mb0050 fall drive assignment 2011 research methodology

8/2/2019 MB0050 Fall Drive Assignment 2011 Research Methodology

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MB0050 –Research Methodology Assignment – Set - 1

1. a. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of each.b. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

Ans : Many statistics books begin by defining the different kinds of variables you might want to analyze. Thisscheme was developed by Stevens and published in 1946.

A categorical variable, also called a nominal variable, is for mutual exclusive, but not ordered,categories. For example, your study might compare five different genotypes. You can code the fivegenotypes with numbers if you want, but the order is arbitrary and any calculations (for example,computing an average) would be meaningless.

A ordinal variable, is one where the order matters but not the difference between values. For example,you might ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the difference between the 7and the 5 may not be the same as that between 5 and 3. The values simply express an order. Anotherexample would be movie ratings, from

A interval variable is a measurement where the difference between two values is meaningful. Thedifference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between90 degrees and 80 degrees.

A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0.When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height, weight, enzymeactivity are ratio variables. Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable. A temperature of0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no temperature'. However, temperature in degrees Kelvinin a ratio variable, as 0.0 degrees Kelvin really does mean 'no temperature'. Another counter exampleis pH. It is not a ratio variable, as pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is fairlyarbitrary. A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!). When working with ratiovariables, but not interval variables, you can look at the ratio of two measurements. A weight of 4 gramsis twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable. A temperature of 100 degrees C is nottwice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature C is not a ratio variable. A pH of 3 is not twice asacidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable.

MEASUREMENT is any process by which a value is assigned to the level or state of some quality of an

object of study. This value is given numerical form, and measurement therefore involves the expressionof information in quantifies rather than by verbal statement. It provides a powerful means of reducingqualitative data to a more condensed form for summarization, manipulation, and analysis. Classicalmeasurement theory argues that numbers may perform at least three purposes in representing values:(1) as tags, identification marks, or labels; (2) as signs to indicate the position of a degree of a quality ina series of degrees; and (3) as signs indicating the quantitative relations between qualities. On someoccasions, numbers may fulfill all three functions at once (Cohen and Nagel, 1934).

One of the most influential twentieth-century statements of the classical approach was that of psycho-physicist S. S. Stevens , who proposed four scales or degrees of measurement: nominal, ordinal,interval, and ratio measurement (1946, 1975). Nominal and ordinal measurement is nonmetric; intervaland ratio measurement is metric. These theoretical standards are translated in measurement standardsin the physical world through organizations such as the United States National Bureau of Standards

(NBS). The NBS provides state, county, and local officials with technical and operational guides that setout measurement specifications, standard tolerances, and model laws designed to support the physicalmeasurement system (Hunter, 1980: 869). The primary standards are those of the International Systemof Units (SI units) and are seven: length (meter, m), mass (kilogram, kg); time (second, s); electriccurrent (ampere, A); temperature (kelvin, k); luminous intensity (candela, cd); and amount of substance(mole, mol) (Zebrowski, 1979).

This scientific paradigm of physical measurement provides a model the social sciences, or some socialscientists, seek to emulate. The quotation from scientist Lord Kelvin carved on Chicago's SocialScience Research Building reflects that aspiration. The poet e. e. Cummings‟s skepticism reflectsdoubts as to whether the aspiration is worthwhile in the first place. The place of measurement in socialscience research is a contentious issue; this tension runs through social science disciplines such as

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sociology and political science. It is reflected in the ambivalence with which many social scientists lookupon research methods such as social survey research. The aim of this article is to consider some ofthe hindrances to improved measurement of the social. There has been a notable failure to agree onstandards for social measurement (as distinct from psychological or economic measurement), whetherin terms of social indicators and conceptual unification, or at the practical level of operationalizingvariables.

The Scope of Social Measurement Social scientists take up differing positions in relation to the value of what is involved in social

measurement. Some part of this may be due to resistance to, or ambivalence about, the place of

numbers in the realm of knowledge, coupled with inability to appreciate the role that number may play(cf. Paulos, 1988). But the issue cannot be reduced, in T. D. Weldon's phrase, to "like a taste for icecream." The merits of measurement in social science, and the obstacles to measurement, need to beset out and debated. In this way, some of the passions the subject enflames may be restrained andcooled.

2. a. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems?b. Why literature survey is important in research?

Ans : What Makes People do Research?This is a fundamentally important question. No personwould like to do research unless there are some motivatingfactors. Some of the motivations are the following:

(1) to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better employ - ment,

promotion, increment in salary, etc.

(2) to get a research degree and then to get a teach- ing position in a college or university or become a

scientist in a research institution

(3) to get a research position in countries like U.S.A.,Canada, Germany, England, Japan, Australia, etc. and settle there

(4) to solve the unsolved and challenging problems(5) to get joy of doing some creative work(6) to acquire respectability(7) to get recognition(8) curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event

Importance of Research

Research is important both in scientific and nonscien- tific fields. In our life new problems, events, phenom-

ena and processes occur every day. Practically imple- mentable solutions and suggestions are required for

tack- ling new problems that arise. Scientists have to under- take research on them and find their causes,

solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural

phenomena.

