mary jackson dissertation

8/20/2019 Mary Jackson Dissertation

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PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF DAIRY

GOATS TO INCOME OF SMALL SCALE FARMERS IN BABATI AND

KONGWA DISTRICTS, TANZANIA

MARY JACKSON

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN

TROPICAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF

AGRICULTURE. MOROGORO, TANZANIA.

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ABSTRACT

A study was carried out in Babati and Kongwa Districts to determine the lactation and

reproduction performances, profitability and contribution of dairy goats to household

income of small scale farmers. In addition, the performance of Toggenburg and Saanen

were compared in Kongwa District. From each district, ! dairy goat farmers and !

non"dairy goat farmers were indi#idually inter#iewed, using a structured $uestionnaire.

%on"dairy goat farmers were included as a control to ascertain the influence of dairy

goats on household income. Age at first &idding 'AFK(, &idding inter#al 'KI(, &id

mortality and litter si)e were *.+ !.- months, .- !. months, *-. / and *.0 in

Babati District and *-.! !. months, .0 !.1 months, 2./ and *.- in Kongwa

District, respecti#ely, for Toggenburg breed. Daily mil& yield 'D34(, total lactation mil&

yield 'T34(, lactation length '55( and dry period 'D6( were *.2 !.* litre, 02+.0 0.1

litres, 1. !.-! months and 0.0 !.* months in Babati and *. !.0 litres, 0*. -7.+

litres, 1. !.1 months and 0.* !.0 months in Kongwa District, respecti#ely. The

comparison of Toggenburg and Saanen breeds &ept in Kongwa District indicated that

AFK and KI were *-.! !.- and .0 !.- months for Toggenburg and *-. !. and .1

!. months for Saanen, respecti#ely. The D34, T34, 55 and D6 were *. !.* litres,

0*. *2. litres, 1. !.0 months and 0.* !.* months for Toggenburg and *.1 !.*

litres, 0++.+ *. litres, 1.2 !.- months and, 0.7 !.0 months, for Saanen breed,

respecti#ely. A#erage annual profits per household for dairy goat enterprise were Tsh

+2 0*+ in Babati and -00 227 in Kongwa, and the enterprise contributed -* and 0+ / of

the total income of the household in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely.

Toggenburg in Babati perform better in terms of mil& production compared to those in

Kongwa. Saanen breed performed better in terms of mil& production than Toggenburg in

Kongwa District. The study re#eals that, dairy goat enterprise is profitable and

significantly contributes to household income.

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COPYRIGHT

%o part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrie#al system or

transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior written permission of the author

or So&oine


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DEDICATION

This piece of wor& is dedicated to my parents, :harles :hacha 3agon&a and 3agreth

:harles :hacha who were always immersed in #ision about my success.

#i


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................!!

DECLARATION.............................................................................................................!!!

COPYRIGHT...................................................................................................................!"

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................."

DEDICATION.................................................................................................................."!

TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................."!!

LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................#!!

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS......................................................#!"

CHAPTER ONE...............................................................................................................1

1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1

*.* ;becti#e...................................................................................................................

*.*.* ;#erall ;becti#e........................................................................................

*.*.0 Specific obecti#es......................................................................................

*.0 Eypothesis................................................................................................................

CHAPTER TWO..............................................................................................................$

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................$

0.* Eistory of Dairy ?oats in Tan)ania..........................................................................1

0.0 Eistory of Dairy ?oat 6roects in Babati and Kongwa Districts..............................1

0.- 8eproducti#e 6erformance.......................................................................................+

0.-.* Age at first &idding 'AFK(.........................................................................2

0.-.0 Kidding inter#al 'KI(..................................................................................

