Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  

Michael  Soendermann  Office  for  Culture  Industries  Research,    

Cologne,  Germany    

Symposium  at  the  Graduate  School  Humani?es,  Kobe  University,  Japan,  14/15-­‐12-­‐2013      

Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  

•  The  Culture  &  Crea?ve  Industries  and  Sectors  in  Europe  •  Measurement  through  strengthening  the  evidence  base  focussed  

on  rigorous  data  collec?on  •  Fragmented  culture  area  (47  states  European  Council)  leads  to  

fragmented  quan?ta?ve  data      

How  can  people  beVer  understand  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries/sectors?  

–  normally  people  are  interested  in  film,  music  or  dance  –  not  in  data  collec?on  

How  can  policy  makers  beVer  understand  the  CCI/CCS?  

2  

Overview  

•  Interna?onal  Debate  on  Cultural  Data  Base  

•  Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  by  Concepts?  –  Conceptual  Framework  

•  Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  for  Poli?cs?    –  Economic,  social  and  cultural  value  added  

•  Conclusion  

•  References  

3  

Interna?onal  Debate    on  Cultural  Data  Base  

4  

The  most  recent  Studies  on  Arts,  Culture  and  the  Crea?ve  Sector  

5  

Understanding China

China Cultural and Creative Industry Reports 2013

Hardy Yong XiangPatricia Walker Editors

Oct  2013   Dec  2013  Nov  2013  

CREATIVE ECONOMY REPORT

> WIDENING LOCAL DEVELOPMENT PATHWAYS

2013 SPECIAL EDITION

2013

WIPO STUDIES ON THE ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION

OF THE COPYRIGHT INDUSTRIES

OVERVIEW

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

Sep  2013  

Contribu?on  of  Copyright  Industries  to  GDP  

6  Source:  World  Intellectual  Property  Organiza?on  (2013):  WIPO  Studies  on  the  Economic  Contribu?on  of  the  Copyright  Industries,  Geneva  

3

Chart 2: Contribution of Copyright Industries to GDP4

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

USA

KOREA

ST LUCIA

HUNGARY

AUSTRALIA

ST KITTS/N

EVIS

CHINA

PANAMA

SINGAPORE

RUSSIA

NETHERLANDS

MALAYSIA

ST VINCENT

ROMANIA

BHUTAN

LITHUANIA

CANADA

KENYA

SLOVENIA

LATVIA

FINLAND

PHILIPPINES

JAMAIC

A

TRINID

AD AND TOBAGO

MEXICO

LEBANON

GRENADA

TANZANIA

BULGARIA

THAILAND

PAKISTAN

CROATIA

SOUTH AFRIC

A

DOMINIC

A

COLOMBIA

UKRAINEPERU

JORDAN

BRUNEI

Source: WIPO

2.1.2. Contribution to National Employment

The contribution of copyright industries to national employment is slightly higher than the share of GDP and stands at an average of 5.49%. Nearly three quarters of the countries fall in the range between 4% and 7% contribution to national employment. Mexico and the Philippines have by far the highest share of their labor force in the copyright Industries. Most countries with above average share of creative industries5 in GDP also exhibit above average share of employment. Chart 3: Contribution of Copyright Industries to National Employment

0.00%

2.00%

4.00%

6.00%

8.00%

10.00%

12.00%

PHILIPPINES

MEXICO

BHUTAN

NETHERLANDSUSA

AUSTRALIA

MALAYSIA

RUSSIA

HUNGARY

SLOVENIACHIN

A

KOREA

SINGAPORE

COLOMBIA

TANZANIA

LATVIA

CANADA

FINLAND

TRINID

AD AND TOBAGO

LITHUANIA

BULGARIA

KENYA

ST VINCENT

DOMINIC

A

CROATIAPERU

ST LUCIA

LEBANON

ROMANIA

SOUTH AFRIC

A

PAKISTAN

BRUNEI

PANAMA

ST KITTS/N

EVIS

JORDAN

JAMAIC

A

GRENADA

THAILAND

UKRAINE

Source: WIPO

WIPO  

Share  of  Cultural  Employment  in  total  Employment  2011  

its «International Cultural Flows» reportseries. It is anticipated that UIS willpublish a fifth in the series (and secondfor UIS) in 2014. Using the latest dataand according to the 2009 UNESCOFramework for Cultural Statistics (FCS)methodology, this new report will providean additional step forward inunderstanding and valuing the globalflows of cultural goods and services.