Some important avenues for research are:

(1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a

government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a

thorough understanding and possible solution.

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(2) Research on existing theories and concepts help usidentify the range and applications of them.(3) It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guide-lines for solving problems.

(4) Research provides basis for many government poli- cies. For example, research on the needs and desires

of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget.

(5) It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality ofproducts.

(6) Mathematical and logical research on business andindustry optimizes the problems in them.(7) It leads to the identification and characterizationof new materials, new living things, new stars, etc.

(8) Only through research can inventions be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and processes

such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.

(9) Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek so-

lution to social problems.

(10) Research leads to a new style of life and makes itdelightful and glorious .

Emphasizing the importance of research Louis Pasteur said “I beseech you to take interest in these sacred

do- mains called laboratories. Ask that there be more and that they be adorned for these are the temples of the

future, wealth and well-being. It is here that humanity will learn to read progress and individual harmony in the

works of nature, while humanity‟s own works are all too often those of babarism, fanaticism and destruc - tion.”

(Louis Paster – article by S.Mahanti, Dream 2047, p.29 –34 (May 2003)).

In order to know what it means to do research one may read scientific autobiographies like RichardFeynmann‟s “Surely you are joking, Mr.Feynmann!”, Jim Watson‟s “The double helix”, “Science as a way of life

– A biogra- phy of C.N.R. Rao” by Mohan Sundararajan, etc.

II. RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCHMETHODOLOGYIs there any diff erence between research methods andresearch methodology?Research methodsare the various procedures,

schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are

termed asresearch methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They includetheoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research

methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research

methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning

alone. They ac- cept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.

Research methodologyis a systematic way to solvea problem. It is a science of studying how research isto be carried out. Essentially,the procedures by which



researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodol-

ogy.It is also defined as the study of methods by which

knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan ofresearch.

3. a. What are the characteristics of a good research design?b. What are the components of a research design?

Ans : Research Design

For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. It should indicate the various approaches to

be used in solving the research problem, sources and information related to the problem and, time frame and

the cost budget. Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the entire research work. The

design will help perform the chosen task easily and in a systematic way. Once the research design is

completed the actual work can be initiated. The first step in the actual work is to learn the facts pertaining to

the problem. Particularly, theoretical methods, numerical techniques, experimental techniques and other

relevant data and tools necessary for the present study have to be collected and learnt.

It is not necessary that every theory, technique and information in the topic of research is useful for a partic-

ular problem. A researcher has to identify and select materials which are useful to the present work. Fur- ther,

the validity and utility of the information gathered should be tested before using them. Scientific research is

based on certain mathematical, numerical and experimental methods. These sources have to be properly

studied and judged before applying them to the problem of interest.

B.What are the Possible Approachesto be Followed by a Researcher?

A researcher can exercise the following aspects regu- larly throughout the research carrier. These will keephim in right track and tightly bind him to the research activity.

(1) Discussion with the supervisor, experts and col- leagues about the research work, particularly, the problem

and its origin, objectives and difficulties faced in the execution of the problem.

(2) Reading of the latest research papers, relevant theories and possible application to the present problem

and to overcome the difficulties faced.

(3) Review of the work reported on the similar prob-lems.

(4) Theoretical calculations, setting-up of an experimental setup, numerical calculations, computer programs,

preparation of graphs, tables and other relevant work related to the research should be done by a new

researcher by himself without assistance from others.

(5) Have a practice of periodically writing the work done, results obtained and steps followed in a work. This is

important because sometime we may think that a particular aspect will be a center piece of the problem under

investigation. But once we make a write-up of it, this aspect or part of it may turn out to be only of marginal

importance. In fact, writing of the progress of the work will help us better understand our work and forms a

solid basis for further progress. It also points out to the gaps in our work.



(6) Participation and presentation of research findingsin national and international meetings.These regular practices provide useful information like

new ideas and can help the researcher

(1) sharpen and focus attention,

(2) confining to the formulation and

(3) in the interpretation of the solution obtained.

Each and every bit of task related to the research work has to be done by the researcher. A young researcher

should not do the entire work in collaboration with other

4. a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling.

b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling?

Ans : A standard form of sample design for industrial inspection purposes. In accordance with thecharacteristics of a particular plan, two samples are drawn, n1 and n2, and the first sample inspected. Thebatch can then be accepted or rejected upon the results of this inspection or the second sample be inspectedand the decision made upon the combined result

This article presents an overview of interpenetrating sampling (IPS), also known as interpenetratingsubsampling and replicated sampling. IPS was introduced in the pioneering contribution of P.C. Mahalanobis.It was originally proposed in assessing the nonsampling errors as the so-called “interviewer errors”. IPSprovides a quick, simple, and effective way of estimating the variance of an estimator even in a complexsurvey. In fact, IPS is the foundation of modern resampling methods like Jackknife, bootstrap, and replicationmethods. In IPS, three basic principles of experimental designs, namely, randomization, replication, and localcontrol, are used. IPS is used extensively not only in agriculture, but also in social sciences, demography,epidemiology, public health, and many other fields.