0.-.- 5itter si)e..................................................................................................**

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0.-. 3ortality rate............................................................................................*-

0. 5actation 6erformance............................................................................................*1

0..* 5actation yield..........................................................................................*+

0..0 5actation length........................................................................................*7

0..- Dry period.................................................................................................*

0.1 :ontribution of Dairy ?oat to Eousehold Income.................................................*

CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................2

.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS..........................................................................2

-.* 5ocation and Description of the Study Areas.........................................................0-

-.*.* Babati district............................................................................................0-

-.*.0 Kongwa district.........................................................................................0-

-.0 Sampling Design and Sample Si)e.........................................................................0

-.0.* Data collection..........................................................................................0

-.0.0 6arameters studied....................................................................................01

-.0.0.* 8eproducti#e and lactation performances of dairy goat

breeds......................................................................................01

-.0.0.0 Input and output relationships of the dairy goat enterprises...01

-.0.0.- Assessment of contribution of dairy goat enterprises to

household income...................................................................01

-.0.0. ?ross margin analysis.............................................................0+

-.- Data 6rocessing and Analyses................................................................................02

CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................1

%.0 RESULTS..............................................................................................................1

.* :haracteristics of the 8espondents.........................................................................-*

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.*.* Bac&ground information...........................................................................-*

.*.0 conomic acti#ities...................................................................................-0

.*.- Floc& structure..........................................................................................-0

.*. 8easons for &eeping dairy goats...............................................................--

.*.1 3anagement practices..............................................................................--

.0 :omparison of 6erformance of Toggenburg ?oats in Babati and Kongwa

Districts...................................................................................................................-1

.0.* Age at first &idding...................................................................................-1

.0.0 Kidding inter#al........................................................................................-+

.0.- Kid mortality rate......................................................................................-+

.0. 5itter si)e..................................................................................................-2

.- 5actation 6erformance Traits..................................................................................-2

.-.* Daily mil& yield........................................................................................-2

.-.0 Total lactation mil& yield..........................................................................-7

.-.- 5actation length........................................................................................-

.-. Dry period.................................................................................................-

. :omparison of 8eproducti#e 6erformance of Toggenburg and Saanen

?oats in Kongwa District.......................................................................................*

..* Age at first &idding...................................................................................*

..0 Kidding inter#al........................................................................................*

.1 :omparison of 5actation 6erformance of Toggenburg and Saanen in

Kongwa District......................................................................................................-

.1.* Daily mil& yield........................................................................................

.1.0 3onthly mil& yield...................................................................................

.1.- Total lactation mil& yield..........................................................................

.1. 5actation length........................................................................................1

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.1.1 Dry period 'D6(........................................................................................1

.+ 6rofitability of Dairy ?oat nterprises...................................................................+

.2 :omparison of income from other enterprises between dairy goat farmers

and non"dairy goat farmers.....................................................................................2

.2 :ontribution of Dairy ?oat nterprise to Eousehold Income................................

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1. 6rofitability of Dairy ?oat nterprises...................................................................+*

1.1 :ontribution of Dairy ?oat nterprises to Eousehold Income..............................+0

1.+ :omparison between Dairy ?oat and %on"Dairy ?oat Farmers in Terms

of Income ;btained from other nterprises...........................................................+0

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LIST OF TABLES

Table * Age at first &idding of different goat breeds.....................................................

Table 0 Kidding inter#al 'KI( of goats in the tropics...................................................**

Table - 5itter si)e for goats in tropical areas...............................................................*-

Table The nutriti#e #alue of goat mil& #ersus cow mil&..........................................0*

Table 1 ?eneral characteristics of respondents...........................................................-*

Table + A#erage number of dairy goats 'se( &ept per household..............................-0

Table 2 8easons for &eeping dairy goats in Babati and Kongwa districts..................--

Table 7 ?eneral 3anagement of dairy goats...............................................................-

Table :riteria used in choosing breeding buc& in Babati and Kongwa districts......-

Table *! :omparison of reproducti#e performance of Toggenburg between

Babati and Kongwa districts '5S3 S(......................................................-+

Table ** Kid mortality rates by se@ and type of birth in both districts....................... ..-2

Table *0 :omparison of lactation performance of Toggenburg in Babati and

Kongwa districts '5S3 S(........................................................................!

