Matthew  Browne  10/9/07  

 Max  Steiner’s  Score  to  Gone  with  the  Wind  An  Eclectic  Analysis    Gone  with  the  Wind  (1939)  Producer:  David  Selznick  Director:  Victor  Fleming  Composer:  Max  Steiner      1. History    

Gone with the Wind is an epic tale set in the era of the American Civil War, offering a

much-romanticized portrayal of the Old South to which the music contributes a great deal. It was

first released in 1939, based on the popular novel by Margaret Mitchell published three years

earlier. As such it was a much-anticipated film, and was greeted with enormous enthusiasm when

it opened in theaters. It went on to win 10 Academy Awards, a record that would stand for

years,1 and it soon became the most popular American film ever made.

GWTW was more than just a popular film, however; even more than the novel (because

of its wider audience), it became a cultural icon that reaffirmed the nostalgia still felt by the

South after the Civil War, as well as more universal themes of loss, hope, love, and home. These

themes and their corresponding values and emotions were keenly felt by Americans due to the

political and social events of the time. The film opened only a few months after World War II

began in Europe, and World War I was still a vivid memory, so naturally Scarlett’s story of

survival and strength during wartime was well received. But GWTW is more complex than this;

its story is not really an optimistic one, nor is Scarlett the stereotypical Southern belle (by any

stretch of the imagination). Contrasting GWTW to the more optimistic and unambiguous Birth of

                                                                                                                         1  The  record  was  broken  by  Ben-­‐Hur  (1959),  which  won  11  Oscars  according  to  IMDB  (http://www.imdb.com)  

a Nation, Gerald Wood points out that whereas Birth of a Nation, the earlier film, “captures [a]

prewar sense of hope and progress […] Gone with the Wind reflects a sense of disillusionment

and introversion that characterized much of American life after World War I, when anxiety,

cynicism, and a skepticism regarding the present undercut even the prosperity of the twenties.”2

Wood goes on to argue that the nostalgia in GWTW reflects anxiety and reaction to the

complexities of modern life, and doubts about America’s direction and its supposed progress.

This was further compounded by the beginning of World War II, which of course darkened the

mood of the country and fostered an even greater attraction to stories like GWTW.

It is also important to examine what was happening in Hollywood at the time. GWTW is

also an archetypal example of the codes and conventions used in the “Golden Era” of

Hollywood. The music for the film serves as an excellent demonstration of this fact. To begin

with, the music is written in very much in a Romantic style, which was the norm (established by

Max Steiner himself as much as anyone). The score plays a very significant role in the film,

obviously intended to be a memorable one, with music not only playing almost continuously

throughout the film, but also featured in an overture, intermission, entr’acte, and exit music. In

many ways, Golden Era film scores were much more operatic than the film scores of today. The

film composers of the time deliberately used techniques borrowed from opera, most notably the

Wagnerian leitmotif. Like the film itself, the score to GWTW is a massive work, written in much

the same way as a full-length opera, as Steiner himself describes:

GWTW, like all my scores, [is] written like an opera. You see. Just the same. If you listen to Wagner’s Ring you will find the same theme throughout. […] Every one of my scores...I start out with a basic theme and then I keep going with it. Of course there are other tunes, too.3

                                                                                                                         2  Wood,  Gerald.  “From  The  Clansmanand  Birth  of  a  Nation  to  Gone  with  the  Wind:  The  loss  of  American  Innocence.”  In  Ed.  Pyron  (1983),  Recasting:  Gone  With  the  Wind  In  American  Culture:  University  Presses  of  Florida.  p.  132-­‐133  3  Schreiban,  Myrl  A.  “Memories  of  Max:  An  Archival  Interview  with  Max  Steiner.”  Film  Score  Monthly  10:1  (Jan.-­‐Feb.  2005),  p.  24-­‐27  

Steiner’s first act upon viewing a film (which he usually watched only one or two times before

composing the score) was to compose themes, or leitmotifs, for the main characters (and

sometimes certain other characters as well).4

Steiner was well-suited to this manner of working because of his personal background.

He was born in Vienna and studied with well-known classical composers, including Gustav

Mahler. He gained experience working in conjunction with dramatic arts early in his career, by

composing an opera and conducting music theater. He was in great demand as a composer, and

scored hundreds of Hollywood films.

