8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

1/22

MBA

ASSIGNMENT

SET - 2

Course Code

MB0050

Course Title

Research Methodology

Submitted by :

Sikkim Manipal University

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

2/22

Question 1: What is questionnaire? Discuss the main points that you will take into

account while drafting a questionnaire?

Answer:

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts

for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for

statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented

by Sir Francis Galton.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not

require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have

standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers

may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must beable to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting

a survey by questionnaire may not be practical.

As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question

construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.

Questionnaires may be classified as:

Structured/ Standardized Questionnaire:Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and preordained

questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate answers or to

elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and

in the same order to all the respondents.

Unstructured Questionnaire:

In unstructured questionnaires the respondent is given the opportunity to answer in his own

terms and in his own frame of reference.

Points to take into account while drafting a questionnaire:

Writing an effective questionnaire is not a task for novices. At the very least it requires an

understanding of four basics. These are:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

3/22

Considering the differences that exist when writing a questionnaire that respondents will

fill out themselves as opposed to when a professional interviewer administers the

questionnaire to the respondent.

Knowing what questions should be asked early on in the questionnaire,

in the middle or toward the end.

Understanding how to phrase questions.

Being sensitive to questionnaire length.

There are some basic differences in how the questionnaire should be constructed if it is to be

filled out personally by the respondent or if an interviewer is going to administer it. These are:

Self-administered questionnaires should be simple, straightforward and logical. Question

2 should follow question 1. Question 3 should follow question 2, and so forth. Further, the

going-in assumption with self-administered questionnaires should be that respondents

will not complete a questionnaire when there are complex skip patterns, when pages are

crowded or hard to read or when instructions for completion are overly complex.

It has been estimated that as many as 50% of respondents who start a self-administered

questionnaire will not complete it because they become irritated and annoyed at the way

it is constructed. When writing a self-administered questionnaire, then, every care must

be taken to ensure that it is easy to complete in that it almost answers itself.

Self-administered questionnaires should be written with an eighth grade mentality in mind

while interviewer-administered questionnaire can be quite complex. Because interviewers

are trained in the flow of the questionnaires they administer and will conduct a number of

practice interviews prior to confronting a respondent, developing a complex questionnaire

that is interviewer-administered does not present a problem for the respondent.

Keep the respondent in one mind-set at a time. If at all possible, complete all your

questions about one topic before moving on to the next. For example, dont ask about a

favorite place to shop, then about brands used and then go back to additional questioning

on favorite place to shop.

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

4/22

Save sensitive questions for the end. Again, this might not always be possible, but when

it doesnt matter, be aware that sensitive questions such as race or income can alienate

respondents and turn them off to the entire interview process. If asked at the end,

respondents are more likely to answer as they are wholly invested in the questionnaire.

Biased question: What do you like about the last airline flight you took? Assumption here

is that respondent liked something and the question tends to push for a positive

response.

Unbiased question. What, if anything, do you like the last airline flight you took? By simply

using if anything as part of the question phrasing, the respondent is not put on the spot to

find something to like.

When conducting telephone interviews, its relatively easy to keep respondents on the

phone and answering questions for 15, 20 or 25 minutes if the questionnaire has a good

flow and is thoughtfully written. But try keeping a respondent on the phone for 3 minutes

with a questionnaire that is the least bit confusing, seems redundant or is insensitive to

sensitive issues.

Question 2: What do you mean by primary data? What are the various methods of

collecting primary data?

Answer:

Primary Date is data that has not been previously published, i.e. the data is derived from a new

or original research study and collected at the source, e.g., in marketing, it is information that is

obtained directly from first-hand sources by means of surveys, observation or experimentation.

Data observed or collected directly from first-hand experience. Published data and the data

collected in the past or other parties are called secondary data. Primary data are directly

collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect

the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants

them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

5/22

consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from

secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.

In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data

have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of

rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social

institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership,

radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm

managements studies, business management studies etc.

Primary data are always collected from the source. It is collected either by the investigator

himself or through his agents. There are different methods of collecting primary data. Each

method has its relative merits and demerits. The investigator has to choose a particular methodto collect the information. The choice to a large extent depends on the preliminaries to data

collection some of the commonly used methods are discussed below.

1) Direct Personal observation:

This is a very general method of collecting primary data. Here the investigator directly contacts

the informants, solicits their cooperation and enumerates the data. The information are collected

by direct personal interviews.