Table *- :omparison of reproducti#e performance of Toggenburg and

Saanen in Kongwa district..............................................................................0

Table * :omparison of lactation and reproducti#e performance of

Toggenburg and Saanen in Kongwa district '5S3 S(..............................-

Table *1 Annual costs, sales and gross margin of dairy goat enterprise in

Babati and Kongwa districts..........................................................................+

Table *+ :omparison of income from different enterprises among dairy and

non"dairy goat farmers....................................................................................7

Table *2 :ontribution of dairy goat enterprise to household income ......................... .1!

Table *7


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AFK Age at first &idding

DF Degree of freedom

?53 ?eneral 5inear 3odel

E6I Eeifer 6roect International

KI Kidding inter#al

5S3 5east s$uares means

mm 3illimeter

35DF 3inistry of 5i#estoc& De#elopment and Fisheries

38 3ortality rate

%S %on significant

S. Standard error

SAS Statistical Analysis System

SA Small ast African goats

@i#


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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

conomically, goats ser#e as sa#ing and li#ing ban&s for the resource poor rural people,

since they can easily be con#erted into cash when a need arises 'Dossa et al ., 0!!7H

?urmesa et al ., 0!**(. They are considered as an account that is used under emergency

conditions such as ta@ payments, health problems, school fees, death of a family member,

and payment of credit and purchase of food items during crop failure 'Shirima, 0!!1H

FA;STAT, 0!*!(. Socially, goats ser#e as a source of protein in human diets 'during

festi#al gatherings(, but also pro#ide good and stable source of income, especially for the

poor in the rural areas.

?oats play an important role to small"scale resource poor li#estoc& &eepers. Their efficient

utili)ation of small land holdings due to their small si)e and early maturity, short generation

inter#al and higher digestion efficiency of roughage ma&e them suitable for use for wealth

creation, enhancement of family nutrition, income generation and increased farm

producti#ity. Eence, impro#ement of their producti#ity is one way of reducing po#erty

among the poor 'De#endra, 0!!*H 6eacoc&, 0!!1H Ahuya et al ., 0!!(.

Dairy goat production is a promising enterprise for increasing consumption of animal

protein as well as raising income le#el of rural people. Dairy goats contribute to income

generation through the sales of mil&, mil& products, li#e animals and manure 'Kosgey

0!!H 3acha and 3baga, 0!!H FA;STAT, 0!*!(. Dairy goats are also named as Cpoor

mans cows for the poor farmers because of low initial and maintenance costs which can be

afforded by smallholder farmers, and they can be loo&ed after by any member of the family,

e#en children '3ahmoud, 0!*!(. Although goats &eeping has remained at a subsistence

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le#el in most de#eloping countries, its contribution to the total farm income is substantial.

Eowe#er, the contribution of goats to the people and economy of de#eloping countries is

underestimated, basically because their production is considered to be at small scale and

goat products seldom enter a formal mar&eting system '3ahmoud, 0!*!(.

In Tan)ania the goat population is estimated at *1.0 million, the local goats being the

predominant population '35FD, 0!**(. According to Kilongo)i et al. '0!!+( the population

of dairy goats is estimated to be *0+ !!! which is less that */ of the goat population.

Eowe#er, their role in pro#iding the highly needed mil& is widely recognised, especially by

the poor farming households.

fforts ha#e been made to impro#e producti#ity of local goats through introduction of

e@otic dairy breeds in different parts of the country. The e@otic breeds are normally used for

crossbreeding with indigenous tropical breeds. The reason behind the introduction of dairy

goats was to address the challenge of poor mil& production and low growth rate of the

Small ast African goats, the dominant breed in the country. The introduction of dairy goats

has led to increased goat producti#ity, hence impro#ed nutrition, income and o#erall

li#elihoods of the small" scale farmers. Introduction of dairy goats was also considered as a

means of creating employment within the community and enhancing mar&et access by the

poor rural farmers 'i& et al ., 0!!7H Safari et al ., 0!!7(.

