm not surewhat's been altered and what hasn't."

Recording Sound for Interviews

Sound quality is especially important in interviews. The audience will be concentratingmore on what the guest is saying than how they look. Without crystal clear sound yourinterview will be irritating to viewers.

Microphones

The first decision is which type of microphone best suits your situation.

Hand-Held Mics

Hand-held mics are versatile and relatively easy to use. They are well-suited to mobileinterviews, and to situations where the interviewer needs to direct the talking (people canonly speak when the interviewer points the mic at them). For more information, see Howto Use a Hand Mic.

Lapel Mics

Lapel (lavalier) mics create high quality,consistent sound. Each person has their ownmic, the mics are (theoretically) always in thecorrect position and unwanted noise isrejected well.

The disadvantage is that they are slower andmore difficult to set up, especially if there area number of guests coming in and out of theIV setting. Also, if the mic position does

happen to go awry, you have to interrupt theinterview to fix it.

Boom Mics

Microphones placed on a boom arm are also very versatile and areused in both studio and mobile settings. The main advantage is thatthe IV participants don't need to be rigged for audio or worry aboutmics, and the sound operator is in full control. The microphone isusually a shotgun (very directional) mic which can easily be pointed toany speaker (or other sound if required).

The boom operator and camera operator need to work together tomake sure the mic stays out of camera shot.


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PZM (Pressure Zone) Mics

PZM mics are useful when a number of participants are seated around a table. The mic isplaced in the middle of the table and can pick up all speakers.

Radio Mics

Any type of microphone can be plugged into a small battery-powered radio transmitter andsent to a receiver at the recording end. This frees the interviewer and guest from therestraints of audio cables. It also means the participants can be a long way from thecamera (which would obviously be on a long zoom).

Built-in Camera Mic

If you're desperate you can use the mic which is built into the camera. However this isunlikely to produce good interview sound.

Mixing and Recording

In the studio, mics will be routed to the sound desk and mixed into the program audio bythe sound operator.

In mobile interviews, the ideal situation is to have adedicated sound operator ("soundie"). The soundie willplug the mics into a portable sound mixer like the onepictured and monitor the audio via a headset. Theoutput of the mixer will either be fed to a portablerecording device or (more commonly) fed to the

camera and recorded on the same tape as the vision.

Audio Traps to Avoid

Many people begin their sentences loudly then tail off. You may need to compensate. Beware microphone handling noise, especially with cheap mics and inexperienced

presenters.

If wind is a problem, use a sock or (preferably) shield the mic. Background music means death in the edit suite. Turn any background music off.

Lighting Interviews

The normal rules of lighting apply to interviews.

If You Have Your Own Lights

You need to decide whether or not they are actually necessary. Although conventionalwisdom says you should control interview lighting yourself if possible, in many situationsthe existing light will be fine and more practical.

Shooting outside

The weather will obviously influence your decision. If the natural light is sufficient theremay be no need to add artificial light.


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If you do use your own lights you will need to add the appropriate gels to match your lightsto the daytime colour temperature. If the sun is too strong you could find a shady location.

Shooting inside

Find the best location - ideally a room with plenty of space and the ability to control

existing light. Unless you have a good reason to use existing light sources, try to eliminatethem all (close curtains, turn off lights, etc). Then set up your own lights.

If You Have No Lighting

In many situations you are limited to the available light. This iswhere a reflector board (pictured) can be a lifesaver. Easy tocarry and use, it can create useful lighting effects and compensatefor unfavourable conditions. If you don't have a reflector boardyou can sometimes improvise with other reflective objects.

Shooting outside

With luck the natural sunlight will be fine, using the sun as thekey light. If the sun is low, be careful not to make the guestsquint. Strong sunlight creates strong shadows which can bebalanced with a reflector.

Shooting inside

Try to avoid mixed lighting, e.g. sunlight through a window mixed with artificial light.Depending on the strength and quality of light sources, you could either turn the artificial

lights off or block out the window light.

Overhead lights aren't desirable as they create ugly shadows on the face. If they are allyou have you may be able to balance them with a reflector.

Camera-Mounted Lights

In many situations a light mounted on the camera is all you have. This iscommon in mobile operations such as news coverage. Although it is asimple, practical solution, it does not produce particularly good lighting

and should only really be used when better lighting is not possible.

Note: Lights which draw power from the camera battery will reduce thebattery's charge time.

Common Lighting TerminologyAmbientLight

The light already present in a scene, before any additional lighting is added.More info: mbient Light

Incident

LightLight seen directly from a light source (lamp, sun, etc).