The novelty of this method is its simplicity. It is neither difficult for the enumerator nor the

informants because both are present at the spot of data collection. This method provides most

accurate information as the investigator collects them personally. But as the investigator alone is

involved in the process, his personal bias may influence the accuracy of the data. So it is

necessary that the investigator should be honest, unbiased and experienced. In such cases the

data collected may be fairly accurate. However, the method is quite costly and time-consuming.

So the method should be used when the scope of enquiry is small.

2) Indirect Oral Interviews:

This is an indirect method of collecting primary data. Here information is not collected directly

from the source but by interviewing persons closely related with the problem. This method is

applied to apprehend culprits in case of theft, murder etc. The information relating to one's

personal life or which the informant hesitates to reveal are better collected by this method. Here

the investigator prepares 'a small list of questions relating to the enquiry. The answers

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

6/22

(information) are collected by interviewing persons well connected with the incident. The

investigator should cross-examine the informants to get correct information.

This method is time saving and involves relatively less cost. The accuracy of the information

largely depends upon the integrity of the investigator. It is desirable that the investigator should

be experienced and capable enough to inspire and create confidence in the informant to collect

accurate data.

3) Mailed Questionnaire method:

This is a very commonly used method of collecting primary data. Here information is collected

through a set of questionnaire. A questionnaire is a document prepared by the investigator

containing a set of questions. These questions relate to the problem of enquiry directly or

indirectly. Here first the questionnaires are mailed to the informants with a formal request to

answer the question and send them back. For better response the investigator should bear the

postal charges. The questionnaire should carry a polite note explaining the aims and objective of

the enquiry, definition of various terms and concepts used there. Besides this the investigator

should ensure the secrecy of the information as well as the name of the informants, if required.

Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in which the questionnaire is drafted. So

the investigator must be very careful while framing the questions. The questions should be:

Short and clear

Few in number

Simple and intelligible

Corroboratory in nature or there should be provision for cross check

Impersonal, non-aggressive type

Simple alternative, multiple-choice or open-end type

a) In the simple alternative question type, the respondent has to choose between alternatives

such as Yes or No, right or wrong etc.

For example: Is Adam Smith called father of Statistics? Yes/No

b) In the multiple choice type, the respondent has to answer from any of the given alternatives.

Example: To which sector do you belong?

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

7/22

Primary Sector

Secondary Sector

Tertiary or Service Sector

c) In the Open-end or free answer questions the respondents are given complete freedom in

answering the questions. The questions are like

What are the defects of our educational system?

The questionnaire method is very economical in terms of time, energy and money. The method

is widely used when the scope of enquiry is large. Data collected by this method are not affected

by the personal bias of the investigator. However the accuracy of the information depends on the

cooperation and honesty of the informants. This method can be used only if the informants are

cooperative, conscious and educated. This limits the scope of the method.

4) Schedule Method:

In case the informants are largely uneducated and non-responsive data cannot be collected by

the mailed questionnaire method. In such cases, schedule method is used to collect data. Here

the questionnaires are sent through the enumerators to collect information. Enumerators are

persons appointed by the investigator for the purpose. They directly meet the informants with the

questionnaire. They explain the scope and objective of the enquiry to the informants and solicit

their cooperation. The enumerators ask the questions to the informants and record their answers

in the questionnaire and compile them. The success of this method depends on the sincerity and

efficiency of the enumerators. So the enumerator should be sweet-tempered, good-natured,

trained and well-behaved.

Schedule method is widely used in extensive studies. It gives fairly correct result as the

enumerators directly collect the information. The accuracy of the information depends upon the

honesty of the enumerators. They should be unbiased. This method is relatively more costly and

time-consuming than the mailed questionnaire method.

5) From Local Agents:

Sometimes primary data are collected from local agents or correspondents. These agents are

appointed by the sponsoring authorities. They are well conversant with the local conditions like

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

8/22

language, communication, food habits, traditions etc. Being on the spot and well acquainted with

the nature of the enquiry they are capable of furnishing reliable information.

The accuracy of the data collected by this method depends on the honesty and sincerity of the

agents because they actually collect the information from the spot. Information from a wide area

at less cost and time can be collected by this method. The method is generally used by

government agencies, newspapers, periodicals etc. to collect data.

Information is like raw materials or inputs in an enquiry. The result of the enquiry basically

depends on the type of information used. Primary data can be collected by employing any of the

above methods. The investigator should make a rational choice of the methods to be used for

collecting data because collection of data forms the beginning of the statistical enquiry.

Question 3

a. Analyse the case study and descriptive approach to research.

b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology.

Answer:

a) Case Study and descriptive approach to research:

Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics

about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions

who, what, where, when and how...

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe

what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal

relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said

to have a low requirement for internal validity.