Steiner worked alone; in fact, David Selznick, the producer, was more of a nuisance than

a help when he commented on the music to GWTW. Steiner reports having re-recorded a segment

to please Selznick on more than one occasion, when in the end it was always the version that

Steiner preferred that was included with the final release of the film.5 As an aside, Steiner (at age

79) also said of the film (not the music), “I can’t stand it […] it’s boring”…and of the music… “I

don’t even remember how the picture opens…You know I don’t even remember the tunes.” 6

Meanwhile, the American public remembered the music from the film (at least the main theme)

quite well.  

Many glowing reviews were written about the film, which is nearly four hours long, and

was by all accounts an impressive technical achievement with excellent cinematography. A brief

look at these reactions will help illustrate how powerfully the story resonated with contemporary

American audiences (particularly in the South), providing ample opportunity for a score which

                                                                                                                         4  Ibid.  5  Ibid  6  Ibid  

would play an important narrative role, as we shall see. Almost all the reviews were positive, 7

lauding the excellent performances, technical achievements, and in some cases the “historical

accuracy” of the film (a source of considerable debate). However, the film offers a very biased

view of history, and many modern-day viewers would be likely to cringe at the racial stereotypes

in it. One contemporary criticism, a definite exception to the favorable reviews of the time, is

revealing:

Sugar-smeared and blurred by a boresome Hollywood love story and under the guise of presenting the South as it is in the “eyes of the Southerners,” the message of GWTW emerges in its final entity as a nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction. […] the principal Negro characters…follow the time-worn stereotype pattern laid down by Hollywood. There is…Young Prissy, indolent and thoroughly irresponsible, “Big” Sam with his radiant acceptance of slavery and Mammy…it is made to appear that she loves this degrading position. 8

In fairness to Mr. Selznick, these stereotypes originated in the novel, and in any case the black

characters in GWTW are more dignified and respected than many black characters in other films

of the same period (on the other hand, from a modern perspective, one would tend to agree with

the critic about the stereotypes). It helped that Hattie McDaniel became the first black actress to

win an Oscar, for her role as “Mammy,” and “black and white filmgoers alike found much to

admire in the film; as Russell Merritt and Thomas Paulty have shown, survival, nostalgia,

romantic love, and the family were attractive themes for all audiences.”9

2. Musical  and  Filmic  Syntax    

This analysis will focus on the final two scenes of the film.

                                                                                                                         7  Introduction  to  “David  Selznick’s  Film  Is  World’s  Greatest.”  In  Ed.  Harwell  (1992),  Gone  With  the  Wind  As  Book  and  Film:    University  of  South  Carolina  Press.  8  Moss,  Carleton  (1940).  “An  Open  Letter  to  Mr.  Selznick.”  In  Ed.  Harwell  (1992),  Gone  With  the  Wind  As  Book  and  Film:    University  of  South  Carolina  Press.  Originally  appeared  in  the  Daily  Worker,  New  York,  1940.  p.  157-­‐159  9  Wood,  Gerald.  “From  The  Clansmanand  Birth  of  a  Nation  to  Gone  with  the  Wind:  The  loss  of  American  Innocence.”  In  Ed.  Pyron  (1983),  Recasting:  Gone  With  the  Wind  In  American  Culture:  University  Presses  of  Florida.  

Themes

There are many important themes, or leitmotifs, at work in the score. The main theme, “Tara,” is

particularly significant and is used as a foundation for development more than any other

throughout the score; this is one theme that is really more than a leitmotif, and more like a motif

upon which a symphony is based.

The analysis of these themes in this segment will show the central importance they

played in Steiner’s construction of the score, and his great adeptness at weaving them in and out,

transforming them, and synchronizing them with the action on the screen.

Transcriptions of the themes as they appear in this segment

Melanie

Melanie/Ashley Love Theme (Melanie theme continues above)

Scarlett/Ashley Love Theme (almost entirely strings)

Scarlett/Rhett Love Theme (mostly strings)

Rhett

Tara

Melanie’s Deathbed Scene

Melanie theme Melanie/Ashley love theme

Scarlett/Ashley theme (Higher) transformation of Melanie/Ashley theme

Scarlett/Ashley love theme Melanie/Ashley love theme

(Scarlett realizes that

Rhett is missing)

 

 Music is playing throughout this scene. The “Melanie” theme begins at 1:49:22, as Scarlett leans

over Mellie’s bed. The orchestration is atmospheric, with untexted vocals in the treble range.