ReflectedLight Light seen after having bounced off a surface.

Colour A standard of measuring the characteristics of light, measured in kelvins.


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TemperatureMore Info: Colour Temperature ChartContrastRatio

The difference in brightness between the brightest white and the darkestblack within an image.More Info: Contrast Ratio

Key Light The main light on the subject, providing most of the illumination andcontrast.More Info: 3 Point Lighting

Fill Light A light placed to the side of the subject to fill out shadows and balance thekey light.More Info: 3 Point Lighting

Back Light A light placed at the rear of a subject to light from behind.More Info: 3 Point Lighting

Hard Light Light directly from a source such as the sun, traveling undisturbed onto thesubject being lit.

Soft Light Light which appears to "wrap around" the subject to some degree. Producesless shadows or softer shadows.

Spot A controlled, narrowly-focused beam of light.Flood A broad beam of light, less directional and intense than a spot.Tungsten Light from an ordinary light bulb containing a thin coiled tungsten wire that

becomes incandescent (emits light) when an electric current is passed alongit. Tungsten colour temperature is around 2800K to 3400K. Also known asincandescent light.

Halogen Type of lamp in which a tungsten filament is sealed in a clear capsule filledwith a halogen gas.

Fresnel A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface. Thefresnel lens is used to focus the light beam.

IncandescentIncandescent lamps produce heat by heating a wire filament until it glows.The glow is caused by the filament's resistance to the current and iscalledincandescence.

There are many different units for measuring light and it can get very complicated. Hereare a few common measurement terms:

Candela (cd)Unit of luminous intensity of a light source in a specific direction. Also called candle.Technically, the radiation intensity in a perpendicular direction of a surface of 1/600000square metre of a black body at the temperature of solidification platinum under a pressure

of 101,325 newtons per square metre.

Footcandle (fc or ftc)Unit of light intensity, measured in lumens per square foot. The brightness of one candle ata distance of one foot. Approximately 10.7639 lux.

Lumen (lm)Unit of light flow or luminous flux. The output of artificial lights can be measured inlumens.

Lux (lx)Unit of illumination equal to one lumen per square metre. The metric equivalent of foot-

candles (one lux equals 0.0929 footcandles). Also called metre-candle.


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These are some common types of light you'll often hear about in film, video andphotography. Note that these definitions are not always rigid and some people mayinterpret them a little differently.

Blonde 1000-2000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.Redhead 650-1000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.

Pepper Light

100-1000w, small light used as a more focused key or fill light.HMI A high-quality type of light which uses an arc lamp instead of filamentbulb.

Halogen WorkLamp

150-500w, used as a key flood light for lighting large areas. This is a low-budget lighting solution.

Other Lights Domestic light bulbs can be used at a pinch, ideally as a secondary lightsuch as fill or backlight.Many video cameras have built-in lights or the ability to mount a light these are useful in emergencies but provide poor quality lighting.

ChineseLanterns

A low-cost light, useful in some situations.

Instruments / HousingFresnel A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface

which are used to focus the light beam.

Lighting Equipment

Some common types of equipment used in video and photography lighting.

18% GrayCard

A gray-coloured card which reflects 18% of the light which falls uponit. Used as a reference to calibrate light meters and set exposure.

Ballast A device used to control the electrical current in a light.Consoles Hardware and software systems which control lighting. Operated by

the lighting technician, consoles coordinate lighting displays on stages,studios, etc.

Light Meter A tool used to measure light and indicate the ideal exposure setting.Also known as an exposure meter.

ReflectorBoard

A specially-designed reflective surface used to act as a secondary lightsource. The board is lightweight and flexible, and is normally folded upfor transport in a small carry-case.

Gels Materials which are placed in front of a light source to alter it's

characteristics, e.g. colour temperature or dispersion (see diffusiongels).

SpectrometerA professional-level instrument which measures the spectrum of light.Technically speaking, a spectrometer analyses the electromagneticspectrum and measures the intensity of radiation as a function ofwavelength.

Stands &Clamps

Systems used to support lights and hold them in the correct position.


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Colour Temperature Chart

Colour temperature is a standard method of describing colours for use in a range ofsituations and with different equipment. Colour temperatures are normally expressed inunits called kelvins (K). Note that the term degrees kelvin is often used but is nottechnically correct (see below).

Technically speaking...

Colour temperature means the temperature of an ideal black body radiator at which thecolour of the light source and the black body are identical. (A black body is a theoreticalradiator and absorber of energy at all electromagnetic wavelengths.)