5. a. How is secondary data useful to researcher?b. What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data?

Answer:Primary Date is data that has not been previously published, i.e. the data is derived from a new or originalresearch study and collected at the source, e.g., in marketing, it is information that is obtained directly fromfirst-hand sources by means of surveys, observation or experimentation.

Data observed or collected directly from first-hand experience. Published data and the data collected in the

past or other parties are called secondary data. Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from theiroriginal sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his researchneeds, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primarydata is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are notavailable from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.

In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to begathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribacommunities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadershipstudies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc.



Primary data are always collected from the source. It is collected either by the investigator himself or throughhis agents. There are different methods of collecting primary data. Each method has its relative merits anddemerits. The investigator has to choose a particular method to collect the information. The choice to a largeextent depends on the preliminaries to data collection some of the commonly used methods are discussedbelow.

1) Direct Personal observation:

This is a very general method of collecting primary data. Here the investigator directly contacts the informants

solicits their cooperation and enumerates the data. The information are collected by direct personal interviews.

The novelty of this method is its simplicity. It is neither difficult for the enumerator nor the informants becauseboth are present at the spot of data collection. This method provides most accurate information as theinvestigator collects them personally. But as the investigator alone is involved in the process, his personal biasmay influence the accuracy of the data. So it is necessary that the investigator should be honest, unbiased andexperienced. In such cases the data collected may be fairly accurate. However, the method is quite costly andtime-consuming. So the method should be used when the scope of enquiry is small.

2) Indirect Oral Interviews:

This is an indirect method of collecting primary data. Here information is not collected directly from the source

but by interviewing persons closely related with the problem. This method is applied to apprehend culprits incase of theft, murder etc. The information relating to one's personal life or which the informant hesitates toreveal are better collected by this method. Here the investigator prepares 'a small list of questions relating tothe enquiry. The answers (information) are collected by interviewing persons well connected with the incidentThe investigator should cross-examine the informants to get correct information.

This method is time saving and involves relatively less cost. The accuracy of the information largely dependsupon the integrity of the investigator. It is desirable that the investigator should be experienced and capableenough to inspire and create confidence in the informant to collect accurate data.

3) Mailed Questionnaire method:

This is a very commonly used method of collecting primary data. Here information is collected through a set ofquestionnaire. A questionnaire is a document prepared by the investigator containing a set of questions. Thesequestions relate to the problem of enquiry directly or indirectly. Here first the questionnaires are mailed to theinformants with a formal request to answer the question and send them back. For better response theinvestigator should bear the postal charges. The questionnaire should carry a polite note explaining the aimsand objective of the enquiry, definition of various terms and concepts used there. Besides this the investigatorshould ensure the secrecy of the information as well as the name of the informants, if required.

Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in which the questionnaire is drafted. So the investigatormust be very careful while framing the questions. The questions should be:

Short and clear

Few in number Simple and intelligible Corroboratory in nature or there should be provision for cross check Impersonal, non-aggressive type Simple alternative, multiple-choice or open-end type

a) In the simple alternative question type, the respondent has to choose between alternatives such as „Yes orNo‟, „right or wrong‟ etc. For example: Is Adam Smith called father of Statistics? Yes/No

b) In the multiple choice type, the respondent has to answer from any of the given alternatives.



Example: To which sector do you belong? Primary Sector Secondary Sector Tertiary or Service Sector

c) In the Open-end or free answer questions the respondents are given complete freedom in answering thequestions. The questions are like –

What are the defects of our educational system?

The questionnaire method is very economical in terms of time, energy and money. The method is widely usedwhen the scope of enquiry is large. Data collected by this method are not affected by the personal bias of theinvestigator. However the accuracy of the information depends on the cooperation and honesty of theinformants. This method can be used only if the informants are cooperative, conscious and educated. Thislimits the scope of the method.

4) Schedule Method:

In case the informants are largely uneducated and non-responsive data cannot be collected by the mailedquestionnaire method. In such cases, schedule method is used to collect data. Here the questionnaires aresent through the enumerators to collect information. Enumerators are persons appointed by the investigator forthe purpose. They directly meet the informants with the questionnaire. They explain the scope and objective of

the enquiry to the informants and solicit their cooperation. The enumerators ask the questions to the informantsand record their answers in the questionnaire and compile them. The success of this method depends on thesincerity and efficiency of the enumerators. So the enumerator should be sweet-tempered, good-naturedtrained and well-behaved.