Though Romantic in style in many ways, the theme also evokes a Southern Gospel feeling

(though much gentler) with much vibrato in the strings, the lower parts sounding almost like jazz

organ. The theme is played with much rubato. Melanie will soon ask Scarlett to look after

Ashley; seconds before this happens, the Melanie/Ashley love theme comes in. Meanwhile, the

Melanie theme continues in the top voice, and much of the orchestration from the Melanie theme

is maintained. The love theme adds more of a sense of forward motion, although the pedal tone

is maintained. A sequence built on the love theme is followed by a low bass note; the color of the

music turns darker. The camera zooms in on Ashley and the Melanie theme, transformed by a

minor key, begins but stops on the third note.

The music temporarily switches to the Scarlett/Ashley love theme at 1:51:37, as Scarlett

and Ashley embrace. Rhett watches in bitter disappointment, and then the music “mickey-

mouses” his exit, still playing the Scarlett/Ashley theme. As Ashley proclaims his love for

Melanie and says, “I can’t live without her,” the Melanie/Ashley love theme resumes. A

descending figure in the strings mickey-mouses the action as Scarlett kneels down to Ashley and

the camera zooms in on Scarlett. As Scarlett expresses her dismay that Ashley had to “wait till

now” to tell her he doesn’t love her (at 1:52:30), the Ashley/Scarlett love theme comes in

temporarily. This theme is characterized by gradual, chromatic downward motion in the strings.

Its rhythm is simple and repetitive.

Yet “somehow,” Scarlett says (at 1:52:51), “it doesn’t matter…it doesn’t matter one bit,”

and the Melanie/Ashley theme returns. Scarlett realizes that Rhett is missing; a higher

transformation of the Melanie/Ashley theme creates a more hurried, worrisome evocation. The

music cadences as Scarlett opens the door to go look for Rhett.

Closing Scene – from the point of Rhett’s departure to the end

The Scarlett/Rhett theme has just been playing when the music takes a sudden shift at

1:58:18 following Rhett’s famous line (in response to Scarlett asking where she will go and what

she will do), “Frankly, my dear, I don’t give a damn.” The melody of this theme is somewhat

legato, but its upbeat rhythm and sturdily forward motion, as well as its orchestration, creates a

more articulated line than is found in most of the other themes, with the exception of Mammy’s

theme (earlier in the film).

At 1:58:37, the Scarlett/Rhett theme comes back in as Scarlett thinks about how to get

Rhett back. The rhythm is used as a basis for further development until a cadence with

percussion as Scarlett falls on the stairs (mickey-mousing). Scarlett says, “What is there that

matters?” and then she starts hearing voices at 1:59:14, first of her father, then of Ashley and

Rhett, repeating like a broken record, reminding her of Tara. Her father’s voice is accompanied

by a playful flute melody (a definite contrast), reminiscent of his Irish heritage and musically

reminiscent of earlier points in the film, and also distantly resembling the Tara theme. A choir is

slowly added, singing what sounds like a ghostly wind sound, accompanied by a gradually more

recognizable Tara theme playing in the woodwinds. As a climax begins to build in the dialogue,

the strings begin to join in with the Tara theme, and then do sequences on it (a typical Steiner

trait). Finally, at 1:59:52, the Tara theme enters in its fully recognizable form, though at a lower

volume, as Scarlett says, “Tara! Home.” At 2:00:08, a pastoral scene is shown, where Scarlett is

silhouetted against the setting sun, as she has been before near the beginning of the film and just

before intermission. The Tara theme is played in its fullest form yet, with a full orchestra

including tubular bells, strong brass lines to accompany the dominant strings, and a choir

“floating” above. The film closes with an inspiring plagal cadence.

3.  Sound-­‐in-­‐Filmic-­‐Time

Steiner follows the action on the screen very closely, offering a narrative that parallels the

images, hitting a number of key points.

Deathbed Scene

1:49:22 [Conversation between Scarlett and Melanie. Melanie theme begins.] - 1:49:48 [“Ashley, Ashley knew… (Scarlett: What?) …look after him, just as you looked

after me”; Melanie/Ashley love theme is introduced as Melanie theme continues] - 1:50:43 [Cadence on “Captain Butler… be kind to him…he loves you so.”] - 1:51:12 [Low bass comes in as Scarlett exits]

1:51:21 [Ashley’s grief; Scarlett’s longing for Ashley; Rhett’s disappointment. Close-up on Ashley accompanied by shortened, minor-mode Melanie theme.]