Colour Temperature in Video

For video operations the relevant temperatures range from around 2,000K to 8,000K these are common lighting conditions. In practical terms this usually means selecting

lights, gels and filters which are most appropriate to the prevailing light or to create aparticular colour effect. For example, a camera operator will select a "5600K filter" to useoutside in the middle of a sunny day.

Terminology

When referring to the unit kelvin, it is not capitalised unless it is the first word of asentence. The plural is kelvins (e.g. "The light source is approximately 3200 kelvins").

The symbol is a capital K (e.g. "The light source is approximately 3200K"). When referring to the Kelvin scale, it is capitalised (e.g. "The Kelvin scale is named after

William Thomson (1824 1907), also known as Lord Kelvin".


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Degrees kelvin

According to the The International System of Units (SI) , colour temperatures are statedin kelvins, not in degrees Kelvin. The "degrees" part of the name was made obsolete in1967. However, the "degrees" reference has remained in common use in media industries.

Contrast Ratio

Contrast Ratio is a measurement of the difference in brightness between the whitest whiteand the darkest black within an image. A ratio of 300:1 means the brightest point in theimage is 300 times as bright as the darkest point. A higher contrast ratio therefore meansa larger difference in brightness.

Contrast ratio is of interest in two situations:

1. Cameras: When recording an image (video, film, photography)2. TVs, Monitors, etc. When choosing or setting up a playback device (TV, computer

monitor, etc)

The Standard 3-Point Lighting Technique

The Three Point Lighting Technique is a standard method used in visual media such asvideo, film, still photography and computer-generated imagery. It is a simple but versatilesystem which forms the basis of most lighting. Once you understand three point lightingyou are well on the way to understanding all lighting.

The technique uses three lights called the key light, fill light and back light. Naturally

you will need three lights to utilise the technique fully, but the principles are still importanteven if you only use one or two lights. As a rule:

If you only have one light, it becomes the key. If you have 2 lights, one is the key and the other is either the fill or the backlight.

Key Light

This is the main light. It is usually the strongest and has the mostinfluence on the look of the scene. It is placed to one side of thecamera/subject so that this side is well lit and the other side hassome shadow.


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Fill Light

This is the secondary light and is placed on the opposite side ofthe key light. It is used to fill the shadows created by the key. Thefill will usually be softer and less bright than the key. To acheivethis, you could move the light further away or use some spun.

You might also want to set the fill light to more of a flood than thekey.

Back Light

The back light is placed behind the subject and lights it from therear. Rather than providing direct lighting (like the key and fill),its purpose is to provide definition and subtle highlights aroundthe subject's outlines. This helps separate the subject from thebackground and provide a three-dimensional look.

If you have a fourth light, you could use it to light the background of the entire scene.

Video lighting is based on the same principles as lighting for any other visual media.

Light Sources

All video uses some sort of lighting, whether it be natural light (from the sun) or artificiallights. The goal of video lighting is to choose the best source(s) to achieve your goals.

First and foremost you need enough light. You must ensure that your camera is able torecord an acceptable picture in the conditions. With modern cameras this is seldom aproblem except in very low light or strong contrast.

Assuming you have enough light, you must then consider the quality of the light and howthe various light sources combine to produce the image.

If you have clashing light sources (e.g. artificial interior lights with sunlight coming throughthe windows), you may find the colours in your image appear unnatural. It's best to controlthe light sources yourself if possible (e.g. turn off the lights or close the curtains).

When moving between locations, think about what light source you are using. If you movefrom an outside setting to an inside one with artificial lights, the amountof light may seemthe same but the colour temperature will change according to the type of lights. In thiscase you need to white balance your camera for the new light source.

Contrast Ratio

Contrast ratio is the difference in brightness between the brightest and darkest parts of thepicture. Video does not cope with extreme contrast as well as film, and nowhere near aswell as the human eye. The result of over-contrast is that some parts of the picture will be

too bright or too dark to see any detail. For this reason you need to ensure that there isnot too much contrast in your shot.


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Camera-Mounted Lights

The camera-mounted light is an easy, versatile solution used byamateurs and professionals alike. Typically the light will draw power

from the camera battery, although a separate power supply can be used.Be aware that lights which draw power from the camera battery willsignificantly shorten the battery's charge time.

This type of lighting does not create pleasing effects. it is a "bluntinstrument" approach which is really only designed to illuminate the scene enough to allownormal camera operations. However it is a simple, practical solution.

Night-Mode Video Shooting

Some cameras offer a special "night vision" option which allows you to shoot with virtuallyno light. This mode uses infrared light instead of normal visible light.