In terms of methodology, UIS releasedthe 2009 UNESCO FCS, which providesconcepts and definitions to guide theproduction of comparable statistics, aswell as to support the development ofindicators and analytical research of theculture sector. The 2009 UNESCO FCSis a tool to organize cultural statisticsnationally and internationally. Since itsrelease, the 2009 UNESCO FCS hasbeen used by countries in differentways. Canada took into considerationthe 2009 UNESCO FCS when itdeveloped its new 2011 FCS whileBosnia Herzegovina, Fiji, Mongolia andSouth Africa have plans to develop andimplement their own nationalframeworks, all adopting elements of the2009 UNESCO FCS. BosniaHerzegovina also undertook a gapanalysis (policy and statistical level)using the UNESCO 2009 FCS as a basisfor analysis while China developed itsown classification for its “Framework forCultural Industries” using the UNESCO2009 FCS as a model. Kenya createdits own definition of culture based on the2009 UNESCO FCS model andundertook a “Mapping Exercise onCreative Cultural Industries”.Meanwhile, Seychelles used the coding

171C R E AT I V E E C O N O M Y R E P O R T 2 0 1 3

Figure 1 Contrasting trends between global admissions and box office, 2005-2011

10

9

8

7

6

52005 2006

Admissions

Bill

ion

of A

dmis

sion

s

Bill

ion

of U

SD

GBO

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

35

30

25

20

15

10

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2013) Emerging Markets and the Digitalisation of the Film Industry. Montreal: UIS.

Figure 2 Share of cultural employment in total employment

7%6.51

6.24

5.295.02 4.99

4.674.45

4.24

3.43 3.41 3.34

2.20

1.54 1.38

6%

5%

4%

3%

2%

0%

1%

Switz

erlan

d

Swed

en

United

King

dom

USA

Netherl

ands

Austr

ia

Franc

e

Hunga

ry

Urugua

y

Polan

d

Slova

k Rep

ublic

Macao

, Chin

a SAR

Roman

iaQata

r

Shar

e of

Cul

tura

l Em

ploy

men

t

Source: UIS, 2013

7  Source:  UN/UNDP/UNESCO,  Crea?ve  Economy  Report  2013.  Special  Edi?on,  New  York  

UNESCO-­‐UIS  

U.S.  Arts  and  Cultural  Produc?on  1998  -­‐2011  

1

ACPSA Issue Brief #3: Arts and Cultural Production and the Recession of 2007-2009

The arts suffered more than the overall economy during the severe recession of 2007-2009. Between 1998 and 2006, the production of arts and cultural goods and services made up roughly 3.5 to 3.7 percent of U.S. GDP. Even during the relatively mild recession of 2001, the arts were nearly 3.6 percent of the U.S. economy.

In 2007, however, the arts and cultural economy fell to 3.3 percent of GDP, and it dipped further to 3.2 percent in 2009. The production of arts and cultural goods and services stabilized in 2010 and posted a modest gain in 2011, when arts and cultural production composed almost 3.3 percent of the U.S. economy.

2.9%

3.0%

3.1%

3.2%

3.3%

3.4%

3.5%

3.6%

3.7%

3.8%

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Arts and Cultural Production as a Percentage of U.S. GDP: 1998-2011

Data source: Arts and Cultural Production Satellite Account (ACPSA), U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Recession of 2007-2009

Office of Research & Analysis National Endowment for the Arts December 2013

8  Source:  Office  of  Research  &  Analysis,  NEA,  Washington,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce/BEA    

U.S.  Department  of  Commerce  

The  true  Value  through  Indicators?  