Dairy goats were introduced in the country in the early *+!s. Breeds imported were

Saanen, Anglonubian and Toggenburg 'Das and Sendalo, **(. Serious research in dairy

goats commenced soon after e@otic dairy goats were introduced in the country. arlier

research efforts concentrated on on"station e#aluation of their performance. 5ater on dairy

goats were introduced in rural areas where smallholder farmers were fully in#ol#ed. Among

the areas where dairy goats ha#e been introduced is Babati District where they were

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1.1 O*+-!"

1.1.1 O"/ O*+-!"

To assess production performance, profitability and contribution of dairy goats to household

income of small"scale farmers.

1.1.2 S-!3!- 4*+-!"5

'i( To compare the reproducti#e and lactation performances of Toggenburg and

Saanen breeds and their crosses in Kongwa and Babati Districts.

'ii( To e#aluate input " output relationship of dairy goat enterprises and

'iii( To assess the contribution of dairy goat enterprise to household income of

small scale farmers.

1.2 H6475!5

i. 5actation and reproduction performances of Toggenburg and Saanen in Kongwa

and Babati Districts are not significantly differentH

ii. The profitability of dairy goat enterprise is e$ual to the profitability of other

enterprises and

iii. The contribution of dairy goat enterprise to household income is not significantly

different from the contribution of other enterprises in the household.


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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 H!54/6 43 D!/6 G45 !8 T898!

8earing of dairy goats started in 3issionary :entres, go#ernment institutions and

8esearch stations. In Tan)ania, serious research in dairy goats started in early *+!s when

e@otic dairy goat breeds were imported. arlier research efforts concentrated on on"station

studies but in *7!s dairy goats spread to small"scale farmers in rural areas 'Kiango,

*+(. ;n"farm dairy goat &eeping in rural areas was promoted by de#elopment agents

and did well as opposed to the station"based approaches. This led to increased interest on

the strategy of using dairy goats for po#erty reduction by go#ernment and non"

go#ernmental organi)ations ';gola et al ., 0!!(. Introduction of dairy goat breeds in rural

areas was aimed at upgrading the local breeds and increase their growth rates, mil& yield,

and hence impro#e food security as well as household income. As a result dairy goats

ha#e been introduced in different parts of the country. In most parts of the country dairy

goats ha#e gained popularity as source of mil& and income, particularly to the poor people

and their mil& is normally consumed at household le#el 'Shirima, 0!!1H Tadele, 0!!2(.

2.2 H!54/6 43 D!/6 G4 P/4+-5 !8 B*! 8: K48;


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pro#ided to the farmers selected to participate in proect. Thereafter, dairy goats were

distributed to few selected farmers. The condition was that when a doe gi#es birth to a

female &id, the &id has to be passed"on to the ne@t farmer. Thereafter, Toggenburg Breeders

Association 'T;B8A( was set up in * to manage the breeding stoc&. 3ar&eting channel

for dairy goats is through the association till today. %owadays, T;B8A, has become the

main supplier of pure Toggenburg goats in Tan)ania and e#en Kenya.

Eeifer 6roect International 'E6I"Tan)ania( introduced dairy goats in Kongwa District in

the year 0!!! mainly Saanen, Ango"%ubian and Toggenburg. The aim was to assist low

income families to impro#e consumption of animal protein and increase their income.

Before distribution of dairy goats to selected farmers, training was conducted at 5i#estoc&

Training Institute, 3pwapwa, on impro#ed management of dairy goats. Few farmers

from the selected #illages were later on trained on health aspects of goats, and became

community health wor&ers for identification and treatment of #arious diseases affecting

the goats of the group members.

2. R/4:=-!" P/34/>8-

This parameter is a maor determinant of producti#ity and economic #iability of goat

enterprises. Failure to reproduce regularly leads to economic losses, in terms of mil& for

sale, young stoc&s for replacement and, hence reduced selection intensity. 8eproducti#e

performance is determined by the rate of growth of an animal which, in turn, affects the

time ta&en to reach critical body weight for the onset of puberty. 6uberty in females

depends on adult body si)e of animals '?imene) and 8odning, 0!!2(. 8eproducti#e traits

are controlled by both genetic and non genetic factors and interaction between them.

6uberty, the time of first se@ual acti#ity, has a conse$uent effect on lifetime production.