This is useful in extreme circumstances when you have no other option. Unfortunately theresults tend to be poor-quality monochrome green.

Of course, you can use this mode for a special effect if it suits the content.

Lighting with Background Windows

Shooting pictures indoors with external windows is a common issue for photographers and

video makers. The large difference in light levels between the room and the outside viewmake finding the correct exposure a challenge. Video is particularly susceptible to thisproblem due to it's relatively low contrast ratio.

If you can't avoid having the window in shot, in most cases the only thing you can do isuse the manual iris to set your exposure correctly for the subjects in the room. This meansthat the window will be over-exposed but that's a necessary compromise. If you wish toshow the outside view, expose the iris for the window (which will make the room dark).

If you have time and resources available, there are two things you can do to help even outthe lighting so it's possible to capture both areas effectively:

1. Add more light to the room2. Reduce the light from the window

(1) Increase the Lighting in the Room

Any extra light you can shine on the subject will decrease the contrast ratiobetween them and the window.

In some cases switching on the standard room lighting can help, although thisoften introduces new problems such as clashing colour temperatures and

harsh downward shadows.It's possible that a reflector board could be useful.


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(2) Reduce the Light from the Window

You can reduce the amount of light coming through the window by placing some sort offilter over it.

In the example pictured here, black scrim (a fine mesh

material) is taped to the window. You can see that thebackground is much more manageable through thescrim.

If the entire window needs to be in shot you'll need tobe careful and discreet with the scrim/filter. It can bedifficult getting exactly the right fit. If only part of thewindow is in shot it's a lot easier.

Filters can cause unwanted side effects such as rippleand the moire effect. Being further away from thewindow helps.

Lighting EffectsCold / Warm

You can add to the feeling of coldness or warmth by using additional filters or doubling upon gels. Very blue means very cold, very red/orange means very hot.

Moonlight (or any night-time light)

This is an old standard technique which has become something of a clich. You can make

daytime seem like night by lowering the exposure slightly and adding a blue filter to thecamera. However a convincing illusion may require more effort than this you don't wantany daytime giveaways such as birds flying through shot. You also need to think about anyother lighting which should appear in shot, such as house or street lights.

Firelight

To light a person's face as if they were looking at a fire, try this: Point a redhead withorange gel away from the subject at a large reflector which reflects the light back at thesubject. Shake the reflector to simulate firelight (remember to add sound effects as well).

Watching TV

To light a person's face as if they were watching TV, shine a blue light at the subject andwave a piece of cloth or paper in front of the light to simulate flickering.

Use "Real" Lights

Some filmmakers prefer to use natural light and "real" light sources.

DIY Lighting Kit

Professional lighting kits for video and photography are very expensive. Fortunately for the

budget-impaired enthusiast, it is possible to put together a perfectly adequate lighting kitfor less than $US100.

A good beginner's lighting kit should include:


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Three (or more) lights with stands Reflector board(s) Power cables, extension leads and a multi-box.

The standard budget light is the halogen work lamp which can be found at any hardwarestore or purchased at amazon.com for as little as $US10. These come with or without astand and range from around 150W to 500W.

The stand-less units have a small handle and can be rested on any solid surface such as atable or the floor. This is not ideal for your main lights but it can be useful for fill lighting,backgrounds, etc. In any case these units are so cheap that it can't hurt to buy a couple.

Lights with stands are more versatile and you should have at least one of these (preferablytwo or three). Try to find a stand which goes up to around 2 metres (the height of a tallperson). Taller than 2 metres would be even better but this type of light stand doesn'tnormally go that high.

Some lights (like the W12665 unit pictured) can be used with or without the stand, makingthem even more versatile.

One drawback of these cheap lights is that the colour of the light is quite yellow. As long asyou white-balance your camera this isn't a huge issue, but if you want the best qualitylighting you can try one of these solutions:

1. Purchase a 32K white bulb (ask your hardware supplier).2. Place a coloured gel in front of the light to correct the colour.

Speaking of gels, the other big drawback of these lights is that there is no built-in system

for mounting accessories like gels and diffusers. You can improvise by creating a wireholder or separate stand for accessories.

You will also find that you can't alter the spread of these lights, i.e. from floodlight tospotlight. This is not a big concern for most people but if you do need this functionality youmight need to consider a professional video lighting kit.