•  Three  different  indicators  give  three  different  values  for  the  U.S..:  11%,  5%,  3%  

•  Are  Indicators  right  or  wrong?  •  Are  Data  bases  right  or  wrong?  •  Are  Comparisons  right  or  wrong?  

•  A  reliable  indicator  can  s?mulate  the  debate  on  CCI/CCS  poli?cs  

9  

Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  by  Concepts?    

10  

The  Term  ‘Culture  and  Crea?ve  Industries‘  is  ambiguous  

•  Defining  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries  is  complex  and  difficult.    

•  That‘s  because  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries  in  Europe  are  always  changing  and  developing.  

•  This  is  a  serious  scien?fic  problem!  

11  

.

The  scien?fic  community  is  very  heterogeneous  

•  In  Europe,  the  main  source  of  disagreement  are  different  concepts  of  crea?vity:  

–  Crea?vity    is  innova?on  –  Crea?vity  is  spill-­‐over  –  Crea?vity  is  part  of  the  ecology  –  Crea?vity  is  everywhere  in  the  economy  –  Crea?vity  is  a  holis?c  term  

•  The  broader  the  concepts,  the  poorer  the  empirical  results!  

12  

.

Conceptual  Framework  1.  Theory    2.  Methodology    3.  Analysis  

13  

1.  Theory:  UNESCO  Defini?on  

http://www.uis.unesco.org/

>> 1.4 CONTEXT AND CONTOURSOF THE CREATIVE ECONOMY

Modified policy responses are needed when addressing thecreative economy as it differs from other economic sectors.Policy-making in this field has tended to follow genericindustrial models, despite the fact that the creative econo-my functions differently. There is still too much of acookie-cutter approach in this field, which harms regionaland local specificity.10 Hence, there are few current policy

frameworks that are well positioned to encourage such anapproach. The creative economy differs from other sectorsthrough its organizational forms and the market risk associ-ated with new products. Micro-enterprise is more commonin this sector than in others, particularly in developing coun-tries; Yet even there, three layers are to be found: smallindependent producers; quasi-independent subsidiariesserving larger firms; and very large companies (often multi-nationals) in fields, such as film-making and publishing.

The creative economy is simultaneously linked to the

all human beings are caught up in rhythms, movements,relationships and exchanges of resources. These phe-nomena are grounded and lived, and guided by culturalnorms and predilections. As we investigate the culturaland creative industries in diverse local settings around the

world, this perspective helps to deliver the conceptualreframing sought in this Report. The breadth and diversityof the cultural economy are captured in the 2009UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics and illustratedin figure 1.4 below.

25C R E AT I V E E C O N O M Y R E P O R T 2 0 1 3

10 Ross, A. (2009)

Figure 1.4 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics Domains

Source: 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics, p. 24.

CULTURAL DOMAINS

The Cultural EconomyBased on UNESCO’S Framework for Cultural Statistics

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERTIAGE(oral traditions and expressions, rituals, languages, social practices)

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ARCHIVING AND PRESERVING

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORTING MATERIALS

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERTIAGE

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ARCHIVING AND PRESERVING

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORTING MATERIALS

RELATED DOMAINS

A. Cultural and Natural Heritage– Museums

(also virtual)– Archeological

and Historical Places

– Cultural Landscapes

– Natural Heritage

B. Performance and Celebration– Performing Arts– Music– Festivals, Fairs

and Feasts

C. Visual Arts and Crafts– Fine Arts– Photography– Crafts

D. Books and Press– Books– Newspaper and

Magazine– Other printed

matter– Library

(also virtual) – Book Fairs

E. Audio-visual and Interactive Media– Film and Video– TV and Radio (also Internet

Live streaming)– Internet

Podcasting– Video Games

(also online)