Breed and potential si)e at maturity are the main factors that cause considerable #ariations

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in the time ta&en to reach first se@ual acti#ity in goats. 8egardless of preceding factors,

puberty is a function of both age and body weight '?imene) and 8odning, 0!!2(. ;ther

en#ironmental factors which affect the reproducti#e traits include season of the year, age

of the dam, nutrition, diseases, parity of dam and housing. The nutritional status of the

herd is the most important factor influencing reproduction. It is also the factor on which

the producer has the most control by either increasing or reducing nutrient consumption

'?imene) and 8odning, 0!!2(.

2..1 A; 3!/5 ?!::!8; @AFK

Age at first &idding is e@pressed as the age at which does &id for the first time. The earlier

the doe starts to &id the longer the producti#e span would be. Age at first &idding is an

important factor in determining life time producti#ity. There is a big #ariation in age at

first &idding among the production systems and breeds. It is usually later in animals li#ing

in harsh en#ironments. Age at first &idding is influenced by age of the animal and body

weight at mating, growth rate, and le#el of feeding and disease control. If doelings are not

at an optimum weight, breeding should be delayed since puberty is more dependent on

body weight than age of the animal. Eowe#er, delaying breeding for a long time

decreases the margin of profit by decreasing lifetime production '3ruttu, 0!!*(.

ffect of season on AFK is in relation to a#ailability of feed. Female &ids born in the

season with ample feed a#ailability grow faster and attain se@ual maturity earlier and

hence, are younger at first &idding. This is due to $uality and $uantity of feeds a#ailable

and this confirms that puberty depends on body weight rather than age 'Delgadillo et al .,

0!!2H Jeshmarani et al ., 0!!2H Bushara and %i&haila, 0!*0(. Female &ids born during the

rainy season gi#e birth to their first &ids at a relati#ely younger age compared to those

born during cool dry season 'Bushara and %i&haila, 0!*0(. The slow growth rate is

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mainly attributed to poor nutrition, management and other non"genetic factors

'?bangboche et al ., 0!!+(. Eowe#er, season effect is more pronounced in e@tensi#e than

in intensi#e management system. %utrition influences the onset of puberty, conception

rate, health and #igor of the newborn &id. ;#erfeeding doelings in order to attain hea#y

weight $uic&ly, does not guarantee that a high percentage will show oestrus early.

The important point to consider is for the animal to be old enough to cycle. If doeling

become fat before puberty, it is detrimental to mammary gland de#elopment because the

animals deposit e@cessi#e fat in their udders and this affects subse$uent mil& producing

ability '?imene) and 8odning, 0!!2(.

ffect of type of birth on age at first &idding is contributed by birth weight and feeding

regime before and after weaning. Before weaning female &ids born single will grow faster

than those born twins due to mil& yield differences. This implies that twins recei#e little

mil& from the doe compared to the &ids born single and this affects their growth rate

before weaning. After weaning maternal influence ceases and as long as nutrition is not a

limiting factor, twins &ids tend to compensate for growth and there is no difference in

terms of age at first &idding between twin female &ids and those born singles 'Dadi et

al ., 0!!7(. This happens because the effect of litter si)e decreases with increase in age of

the &ids. Age at first &idding according to Tesfaye '0!!( in thiopia is *-.+ month 'Table

*(. Study conducted under semi"intensi#e system found the AFK to be *-.1 months

':howdhury et al ., 0!!0(. The AFK for >est African Dwarf goats has been found to

range from *+ and *7 months '>ebb and 3amabolo, 0!!1(. Dhara et al . '0!**( reported

the AFK to be *0. months in Blac& Bengal goats 'Table *(. Eowe#er, the a#erage

recommended AFK is *0.1 months under good management. Table * below shows AFK

on different goat breeds.