Schedule method is widely used in extensive studies. It gives fairly correct result as the enumerators directlycollect the information. The accuracy of the information depends upon the honesty of the enumerators. Theyshould be unbiased. This method is relatively more costly and time-consuming than the mailed questionnairemethod.

5) From Local Agents:

Sometimes primary data are collected from local agents or correspondents. These agents are appointed by thesponsoring authorities. They are well conversant with the local conditions like language, communication, foodhabits, traditions etc. Being on the spot and well acquainted with the nature of the enquiry they are capable offurnishing reliable information.

The accuracy of the data collected by this method depends on the honesty and sincerity of the agents becausethey actually collect the information from the spot. Information from a wide area at less cost and time can becollected by this method. The method is generally used by government agencies, newspapers, periodicals etc.to collect data.

Information is like raw materials or inputs in an enquiry. The result of the enquiry basically depends on the typeof information used. Primary data can be collected by employing any of the above methods. The investigator

should make a rational choice of the methods to be used for collecting data because collection of data formsthe beginning of the statistical enquiry.

6. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of datacollection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewingwould be more appropriate.

Answer: Observation vs. interviewing as Methods of Data Collection:



Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure of the project is

dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data collection or any inaccuracy in

collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may lead to results that are not valid

There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum and observation and interviewing are two of

the popular methods on this continuum that has quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at

the other end. Though there are many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic

purpose, there are differences that will be highlighted in this article.

Observation:

Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a safe distance and

their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming method of data collection as you may not get the

desired conditions that are required for your research and you may have to wait till participants are in the

situation you want them to be in. Classic examples of observation are wild life researchers who wait for the

animals of birds to be in a natural habitat and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method

of data collection, observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of

being closely inspected and behave naturally.

Interviewing:

Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking questions to get direct answers.

These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the more recent form of asking

opinions through internet. However, there are limitations of interviewing as participants may not come up with

true or honest answers depending upon privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is

an element of lie in answers that can distort results of the project.

Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their own

strengths and weaknesses. It is important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce desired results

before finalizing.

Observation vs. interviewing:

Observation Interviewing

Observation requires precise analysis by

the researcher and often produces most

accurate results although it is very time

consuming.

Interviewing is easier but suffers from the

fact that participants may not come up with

honest replies.

Interview format:

Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what format the

interview will take.

Competency/criteria based interviews:

These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job,

which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The interviewer is looking for evidence



of your skills and may ask such things as: µGive an example of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve

a common goal.

Technical interviews:

If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge, it is likely that you will be asked

technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your final year project or on

real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to admit to what

you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you do not know the exact answer -

interviewers are interested in your thought process and logic.

Academic interviews:

These are used for further study or research positions. Questions are likely to centre on your academic

history to date.

Structured interviews:

The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all the candidates the same questions.

Formal/informal interviews:

Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel more like an informal chat about you and

your interests. Be aware that you are still being assessed, however informal the discussion may seem.

Portfolio based interviews:

If the role is within the arts, media or communications industries, you may be asked to bring a portfolio

of your work to the interview, and to have an in-depth discussion about the pieces you have chosen to

include.

Senior/case study interviews:These ranges from straightforward scenario questions (e.g. µWhat would you do in a situation where to

the detailed analysis of a hypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the

problem, how you identify the key issues, how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether you

can develop and present an appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview

The Screening Interview:

Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification requirements. Computer

programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates. (This is why you need a digital resume

that is screening-friendly. See our resume centre for help.) Sometimes human professionals are the

gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have honed skills to determine whether there is anything tha

might disqualify you for the position. Remember they do not need to know whether you are the best fit for the

position, only whether you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone

in on gaps in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will want to

know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.



Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:

Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.

Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as verifying yourqualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning personality for the personmaking hiring decisions!

Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving specifics byreplying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer."

If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital information sittingnext to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you sleeping or vacuuming the floor, youwill be able to switch gears quickly

The Informational Interview:

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational interview. A meeting

that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers who might otherwise considerthemselves savvy to the merits of networking. Jobseekers ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to

seek the advice of someone in their current or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who

can lend insight. Employers that like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current

job openings, are often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, fee

flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an informational

interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one another better without

reference to specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.

Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable if you contactother people and use his or her name.

Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.· Write a thank you note to theinterviewer.

The Directive Style:

In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly. Sometimes

companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; when interviewers ask each candidate thesame series of questions, they can more readily compare the results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own

questions and methods to tease from you what they wish to know. You might feel like you are being steam-

rolled, or you might find the conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they

have dominance issues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your

supervisor. Either way, remember:· Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead.· Do not relinquish

complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you for information that you think is important

to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely interject it.

The Meandering Style:



This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the discussion. It might

begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to your advantage. The interviewer

might ask you another broad, open-ended question before falling into silence. This interview style allows you

tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that best serves you. The following strategies, which are helpful

for any interview, are particularly important when interviewers use a non-directive approach:

Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities and experiencesDo not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notes that you can referencethroughout the interview.

Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go in anydirection you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she becomes more directiveduring the interview, adjust.

Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the interview, runningwith your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that you run the risk of missing importantinformation about the company and its needs

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MB0050 –Research Methodology Assignment – Set - 2

1. a. Explain the General characteristics of observation.b. What is the Utility of Observation in Business Research?

Ans : General Characteristics of Observation Method

Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.

1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many things that are present. Butattention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study.

2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and everything, but selects the range ofthings to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose aresearcher desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesis that

accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding. When he observed the movements ofvehicles on the road, many things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the vehicles, thepersons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. All such things which are not relevant to his study are ignored andonly over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him.

3. Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant tothe study. It captures the natural social context in which persons behaviour occur. It grasps the significantevents and occurrences that affect social relations of the participants.

4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research and such as observationschedule, social metric scale etc., and precision instruments, if any.

Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specificphenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observationis classical method of scientific study.

Objectives:

After studying this lesson you should be able to understand:

· General characteristics of observation method

· Process of observation

· Types of observation

· Participant Observation

· Non-participant observation

· Direct observation

· Indirect observation



· Controlled observation

· Uncontrolled observation

· Prerequisites of observation

· Advantages of observation

· Limitations of observation

· Use of observation in business research

2. a. Briefly explain Interviewing techniques in Business Research?

b. What are the problems encountered in Interview?

Ans : Before the Interview

There are a few pointers which one must keep in mind before you actually interview a candidate. Here are

some of the basic things that you need to keep in mind before the interview:

Make sure you inform the candidate about the venue and timing of the interview well in advance. Also itis considered polite to convey the approximate duration of the interview to the candidate.

Before the interview you, make sure you have a clear idea of the qualities and technical skills that youare looking out for.

Plan the structure of the interview, determine if you want to keep it a rigorous question answer session,or want the candidate to speak his mind about general issues. If you want to keep it a question answersession, make sure you list down all the probable questions and even if you want to make it animpromptu affair, it is better to list down the general points that you want to address during theinterview.

In case you already have the candidate‟s resume, reference letters or any other documents which have

been submitted beforehand, make it a point to go through the documents. It will give you an idea aboutthe candidate‟s educational qualification, work experience and other useful information. This will helpyou answer better and more relevant questions.

At the end of the interview tell the candidate the period

The Actual Interview

The actual interview requires a combination of good communication skills; presence of mind and enoughresearch about the company‟s requirements as well the job profile. Here are some of the basic techniques toremember while the interview:

Greet the person with a smile and a professional handshake. Make sure the candidate is comfortable.Do not intimidate the candidate.

Make sure to mention things from the candidate‟s resume or other submitted material that you findimpressive or problematic.

Do not ask personal questions during a job interview. Listen carefully while your candidate speaks. Ask questions about the things that the candidate

mentions during the interview. In case the candidate seems reluctant or is stuck at a particular point, make sure to lead the

conversation further by introducing another issue. Keep the interview like a healthy conversation rather than making it a question answer or quiz session. Keep your watch on the eye, make sure the interview doesn‟t extend way beyond the set time.



At the end of the interview, make sure you tell the candidate the time frame within which you will informhim the decision, or schedule the next interview.

After the Interview

After the interview, make sure you call up the candidate within the promised time frame. Inform the decision,without beating around the bush. In case you have rejected the candidate, be polite while conveying themessage, and also assure that if in future the company needs their services, you will contact them for sure.Remember that interviewing a person is a tough job. Keep all the above points in mind and rest assured thatthe interview will be a smooth sailing

As in most surveys, difficulties were encountered during the data collection period, and several of these weresimilar across countries. One of the common problems encountered by the research teams was the limitedtime allocated, as the questionnaires were quite long (it took approximately 1-2 hours to complete onequestionnaire). The interviewers had to collect primary data from a considerable number of farms in a veryshort period of time. In addition, the geographical location of the farms presented a difficulty, as many of themwere sparsely distributed in remote areas of the provinces. For example, in Brazil, access to farms was aproblem because most of the farms were located as far as 17 kilometers away from municipal, state, or federalroads.

Generally all country teams encountered reluctance on the part of farm decision-makers to cooperate andshare information with the interviewers. This was one of the reasons why the planned number of samples wasnot met. There were also several instances when the respondents, especially those with very large farms,failed to keep their initial interview appointments with the research team after all the arrangements had beenmade. They were either out of the office or farm, or simply changed their minds and refused outright to beinterviewed. A second round of appointments was therefore required. Extreme difficulty was also experiencedin obtaining permission to interview decision-makers in large commercial farms.