F. Design and Creative Services– Fashion Design– Graphic Design– Interior Design– Landscape

Design– Architectural

Services– Advertising

Services

G. Tourism– Charter Travel

and Tourist Services

– Hospitality and Accommodation

H. Sports and Recreation– Sports– Physical Fitness

and Well Being– Amusement and

Theme parks– Camping

2.  Methodology:  UNESCO  Sta?s?cs  Classifica?on  

http://www.uis.unesco.org/

>> 1.4 CONTEXT AND CONTOURSOF THE CREATIVE ECONOMY

Modified policy responses are needed when addressing thecreative economy as it differs from other economic sectors.Policy-making in this field has tended to follow genericindustrial models, despite the fact that the creative econo-my functions differently. There is still too much of acookie-cutter approach in this field, which harms regionaland local specificity.10 Hence, there are few current policy

frameworks that are well positioned to encourage such anapproach. The creative economy differs from other sectorsthrough its organizational forms and the market risk associ-ated with new products. Micro-enterprise is more commonin this sector than in others, particularly in developing coun-tries; Yet even there, three layers are to be found: smallindependent producers; quasi-independent subsidiariesserving larger firms; and very large companies (often multi-nationals) in fields, such as film-making and publishing.

The creative economy is simultaneously linked to the

all human beings are caught up in rhythms, movements,relationships and exchanges of resources. These phe-nomena are grounded and lived, and guided by culturalnorms and predilections. As we investigate the culturaland creative industries in diverse local settings around the

world, this perspective helps to deliver the conceptualreframing sought in this Report. The breadth and diversityof the cultural economy are captured in the 2009UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics and illustratedin figure 1.4 below.

25C R E AT I V E E C O N O M Y R E P O R T 2 0 1 3

10 Ross, A. (2009)

Figure 1.4 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics Domains

Source: 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics, p. 24.

CULTURAL DOMAINS

The Cultural EconomyBased on UNESCO’S Framework for Cultural Statistics

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERTIAGE(oral traditions and expressions, rituals, languages, social practices)

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ARCHIVING AND PRESERVING

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORTING MATERIALS

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERTIAGE

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ARCHIVING AND PRESERVING

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPORTING MATERIALS

RELATED DOMAINS

A. Cultural and Natural Heritage– Museums

(also virtual)– Archeological

and Historical Places

– Cultural Landscapes

– Natural Heritage

B. Performance and Celebration– Performing Arts– Music– Festivals, Fairs

and Feasts

C. Visual Arts and Crafts– Fine Arts– Photography– Crafts

D. Books and Press– Books– Newspaper and

Magazine– Other printed

matter– Library

(also virtual) – Book Fairs

E. Audio-visual and Interactive Media– Film and Video– TV and Radio (also Internet

Live streaming)– Internet

Podcasting– Video Games

(also online)

F. Design and Creative Services– Fashion Design– Graphic Design– Interior Design– Landscape

Design– Architectural

Services– Advertising

Services

G. Tourism– Charter Travel

and Tourist Services

– Hospitality and Accommodation

H. Sports and Recreation– Sports– Physical Fitness

and Well Being– Amusement and

Theme parks– Camping

CORE  DOMAINS  WORK  TABLES  

3.  Analysis:  Basic  model  for  measuring  the  economic  contribu?on  of  cultural  industries    

16  

Indicator   Measure  

Gross  value  added  

Gross  value  added/GDP  of  cultural  industries  or  sub-­‐sectors  Gross  value  added/GDP  of  cultural  industries  in  rela?ve  terms  Distribu?on  of  gross  value  added/GDP  by  sub-­‐sectors  

Turnover   Turnover  of  cultural  industries  or  sub-­‐sectors    Turnover  of  cultural  industries  in  rela?ve  terms    Distribu?on  of  turnover  by  cultural  industries  sub-­‐sectors    

Employment   Contribu?on  of  cultural  industries  employment  to  total  employment    Distribu?on  of  employment  in  cultural  industries  sub-­‐sectors    Volume  and  share  of  self-­‐  employment    Labour  produc?vity  in  cultural  industries    

Business  ac?vity  

Stock  of  business    Distribu?on  of  businesses  by  sub-­‐  sectors    Business  start-­‐ups    Business  mortality    Distribu?on  of  start-­‐ups  by  sub-­‐  sector    Distribu?on  of  business  mortality    

Source:  Hris?na  Mikic  (2012):  Measuring  the  economic  contribu?on  of  cultural  industries.  2009  Framework  for  Cultural  Sta?s?cs  Handbook  No.1  published  by  UNESCO  Ins?tute  for  Sta?s?cs,  Montreal  

Measuring  the  true  Value  of  Culture  for  Poli?cs?    