The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the

best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation.

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

9/22

Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with

examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there

are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people

around you e.g. finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader

of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy

life.

Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative

research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study.

The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis

that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics tryto determine cause and effect.

A case study is a research method common in social science. It is based on an in-depth

investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies may be descriptive or

explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles.

They may be prospective, in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are

included as they become available, or retrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting

cases from historical records for inclusion in the study.

Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine limited

number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long period of

time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking

at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the

researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and

what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend

themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.

Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical

inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means

single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of

evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

10/22

should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of

quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical framework

for making inferences from quantitative case-study data

b) Distinction between research methods and research Methodology:

Research Methods Research Methodology

Research methods are the various

procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used

in research. All the methods used by a

researcher during a research study are

termed as research methods. They are

essentially planned, scientific and value-

neutral. They include theoretical

procedures, experimental studies, numerical

schemes, statistical approaches, etc.

Research methods help us collect samples,

data and find a solution to a problem.

Particularly, scientific research methods call

for explanations based on collected facts,

measurements and observations and not on

reasoning alone. They ac- cept only those

explanations which can be verified by

experiments.

Research methodology is a systematic way

to solve a problem. It is a science of

studying how research is to be carried out.

Essentially, the procedures by which

researchers go about their work of

describing, explaining and predicting

phenomena are called research

methodology. It is also defined as the study

of methods by which knowledge is gained.

Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

Question 4: Explain the important concepts in Research design?

Answer:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

11/22

The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. Even if he could,

he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related. Therefore, he records his

decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such a symbolic

construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a logical and

systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study,

the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the

blue print for the plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the

program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting

observations. It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz,

Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe, A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research

purpose with economy in procedure.

Components of Research Design:

It is important to be familiar with the important concepts relating to research design. They are:

1. Dependent and Independent variables:

A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative

values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest

sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the

presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different valuesquantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need

not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-

continuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example,

age is a continuous variable; whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When

changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known

as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the

dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For

example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is theindependent variable.

And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then

demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

12/22

variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of

substitute.

2. Extraneous variable:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect

the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a

researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school

performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the

former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school

performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by

the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the

extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental errors

Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependentvariable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous

variable or variables.

3. Control:

One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of

extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in

such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. The term

control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship:

The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an

extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

Research hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods,

it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statementwhich relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research

hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent

variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive

statements that are not to be objectively verified are not classified as research

hypothesis.

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

13/22

Experimental and control groups:

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing

research, it is known as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to

certain new or special condition, it is known as an experimental group. In the afore-

mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an

experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature, then

both the groups may be called as experimental groups. A research design may include

only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together.

Treatments:

Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and control

groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with

regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study

attempts to examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three

different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers

would be treated as the three treatments.

Experiment:

An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis

relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to

examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments

may be categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative

experiment. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the

yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment.

Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as

compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative

experiment.

Experiment unit:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

14/22

Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which

the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental

units must be selected with great caution.

Question 5: What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of

data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or

interviewing would be more appropriate.

Answer:

Observation vs. interviewing as Methods of Data Collection:

Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure of the

project is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data collection or

any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may

lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum

and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this continuum that has

quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end. Though there are

many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic purpose, there are

differences that will be highlighted in this article.

Observation:

Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a

safe distance and their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming method of data

collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your research and you

may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in. Classic examples of

observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birds to be in a natural habitat

and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data collection,

observation has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of being

closely inspected and behave naturally.

Interviewing:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

15/22

Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking questions to get

direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the

more recent form of asking opinions through internet. However, there are limitations of

interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers depending upon

privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element of lie in answers

that can distort results of the project.

Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their

own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce

desired results before finalizing.

Observation vs. interviewing:

Observation Interviewing

Observation requires precise analysis by

the researcher and often produces most

accurate results although it is very time

consuming.

Interviewing is easier but suffers from the

fact that participants may not come up with

honest replies.

Interview format:

Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what

format the interview will take.

Competency/criteria based interviews:

These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a

particular job, which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The

interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: Give an example

of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal.

Technical interviews:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

16/22

If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge, it is likely that you will

be asked technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your

final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove

yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not

worry if you do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your thought process

and logic.

Academic interviews:

These are used for further study or research positions. Questions are likely to centre on

your academic history to date.

Structured interviews:

The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all the candidates the same

questions.

Formal/informal interviews:

Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel more like an informal chat

about you and your interests. Be aware that you are still being assessed, however

informal the discussion may seem.