- 1:51:35 [Scarlett and Ashley embrace]

- 1:51:37 [Shot of Rhett as Scarlett and Ashley embrace. Scarlett/Ashley love theme begins, with a quicker pace than usual, and picks up speed to mickey-mouse Rhett’s departure]

- 1:51:52 [Ashley: “Everything I’ve ever had has gone with her.” Melanie/Ashley theme again.]

1:52:12 [Scarlett’s reaction to realizing she may never have Ashley. Mickey-mousing as Scarlett kneels down to Ashley; sequences as she becomes more emotional.]

- 1:52:30 [Scarlett expresses her frustration at Ashley; “you had to wait till now…” Ashley theme comes in.]

- 1:52:51 [Scarlett: “[But] somehow it doesn’t matter…it doesn’t matter one bit.” Melanie/Ashley theme returns.]

1:53:15 [Scarlett realizes that Rhett is missing. Melanie/Ashley theme is transposed higher, and speeds up to take on a desperate, hurried, and worried quality.]

- 1:53:24 [Cadence as Scarlett opens the door to go look for Rhett.] Closing Scene – from the point of Rhett’s departure to the end 1:58:18 [Rhett’s departure (“Frankly, my dear…”). Rhett’s theme comes in, in an obvious manner, also changing the tempo.]

- 1:58:37 [Scarlett/Rhett theme comes back in (it was playing just before) as Scarlett thinks about how to get Rhett back.]

1:59:10 [Scarlett’s despair. Cadence with percussion as Scarlett falls on the stairs (mickey-mousing). “What is there that matters?”] 1:59:14 [Memory, hope of Tara. Voices of the past come in. Flashback: “Land’s the only thing that matters.” All leading to “Tara,” repeating like a broken record, while the music repeats the Tara theme also, more and more insistently.]

- 1:59:52 [“Tara! Home.” Tara theme is now fully recognizable, whereas before the listener was probably not conscious of it. Still not in its fully orchestrated form.]

- 2:00:08 [Pastoral silhouette scene; large oak tree, “the land.” Tara theme plays in earnest, leading to a huge climax complete with choir singing the theme also.]

4.  Musical  and  Filmic  Representation:  Conventions  and  Codes

Deathbed Scene

All the music in this segment—and largely in the film in general—is designed to evoke

strong emotional reaction. Interpretation is not left up to the audience; we are meant to feel

sympathetic for Melanie, and although the music could be termed emotional and serious, or

schmaltzy and sentimental, in either case most people would say it was effective—that is, if they

were aware of the music at all. The music in this scene is distinctly nondiegetic, which means

that Max Steiner intended the music to be felt but not heard consciously (as pointed out by

Claudia Gorbman). It would be surprising if any audience member were actively aware of all the

different themes being woven in and out of the scene, even though this is in fact done to a great

extent.

The above qualities are conventions of the time period, and there are more that become

apparent as the scene continues. In both the Melanie/Ashley theme and the Scarlett/Ashley

theme, we find poignant string melodies with the addition of harp, classic examples of

contemporary Hollywood love themes. In addition to the orchestration, there is extensive use of

rubato, and in the Scarlett/Ashley theme there is the use of chromaticism, recalling Wagner.

And, of course, the use of themes or leitmotifs in the first place was a defining

characteristic of Steiner scores and the Golden Era in general. In particular, note the way in

which Steiner uses the leitmotifs as a basis for development, modifying them as appropriate to a

given situation, such as when he blends the Melanie theme with the Melanie/Ashley love theme.

The leitmotifs are also used narratively. At the beginning of the scene, the choice of the

Melanie theme is obvious. Steiner, known for his emphasis on split-second synchronization,

shows an extraordinary adeptness at hitting key points and moving themes in and out to fit the

action on the screen. We also receive extra-diegetic information from the music. A look at the

timeline above shows that Steiner catches Mellie’s request about Ashley and then Captain Butler.