For instance, in Thailand, some of the medium and large farms refused to participate without priorappointment, and some gave vague answers and figures, underestimating values especially concerning salesand profits (showing business loss over the years), because of fear that revealed information might be usedagainst them as grounds for tax fraudulence charges. Some were hesitant to share information because their

integrators prohibit them from exposing it (particularly data on capital investment, costs, and returns) to theinterviewers. In such cases, interviewers had to look for replacements in order to meet the targeted number ofrespondents. Small-scale farmers, on the other hand, were very much willing to share information, but haddifficulty in recalling some of it, as they generally do not keep records of their expenditures and costs.Respondents' difficulty in recalling information was a general problem in all study sites.

In particular, obtaining data on feed costs was problematic because farmers were cautious in revealing theactual mix of ingredients they use for feeds (in the case of broilers, layers, and swine). It was also difficult tocalculate feed costs for dairy because some farms would let cattle graze on open field.

It was difficult to find a sufficient sample for different types of management, such as independents andcontracts, since in some countries one or the other dominates. In Thailand, independent layer producers

dominated; in India, there were no contracts for layers. In the Philippines, hog contract growers wereconcentrated in one or two provinces, large independent commercial broiler farms were difficult to identify andlocate because of outdated lists, and small independents were extremely small (up to only 100 birds). In Brazil,contract and commercial broiler growers were prevalent; while in India, there was no up-to-date information onthe population of poultry farms, making it difficult to select appropriate samples



3. a. What are the various steps in processing of data?

b. How is data editing is done at the Time of Recording of Data?

Ans : 5 Steps To Data Processing

Data is an integral part of all business processes. It is the invisible backbone that supports all the operationsand activities within a business. Without access to relevant data, businesses would get completely paralyzed.

This is because quality data helps formulate effective business strategies and fruitful business decisions.

Therefore, the quality of data should be maintained in good condition in order to facilitate smooth businessproceedings. In order to enhance business proceedings, data should be made available in all possible forms inorder to increase the accessibility of the same.

Data processing refers to the process of converting data from one format to another. It transforms plain datainto valuable information and information into data. Clients can supply data in a variety of forms, be it .xlssheets, audio devices, or plain printed material. Data processing services take the raw data and process itaccordingly to produce sensible information. The various applications of data processing can convert raw datainto useful information that can be used further for business processes.

Companies and organizations across the world make use of data processing services in order to facilitate theirmarket research interests. Data consists of facts and figures, based on which important conclusions can bedrawn. When companies and organizations have access to useful information, they can utilize it for strategizingpowerful business moves that would eventually increase the company revenue and decrease the costs, thusexpanding the profit margins. Data processing ensures that the data is presented in a clean and systematicmanner and is easy to understand and be used for further purposes.

Here are the 5 steps that are included in data processing:

EditingThere is a big difference between data and useful data. While there are huge volumes of data available on theinternet, useful data has to be extracted from the huge volumes of the same. Extracting relevant data is one of

the core procedures of data processing. When data has been accumulated from various sources, it is edited inorder to discard the inappropriate data and retain relevant data.

CodingEven after the editing process, the available data is not in any specific order. To make it more sensible andusable for further use, it needs to be aligned into a particular system. The method of coding ensures just thatand arranges data in a comprehendible format. The process is also known as netting or bucketing.

Data EntryAfter the data has been properly arranged and coded, it is entered into the software that performs the eventualcross tabulation. Data entry professionals do the task efficiently.

ValidationAfter the cleansing phase, comes the validation process. Data validation refers to the process of thoroughlychecking the collected data to ensure optimal quality levels. All the accumulated data is double checked inorder to ensure that it contains no inconsistencies and is utterly relevant.

TabulationThis is the final step in data processing. The final product i.e. the data is tabulated and arranged in asystematic format so that it can be further analyzed.

All these processes make up the complete data processing activity which ensures the said data is available foraccess.



Purpose

With the Time Recording and Administration component, you can record and manage time data effectively andefficiently. This component provides you with a comprehensive and effective business concept and relatedprocesses for manual and automatic recording of personnel times. Time recording allows you to enteremployee time data for working time, leave, business trips, and substitutions using different methods. This datacan be entered as clock times or in hours and can contain account assignment specifications for other SAPapplications.

Implementation Considerations

By integrating the Time Data Recording and Administration , you can carry out comprehensive recording,management, and evaluation of all work-related data for your employees. You can set up all types of workingtime schedules, from flextime to normal working time and shift operations, and in this way, achieve the highestflexibility to support today‟s working times.

By recording time data in a decentralized location, the time spent carrying out these routine activities can beput to better use, allowing your human resources are able to perform other time management tasks.

Before you start working with the Time Management component, you should have a basic understanding of HR

master data, general procedures in HR, as well as the work schedule concept.

4. a. What are the fundamental of frequency Distribution?b. What are the types and general rules for graphical representation of data

Answer:

a) Role of Graphs and Diagrams:

In presenting the data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is often desirable to useappropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use ofgraphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large massesof statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular formmay be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. “Properly constructed graphs and charts relie ve the mind oburdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply.” They, by emphasizing new andsignificant relationship, are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis.