17  

Poli;cs  

•  How  can  policy  makers  beVer  understand  the  culture  &  crea?ve  indstries  and  sectors  (CCI/CCS)?  

1.  The  economic  value  of  CCI/CCS  

2.  The  social  value  of  CCI/CCS  

3.  The  cultural  value  of  CCI/CCS  

18  

Poli;cs:  1.  Economic  Value  Added  

•  Many  na?onal  and  interna?onal  studies  have  analysed  the  economic  value  added  in  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries.    

•  The  analysis  shall  be  con?nued  for  the  European  countries  on  a  strictly  compara?ve  data  basis.    

•  The  empiric  evidence  of  the  economic  value  of  the  culture  and  crea;ve  industries  is  one  of  the  most  important  messages  to  society.  

•  However,  the  economic  perspec;ve  on  the  culture  and  crea;ve  industries  as  such  is  not  sufficient  any  more.    

•  The  strengths  of  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries  are  to  be  found  in  their  wider  spectrum.    

19  

Poli;cs:  1.  Economic  Value  Added    

20  

Basic  Indicator:  Contribu?on  of  Culture  Crea?ve  Industries    in  Europe  to  GDP,  2010      Common  data  collec;on:  EU-­‐Structural  business  sta?s?cs    Common  defini;on:  2009  UNESCO  FCS    European  region:  25  countries  from  47  countries  in  Europe  

above  average  

1,2%  1,3%  1,4%  1,5%  1,5%  1,6%  1,6%  1,7%  1,9%  1,9%  

2,0%  2,0%  2,0%  2,1%  2,1%  

2,2%  2,3%  2,4%  2,5%  2,5%  

2,8%  2,9%  3,0%  3,1%  3,2%  

2,4%  

0,0%   1,0%   2,0%   3,0%   4,0%  

Lithuania  Czech  Republic  

Portugal  Romania  Bulgaria  Slovakia  

Luxembourg  Beglium  Croa?a  Hungary  

Latvia  Slovenia  

Italy  Spain  

Estonia  

Austria  France  Poland  Cyprus  

Germany  

Denmark  Finland  

United  Kingdom  Sweden  

Netherlands  EU-­‐25*  

average  

below  average  

far  below  average  

above  average  

 Note:  *EU-­‐25  without  Malta,  Irland,  Greece    Source:  Eurostat,  Brussels;  Office  for  Culture  Industries  Research  Cologne  (Germany)  

Poli;cs:  2.  Social  Value  Added  

•  Due  to  its  diversity  of  employment  forms  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries  (CCI)  gain  more  and  more  importance  as  a  factor  in  employment  policy.    

•  CCI  offer  jobs  to  highly  qualified  as  well  as  less  qualified  employees.    •  CCI  make  an  important  contribu?on  to  gender  balance  and  immigrant  

integra?on  issues.  

•  CCI  are  a  less  capital  intensive  and  more  labour  intensive  economic  sector  and  thus  have  a  posi;ve  influence  on  the  social  cohesion  of  a  society.    

•  Therefore  CCI  can  contribute  greatly  to  ‘social  value  added’  in  a  society.        

21  

Poli;cs:  2.  Employment  Diversity  in  the  Culture  and  Crea?ve  Sector  

Labour  Market  Culture  Crea;ve  

Sector    

Self-­‐  Employed  

Culturally  Self-­‐Employed*  

Ecnomically  Self-­‐Employed  

Regulary  Employee  with  social  insurance  

contract      

Full  ?me  Employee  

Part  ?me  Employee  

Marginally  Employee**  

Full  ?me  Employee  

Short  ?me  Employee  

Volunteer  

22  Notes:  *Low-­‐Income  Self-­‐Employed  =  less  than  17.500  €  annual  turnover  in  Germany;  **Marginally  Employee  =  only  short-­‐term  contracts  or  salaries  up  to  400  €  monthly  in  Germany  

23  

•  Cultural  value  added  by  ar?sts,  cultural  and  crea?ve  workers  is  the  very  basis  of  economic  and  social  value  added  in  the  culture  and  crea?ve  industries.    