Reflectors

Professional reflector boards are used to add or control light in a

scene. You can make your own from just about any large reflectiveobject, although the exact colour and reflectivity will obviously affectyour lighting. Common suggestions for an improvised reflectorinclude:

Windshield sunshade (pictured) Sheet of foamcore Polystyrene sheet Stiff cardboard, or tin foil on cardboard (try both sides of the foil for

different effects)

Whiteboard Survival blanket (gold on one side and silver on the other)


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Hobby shops have a lot of items which may be of interest. Online auction sites are alsoworth checking as reflectors can often be found fairly cheap there.

Power

You will need a few power extension cables of varying lengths, plus one or more multi-

boxes with built-in trip switches. It helps to have a separate carry case for power cables.Safety

Lights get very hot! Seriously, you can burn yourself badly or set fire to things. Lights can draw a lot of current so be careful not to overload power sources. If you're working outside, use an isolating transformer on your power.

Lighting Safety Tips

Keep bystanders away from lights they are notorious for knocking them over.

Always be extremely careful with the heat created by lights. The barn doors can burn yourfingers. Wait until lights cool down before touching or moving them.

Don't handle bulbs with your fingers use a piece of cloth or something else.

Only use material for gels which is specifically designed for lighting. Don't use paper,tracing paper, baking paper, plastic, etc. Never attach anything to a light which isn'tdesigned for the application.

Make sure stands are stable and loose cables are taped to the ground.

Lights are power-hungry don't overload sockets. Never plug more than 2Kw of lighting

into a domestic power point.Make sure all lights have adequate ventilation and never cover them.

Tips for Lighting People

Harsh light is not flattering; soft light creates a warmer feel.

Avoid strong nose shadows or any strong contrast on the face. Place the key light on thesame side as the camera and fill the shadows.

Avoid reflections from glasses. You may need to adjust the position of the subject and/orlights to do this.

Beware bald heads they can reflect a lot of light and appear over-exposed. Tryweakening or softening the light with a diffusion gel.

Soft light and diffusion helps reduce the appearance of wrinkles.

General Lighting Tips

You can use a frosted shower curtain to create diffusion. Hang the curtain in front of thelight(s) but be careful the curtain will melt if you get too close!

Use a chinese lantern for a nice soft close-up light.

Editing Interviews


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Before you shoot your interview you must know how it will be edited. For example, if thereare going to be lots of other shots inserted you may want to hold a static shot throughoutthe IV so that these shots can easily be added anywhere. On the other hand, if there is tobe little or no editing you may want to vary your shots to maintain interest.

Despite the many different styles of interview, most have a fairly common basic structure.

The following example outlines a typical approach:

Establishing

Shot

A very wide shot which shows the location. Not always

necessary.

2-Shot A visual introduction to both interview participants

(interviewer and guest). Usually a wide shot or MCU.

1-Shot Begin concentrating on the guest with an MCU and overlay

name/title key.

Questions &Noddies

While most of the interview concentrates on the guest, theinterviewer is occasionally shown asking and responding

to questions.

Cutaways When appropriate, relevant cutaways can be dropped in.

Cutting Between Interviewer and Guest

The most common edit is the cut between shots of interviewer and guest, whether it be

live cuts between cameras or post-production edits.

The natural instinct is to cut exactly between the end of a question and the beginning ofthe answer. However this tends to look stilted. Try cutting a little before or after thequestion/answer is complete.

In live multi-camera situations it's easy to get caught behind the action, cutting to thewrong person at the wrong time. This can happen, for example, when you expect oneperson to speak but another person does. Do not "chase" the person speaking - it's betterto have a shot of someone else listening for a few seconds than to cut quickly to thespeaker and draw attention to your mistake. If you have the luxury of a wide shot, this canoften get you out of trouble.

Back-Cut Questions

If you are using one camera and the IV is to be edited in post-production, the usual routineis to concentrate your framing on the guest during the interview. Then when the interviewhas finished you reposition the camera to face the interviewer and shoot them asking thequestions again. The interviewer is in exactly the same position as they were during the IV,facing the empty space where the guest was (which is of course out of shot). These shotsare then inserted into the interview over the original questions. The result is an interview

which looks like it was shot with two cameras.


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Obviously it's important to record the back-cut questions exactly the same as they wereasked during the actual IV. You will usually have a pre-prepared list of questions to helpyou, but you should also make notes during the IV of any new questions.

Make sure your positioning and eyelines are consistent, as well as microphone placement.

Noddies

"Noddy" is the term given to a shot of the interviewer reacting to the guest. Theinterviewer may be nodding, smiling, frowning, looking concerned, etc.

Noddies perform two functions.

To include the interviewer and show their reactions. To provide edit points.

Noddies are shot in the same way as the back-cut questions. The interviewer faces the

same direction and provides a series of nods, smiles a

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