Portfolio based interviews:

If the role is within the arts, media or communications industries, you may be asked to

bring a portfolio of your work to the interview, and to have an in-depth discussion about

the pieces you have chosen to include.

Senior/case study interviews:

These ranges from straightforward scenario questions (e.g. What would you do in a

situation where to the detailed analysis of a hypothetical business problem. You will be

evaluated on your analysis of the problem, how you identify the key issues, how you

pursue a particular line of thinking and whether you can develop and present an

appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

17/22

The Screening Interview:

Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification

requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates.

(This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume centre for

help.) Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have

honed skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position.

Remember they do not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether

you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on

gaps in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will

want to know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.

Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:

Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.

Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as

verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning

personality for the person making hiring decisions!

Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving

specifics by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer."

If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital

information sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you

sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to switch gears quickly

The Informational Interview:

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational

interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers

who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Jobseekers

ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current

or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employers

that like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings,

are often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

18/22

flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an

informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one

another better without reference to specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.

Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable

if you contact other people and use his or her name.

Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume. Write a thank you note

to the interviewer.

The Directive Style:

In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly.

Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; when

interviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare

the results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you

what they wish to know. You might feel like you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the

conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have

dominance issues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be

your supervisor. Either way, remember: Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead. Do

not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you for

information that you think is important to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely interject

it.

The Meandering Style:

This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the

discussion. It might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to

your advantage. The interviewer might ask you another broad, open-ended question before

falling into silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that

best serves you. The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly

important when interviewers use a non-directive approach:

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

19/22

Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities and

experiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notes

that you can reference throughout the interview.

Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go

in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she becomes

more directive during the interview, adjust.

Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the

interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that

you run the risk of missing important information about the company and its needs.

Question 6: Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research?

Why or why not?

Answer:

Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most frequently

used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. Many of the

principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generalized to other approaches

to encouraging discussion about research ethics.

Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not lend

themselves to easy answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when

implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a focus for

discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate alternative

approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for analyzing and

dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is comprised of manyfactors, including:

appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity)

method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion)

format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

20/22

leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for

discussion leader)

outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general

questions, written or verbal summaries)

Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the terminology. This is

important whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to

incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used.

Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more

than one level; in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object,

or from person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be

manipulated by the researcher (e.g., socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.).Some variables can be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when

subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally

occurring (as with ex post facto research).

Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable

(treatment groups).

Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce achange in the dependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is

denoted as "X" on the horizontal axis of a graph.

Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the

independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the vertical

axis of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."

Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals,plants, etc.

Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more

manageable. There are a variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

21/22

random samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a census of an

entire population--with reduced effort and cost.

Case Study:

A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller

sample size for more in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews

with single subjects or single small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc.

This is typically considered qualitative research.

Purpose: Explain or Predict

Type of Research to Use: Relational Study

In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove."

Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study:

The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters.

4-H members attending 4-H summer camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer.

The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount

of annual savings achieved.

Types of relational studies include correlational studies and ex post facto studies.

Correlational Study:

A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of

people and explains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted

from knowledge of the other.

A concurrent correlational study draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point

in time. For example, a student's grade point average is related to his or her class rank.

A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data from an earlier set. For example,

a student's grade point average might predict the same student's grade point average during

senior year. A predictive correlational study could also use one characteristic to predict what

8/6/2019 MB0050-2 - Copy

22/22

another characteristic will be at another time. For example, a student's SAT score is designed to

predict college freshman grade point average.

Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Study:

An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when people

have self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring

and the researcher could not "control" the degree of its use. The researcher starts by specifying

a dependent variable and then tries to identify possible reasons for its occurrence as well as

alternative (rival) explanations such confounding (intervening, contaminating, or extraneous)

variables are "controlled" using statistics.

This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations

and the investigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that studentsfrom one town have higher grades than students from a different town attending the same high

school. Would just "being from a certain town" explain the differences? In an ex post facto study,

specific reasons for the differences would be explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity,

parent support, etc. It is important to recognize that, in a relational study, "cause and effect"

cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that there is a relationship between the

variables.

For that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact, vary together due tonothing more than coincidence. That is why the researcher needs to establish a plausible reason

(research hypothesis) for why there might be a relationship between two variables before

conducting a study. For instance, it might be found that all football teams with blue uniforms won

last week. There is no likely reason why the uniform color had any relationship to the games'

outcomes, and it certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must be careful about

claiming that your Extension program was the "cause" of possible results.

---------------------xxx---------------------