•  The  ar;s;c,  cultural  and  crea;ves  milieus  are  the  point  of  departure  for  culture  and  crea;ve  industries  

•  What  are  the  working  and  living  condi?ons  of  ar?sts  and  crea?ve  workers  in  the  European  countries?    

•  Are  ar;sts  and  crea;ves  able  to  contribute  novel  ideas  to  the  great  ques;ons  society?  

Poli;cs:  3.  Cultural  Value  Added  

Poli;cs:  3.  The  “vola?le“  Life  for  Ar?sts  and  Crea?ves  

24  

100  

117  

129  

115  

98  100  96   98  

95   95  100  

97   96  

118  

109  

100  

89  92  

95  

102  

80  

90  

100  

110  

120  

130  

140  

2008   2009   2010   2011   2012  

Inde

x  2008  =  100  

Ar;sts  and  Crea;ves  Employment    

Denmark  

Netherlands  

Finland  

Sweden  

UK  

Source:  Labour  Force  Survey  2013;  own  calcula?ons  Office  for  Culture  Industries  Research,  Cologne  Germany  

Conclusion  

25  

The  true  Value  of  Culture  

Three  dimensions  of  value:  •  Economic  value  is  more  than  just  economic  impact  •  Social  value  will  become  much  more  important  •  Cultural  value  will  hopefully  be  at  the  core  of  future  measures  

These  need  a  strong  empirical  basis*:  •  Framework  defini?on  must  be  clear,  unequivocal,  detailed  •  Necessity  to  work  towards  improving  interna?onal  standards  •  Framework  should  be  modular    •  Classifica?on  more  important  than  structure  •  Comparability  is  a  recurring  theme  •  Robustness  →  comparability  →  credibility  

26  Source:  *Gordon,  John  C  (2006):  Interna?onal  Measurement  of  Culture,  OECD-­‐Workshop  ,  Paris  4/5.12.2006  

Thank  you  for  your  aVen?on  

 Ques?ons  and  Comments    Michael  Soendermann  Office  for  Culture  Industries  Research,  Cologne,  Germany    email:  soendermann@kulturwirtschax.de  hVp://www.kulturwirtschax.de  

   

27  

References  

•  For  most  up  to  date  informa;on:  hVp://www.kulturwirtschaX.de  •  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2012).  Monitoring  of  Selected  Economic  Key  Data  on  Culture  and  

Crea?ve  Industries  2011.  Summary  version.  Issued  by  German  Federal  Ministry  of  Economics  and  Technology,  Berlin.  

•  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2012).  Monitoring  of  Selected  Economic  Key  Data  on  Culture  and  Crea?ve  Industries  2010.  Summary  version.  Issued  by  German  Federal  Ministry  of  Economics  and  Technology,  Berlin.  

•  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2012).  Culture  &  Crea?ve  Industries:  Defini?ons  and  Economic  Development  in  Europe.  Presenta?on  Workshop  German  Working  Group  on  Cultural  Sta?s?cs,  Cologne.  

•  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2012).  Short  Analysis  of  the  Cultural  Labour  Market  and  Ar?sts’  Market  in  Germany,  based  on  the  UNESCO  FCS  Model.  Commissioned  by  the  German  Commission  for  UNESCO,  Bonn.  

•  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2011).  Defini?on  of  Cultural  Industries  within  the  TF  3  Framework,  in:  ESSnet  Culture.  European  Sta?s?cal  System  Network  on  Culture  (2012),  European  Commission.  

•  SOENDERMANN,  Michael  (2011).  Music  Industry,  in:  German  Music  Council  (2011).  Musical  life  in  Germany.  

28