The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are non-technical peopleor general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about data; for importantpoints can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutesfor tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings.

Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simpleclear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data. In planning this work, the following questions must beconsidered.

a. What is the purpose of the diagram?b. What facts are to be emphasized?

c. What is the educational level of the audience?d. How much time is available for the preparation of the diagram?e. What kind of chart will portray the data most clearly and accurately?



Role of Graphs:

Because graphs provide a compact, rhetorically powerful way of representing research findings, recenttheories of science have postulated their use as a distinguishing feature of science. Studies have shown thatthe use of graphs in journal articles correlates highly with the hardness of scientific fields, both acrossdisciplines and across subfields of psychology.

Role of Diagrams:

Recent technological advances have enabled the large-scale adoption of diagrams in a diverse range of areasIncreasingly sophisticated visual representations are emerging and, to enable effective communication, insightis required into how diagrams are used and when they are appropriate for use. The pervasive, everyday use ofdiagrams for communicating information and ideas serves to illustrate the importance of providing a soundunderstanding of the role that diagrams can, and do, play. Research in the field of diagrams aims to improveour understanding of the role of diagrams, sketches and other visualizations in communication, computation,cognition, creative thought, and problem solving. These concerns have triggered a surge of interest in thestudy of diagrams.

The study of diagrammatic communication as a whole must be pursued as an interdisciplinary endeavor.Diagrams attract a large number of researchers from virtually all related fields, placing the conference as a

major international event in the area.

b) Types and General rules for graphical representation of data:

Graphical representation is done of the data available. This is very important step of statistical analysis. We wilbe discussing the organization of data. The word 'Data' is plural for 'datum'; datum means facts. Statisticallythe term is used for numerical facts such as measures of height, weight and scores on achievement andintelligence tests.

Graphs and diagram leave a lasting impression on the mind and make intelligible and easilyunderstandable the salient features of the data. Forecasting also becomes easier with the help of graph. Thus

it is of interest to study the graphical representation of data.

The graphical representation of data is categorized as basic five types:1) Bar graph2) Pie graph3) Line graph4) Scatter plot5) Histogram

Examples of graphical representation of data:

Let us see some examples of graphical representation of data.

1) Bar chart: A Bar chart (or diagram) is a graphical representation of data using bars (rectangles of same width).

It is one dimensional in which case only the height of the rectangle matters.

year 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981

population

of a place

6000 7600 8900 12000 13500 18000

Solution: scale: Y axis 1 cm = 1000 years



2) Graphical Representation of Histogram:

A histogram (or rectangular diagram or block diagram) is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution

in the form of rectangles one after the other with height proportional to the frequencies.

It is two dimensional in which case the height as well as width of the rectangle matters.

Que: Represent the following data by means of a Histogram:

Age( in

years)

20-

25

25-

30

30-

35

35-

40

40-

45

45-

50

50-

55

Number

of

workers

3 4 5 6 5 4 3

3) Frequency Polygon of a Line Graph:

A frequency polygon can be constructed for a grouped frequency distribution, with equal-interval, in two

different ways:

Method I:

Represent the class-marks along the x-axis. Represent the frequencies along y-axis. Join these points, in order, by straight lines. The points at each end is joined to the immediate higher(or lower) class mark at zero frequency so as

to complete the polygon.



Method II:

Represent a histogram of the given data. Join the mid points of the tops of the adjacent rectangles by straight lines. The mid points at each end are joined to the immediate higher (or lower) at zero frequency so as to

complete the polygon. The two classes, one at each end, are to be included.

Construct a frequency polygon for the following data:

Monthly pocket expenses

of a student

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

Number of students 10 16 30 42 50 30 16 12

Solution:

Here we have

Monthly pocket

expenses of a

student(in $)

class- marks Number of

students

0-5 2.5 10

5-10 7.5 16

10-15 12.5 30

15-20 17.5 42

20-25 22.5 50

25-30 27.5 3030-35 32.5 16

35-40 37.5 12



4) Cumulative Frequency Curve(ogive):

The Cumulative frequency curve for a grouped frequency distribution is obtained by plotting the points and

then joining them by a free-hand smooth curve.

This is also known as ogive .

Method:

Form the cumulative frequency table.

Mark the upper class limits along the x-axis. Mark the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis. Plot the points and join them by a free-hand smooth curve.

Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the following data:

Marks 0-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20

Number of

students

4 6 10 8 4

The cumulative frequency table is as follows:

Marks Number

of

students

cumulative

frequency

0-4 4 4

4-8 6 4+6=10

8-12 10 10+10=20

12-16 8 20+8=28

16-20

4 28+4=32

Total 32

Joining these points by a free-hand smooth curve, we have the following cumulative frequency curve:

5) Pie-chart or Pie-graph:

It is drawn by first drawing a circle of a suitable radius and then dividing the angle of 360 degree at its centre in

proportion to the figures given under various heads.