The music plays a narrative role not found on screen when Scarlett says, “Somehow it doesn’t

matter,” as the Melanie/Ashley theme comes back in. The music fully reveals what the dialogue

hints at: Scarlett has made peace with the fact that Ashley really loved Melanie, and there is no

longer a need for the Ashley/Scarlett theme to continue.

Another classic characteristic of this scene, a hallmark of Steiner in particular, is the use

of “mickey-mousing,” or mimicking motion on the screen. As delineated above, we see that

Steiner uses mickey-mousing quite a lot, most obviously as Rhett exits.

Closing Scene

The Rhett theme is one of the more obviously masculine, and also heroic themes in the

score. Its proud, independent quality is created through the increased tempo, steady, articulated

rhythm and orchestration, and the heroic quality of the melody. Perhaps it would be even more

culturally coded if it were played by a trumpet, but that would hardly be fitting to the scene.

There is a brief Irish cultural code—the flute rendition that accompanies the voice of

Scarlett’s father. Mickey-mousing is also present in this scene; note, for instance, how Steiner

hits Scarlett’s collapse on the stairs.

At the film’s end, the Tara theme ends with a very strong plagal cadence. This was a

characteristic ending for Golden Era film scores, notably Disney scores, especially with the use

of choir. Plagal cadences are also reminiscent of church music, which is an appropriate reference

for GWTW. The big, lush orchestration and final cadence is a major Hollywood code saying,

“this is the end.”

Note

Folk tunes such as “Dixie,” “Bonnie Blue Flag,” and many songs by Stephen Foster are

sprinkled throughout the score. Although the scenes analyzed in this essay deal less with this

material, they are very significant to the work as a whole, and serve as important cultural codes

and suggestions.

5.  Musical  and  Filmic  Representation:  Textual  Analysis

Deathbed Scene

Melanie’s theme is well-suited to her character. Mellie is gentle and kind, always

thinking of others before herself; so the theme is very gentle, not forcing any movement on its

own. The especially gentle orchestration and low volume is fitting because Mellie is dying

peacefully, imparting her last requests. This very effectively evokes sympathy for and admiration

of Melanie. The music, although it is soft, still serves to heighten the emotion of the scene and

make us believe in the angelic person Mellie has been and become involved in the tragedy of her

death. Without music, this would be a cold scene, and we might be more inclined to question

Mellie’s character as unrealistic.

The grief of the scene is augmented by the introduction of the Melanie/Ahsley theme,

reminding us (probably unconsciously) of Ashley’s loss and the end of their relationship. The

high cellos are particularly evocative and poignant.

The Ashley/Scarlett love theme is perhaps the schmaltziest theme, and at earlier points in

the story has seemed rather dull, reflecting the dim chances of a fulfillment of Scarlett’s desire

for Ashley. This is due to its orchestration, chromaticism, and its simple and repetitive rhythm.

In this case, however, the theme is played at a faster tempo with more intensity, and of course the

tragic moment on screen also makes it more poignant. Adding to this is Rhett’s disappointment

at watching Scarlett and Ashley embrace; the transformation of the theme shows Rhett’s reaction

to watching this happen.

When Scarlett realizes that Rhett is missing, it is the higher transposition, faster tempo,

and modified rhythm that create a desperate, worried feeling. A momentary pause of anticipation

is felt as the music cadences (but does not resolve) when Scarlett opens the door to look for

Rhett.

Closing Scene

In a conversation between Rhett and Scarlett where Rhett expresses his bitterness and his

belief that their marriage has no chance now, Scarlett says she loves him, and follows him, only

to be rejected at every turn. His exit on “Frankly my dear, I don’t give a damn” marks his

independence, and the untempered theme shows that although he is upset, he feels proud and

liberated, unmoved by Scarlett.

The Scarlett/Rhett theme signifies Scarlett’s longing for Rhett, more genuine (or at least

she believes so) than earlier in the film. It has a more mournful tone than usual in this scene, with

the unmoving minor harmony beneath.

It is the Tara theme, more than any other, that contributes to the film’s epic feeling.

Whereas the other themes are mostly stepwise, the Tara theme is characterized by expansive

intervals—octaves, fifths, and fourths. This expansiveness is well-suited to the pastoral scenes it

accompanies. The ascending harmonic progression, accented by the brass, at the end of the

theme contributes to the melody’s already powerful, sweeping quality.

The use of the Tara theme in this scene is a good demonstration of the way Steiner used

the theme as a basis for motivic development throughout most of the score. As Steiner himself

stated, “Tara is more than a plantation…Tara is a living thing, giving and demanding life,” and

that Tara was “the whole story.” 10 11 Although the theme is tied closely with Scarlett, it is really

the theme for Tara, especially the Tara before the war that Scarlett remembers and longs for. The

theme is associated with pastoral scenes of the land, emphasized at key points in the film by

Scarlett (and also her father in the beginning) silhouetted by the setting sun as the camera zooms

out, showing the countryside in its full glory.

The Tara theme also plays a more specific narrative role in this closing scene. The Irish

flute rendition, vaguely based on the theme, recalls the beginning of the film and Scarlett’s

father. As the theme grows stronger and more recognizable, we realize that Scarlett is about to

experience the revelation that Tara is the most important thing in her life, and the full-blown

entrance of the theme marks this revelation. The final cadence, of course, gives us closure,

mirroring the cyclic nature of the film (we are reminded of the opening).

6.  Filmic  World

As Claudia Gorbman points out, film music in the Golden Era was often intended to

create an epic feeling, and GWTW, with its epic story, is about as well-suited to this as a film can

be. One might also call this a mythic feeling. The film, in many ways, is bigger than life, and

encourages suspension of disbelief. The whole story is about a longing for a world—the Old

South—“never to return.” In historical fact, the Old South in the film never existed. But the film

seeks to make us believe that it did on several levels. First, the Old South as it is portrayed in the

beginning of the film is filled with charm, grace, and beauty. Even the slaves all seem to be

happy. Second, we are continually reminded of this romanticized past, both through Scarlett’s

                                                                                                                         10Qtd.  in  Otter,  Kelly  (2002).  The  Role  of  Music  in  the  Construction  of  Gender  in  Gone  with  the  Wind:  New  York  University.  p.  127.  11  Schreiban,  Myrl  A.  “Memories  of  Max:  An  Archival  Interview  with  Max  Steiner.”  Film  Score  Monthly  10:1  (Jan.-­‐Feb.  2005),  p.  24-­‐27  

constant longing for Tara and the music, where the Tara theme can be found in some form or

another in most scenes, to be played in its full glory at pivotal moments in the film. Third, the

film makes us empathize with the South and its suffering at the hands of the Yankees, further

drawing us into this sense of longing for the peaceful existence of the past. (The film does not

portray the Confederates as complete victims, showing how they were boastful and eager for war

in the beginning. However, we are clearly intended to fault the Yankees for their brutality, and

we should…but one wonders if the Confederates would not have been as brutal had they won the

war.) Fourth, the music, more than just through the Tara theme, romanticizes the cause of the

Confederates and their plight, causing the film to be more biased than the novel. The novel was

already biased; film and music make it more so.

The use of strongly emotional themes (not to mention traditional Southern songs like

Dixie in other parts of the film), causes the spectator to identify with the South, even if the

spectator is a Northerner or not even American. Also contributing to the epic feeling is the unity

of the music, with the opening and closing of the film acting as mirror images, both playing the

Tara theme.

Melanie’s death bed scene is really more about the relationships of the characters than

about the larger cultural themes such as the cause of the Confederates. Still, a suspension of

disbelief is created. We find ourselves believing that to lose Mellie will be to lose a true angel,

since throughout the film she has never exuded a single selfish trait.

In general, the use of so many themes developed earlier in the film is very effective at

making the last two scenes especially riveting and real-seeming. Although, again, the spectator

may not be conscious of it, on some level they will recognize the music from before, and also

given the length of the film, an epic feeling is created by the confluence of these themes.

Finally, the development of the Tara theme in the final minutes of the film, combined

with the dialogue, reminds us of the recurring importance of Tara that we have experienced

throughout the film. The music makes this recollection fuller than it would be with dialogue

alone, and also recalls feelings of identification with Scarlett’s plight, and the plight of all

Southerners, and a longing to return home. The last of these—the love of home, the love of the

land, is the most universal theme, and this is where the film draws in even those who might not

otherwise be as involved. The historical context is bridged with more universal values and we

feel a sense of epic conclusion.

Acknowledgements

I would like to give credit to Kelly J. Otter, from whose dissertation and analysis of the musical

score I drew much valuable information about the use of Steiner’s various themes. Her one-line

notations of the themes were also very helpful.