Solution:

<AOB = 14 x 360 /100 = 50.4

<COD = 29 x 360 /100 = 104.4

<EOF = 16 x 360 /100 = 57.6

<BOC = 16 x 360 /100 = 57.6

<DOE = 17 x 360 /100 = 61.2

<FOA = 8 x 360 /100 = 28.8

Take a circle with centre O and unit radius.

5. Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or whynot?

Answer:

Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most frequently used tools forencouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. Many of the principles discussed below for

discussing case studies can be generalized to other approaches to encouraging discussion about research

ethics.

Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not lend themselves to easy

answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when implemented in small groups, also

fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine

their own standards, to appreciate alternative approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to

develop skills for analyzing and dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is

comprised of many factors, including:

appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity) method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion) format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group) leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for discussion

leader) outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general questions, written or

verbal summaries)



Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the terminology. This is important

whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to incorporate in your

program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used.

Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more than one levelin other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object, or from person to person, orobject to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be manipulated by the researcher (e.g.socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.). Some variables can be manipulated but are not in

a particular study. This occurs when subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or thelevel is naturally occurring (as with ex post facto research).

Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable (treatmentgroups).

Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a change in thedependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is denoted as "X" on thehorizontal axis of a graph.

Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the independentvariable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the vertical axis of a graph. The score

of "Y" depends on the score of "X."

Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals, plants, etc.

Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more manageable.There are a variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random samples are taken, theresults can be statistically similar to taking a census of an entire population--with reduced effort andcost.

Case Study:

A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller sample size formore in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single subjects or singlesmall social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitativeresearch.

Purpose: Explain or Predict

Type of Research to Use: Relational Study

In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove."

Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study:

The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters. 4-H members attending 4-H summer camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer. The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount of annua

savings achieved.

Types of relational studies include correlational studies and ex post facto studies.

Correlational Study:

A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people andexplains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted from knowledge of the other.



A concurrent correlational study draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point in time. Forexample, a student's grade point average is related to his or her class rank.

A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data from an earlier set. For example, a student'sgrade point average might predict the same student's grade point average during senior year. A predictivecorrelational study could also use one characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at anothertime. For example, a student's SAT score is designed to predict college freshman grade point average.

Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Study:

An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when people have self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring and the researcher couldnot "control" the degree of its use. The researcher starts by specifying a dependent variable and then tries toidentify possible reasons for its occurrence as well as alternative (rival) explanations such confounding(intervening, contaminating, or extraneous) variables are "controlled" using statistics.

This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and theinvestigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town havehigher grades than students from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from acertain town" explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be

explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc. It is important to recognize that, in arelational study, "cause and effect" cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that there is a relationshipbetween the variables.

For that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to nothing more thancoincidence. That is why the researcher needs to establish a plausible reason (research hypothesis) for whythere might be a relationship between two variables before conducting a study. For instance, it might be foundthat all football teams with blue uniforms won last week. There is no likely reason why the uniform color hadany relationship to the games' outcomes, and it certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must becareful about claiming that your Extension program was the "cause" of possible results.

6. a. Analyze the case study and descriptive approach to research.b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology.

Answer:a) Case Study and descriptive approach to research:

Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about thepopulation or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, whenand how...

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused asituation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects

another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approachprior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aimof description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what theimplications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are alwaysrestrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people around you e.g. finding themost frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do toprevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy life.



Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative researchmethodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptiveresearch refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topicDescriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.

A case study is a research method common in social science. It is based on an in-depth investigation of asingle individual, group, or event. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used toexplore causation in order to find underlying principles. They may be prospective, in which criteria are

established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or retrospective, in whichcriteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study.

Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine limited number ofvariables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time) examination of asingle instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzinginformation, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of whythe instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in futureresearch. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.

Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry thatinvestigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case

studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the priordevelopment of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research andthey can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides thestatistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data

b) Distinction between research methods and research Methodology:

Research Methods Research Methodology

Research methods are the various

procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used

in research. All the methods used by a

researcher during a research study are

termed as research methods. They are

essentially planned, scientific and value-

neutral. They include theoretical

procedures, experimental studies, numerical

schemes, statistical approaches, etc.

Research methods help us collect samples,

data and find a solution to a problem.

Particularly, scientific research methods call

for explanations based on collected facts,measurements and observations and not on

reasoning alone. They ac- cept only those

explanations which can be verified by

experiments.

Research methodology is a systematic way

to solve a problem. It is a science of

studying how research is to be carried out.

Essentially, the procedures by which

researchers go about their work of

describing, explaining and predicting

phenomena are called research

methodology. It is also defined as the study

of methods by which knowledge is gained.

Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

mb0050 fall drive assignment 2011 research methodology

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