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T* 1 A; 3!/5 ?!::!8; 43 :!33/8 ;4 */:5

B/: AFK@:65 P- A=74/@5

SA +-7"7 Tan)ania"S


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According to Kamal and %i&haila '0!!( another factor which can lead to long open

period is under nutrition which e@tends KI. The high le#el of feeding after &idding

shortens the inter#al from first breeding to conception and thus reduces KI. Guality and

$uantity of feed ha#e effect on KI which seems to be shorter '01! days( for goats under

plenty feed and longer '-* days( for goats under feed shortage. Dadi et al . '0!!7( ha#e

e@plained this to be associated with inade$uate nutrition which delays the occurrence of

postpartum oestrus. Also the inter#al could be affected by change in the $uality and

$uantity of forages, which occurs during #arious seasons of the year, as the natural

forages are the main sources of goats diet. The ratio of male to female, $uality of buc&s

and a#ailability of buc& can also affect KI. 3ating system in the area can also affect the

KI.


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'0!*!( in %igeria found the KI to be +. months '0!2 days(, which is close to 0! days

reported by Sodi$ '0!!( in Indonesia on goat raised under traditional management

system 'Table 0(.


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synthesis increase too ':arnicella et al ., 0!!7H Eansen et al., 0!!+(. 5itter si)e at birth

tends to impro#e o#er years and with parity. This may be due to the efficiency of

reproduction as the doe matures.

Does with singles ha#e less mil& production than those with multiple litter si)e 'ArgMello

et al ., 0!!1(. The high mil& yield in does with twins is induced by high lactogenic

acti#ities during prepartum stage which cause greater de#elopment of mammary gland

and increase in the potential for mil& synthesis and, hence, high mil& yield during early

postpartum. The small amount of mil& produced by does with single &ids ha#e higher

protein and lower fat contents 'Salama et al ., 0!!1(.

5itter si)e can be affected by breed and, there is #ariation within and between breeds.

The #ariation in litter si)e in tropical goats ha#e great ad#antage as reproducti#e

performance could be impro#ed by selection or by crossbreeding without affecting their

potential adaptation characteristics to hot and harsh en#ironment '3ruttu, 0!!*(. Studies

conducted by Dadi et al . '0!!7(, Alphonsus et al . '0!*!( and Bushara et al . '0!**(

re#ealed the positi#e correlation between litter si)e and parity, as parities increase litter

si)e increases as well. This was also obser#ed by Faru$ue et al . '0!*!( where litter si)e in

the *st parity was lower '*.-( than in the 2th parity '-.!(. This phenomenon supports the

obser#ation that young does ta&e longer time to return to their reproducti#e status

compared to older does '>ilson and 5ight, *7+(.

The effect of season on litter si)e is attributed to a#ailability of feeds, which in turn,

affects the conception rate. :onception rate is high when mating is accompanied by high

plane of nutrition, especially two months prior to mating. The larger litter si)e in dry

season &idding is related to high conception rate in the late rains or post rainy season due

to abundant a#ailability of good $uality pasture during the rain season 'Eamad, 0!!*(.

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Findings by Baiden '0!!2( showed that does &idding in the dry season ha#e significantly

higher litter si)e than those &idding in minor wet season '0.!1 #s *.7(. 5itter si)e is

significantly affected by rearing system. It has been shown to be higher in intensi#e

system than in semi"intensi#e system 'Faru$ue et al ., 0!*!(. 5itter si)e of *.2 and *.+

has been reported by Ince '0!*!( and 3ellado et al . '0!**(, respecti#ely 'Table -(.

T* L!/ 5!9 34/ ;45 !8 /4!- /5

B/: L!/ 5!9 C4=8/6 A=74/5ocal goats *.-1 3alawi Karua and Banda '*(

Saanen crosses *.10 3alawi Karua and Banda '*(

6ygmy *. ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

American Alpine *. ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

French Alpine *.2 ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

%ubian 0.! ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

Saanen *.2 ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

Toggenburg *.+ ?eorgia Amoah et al . '*+(

Saanen *.+ 3e@ico 3ellado et al . '0!**(

Toggenburg *.+ 3e@ico 3ellado et al . '0!**(

French alpine *.- 3e@ico 3ellado et al . '0!**(Anglonubian *.+0 3e@ico 3ellado et al . '0!**(

?ranadina *.10 3e@ico 3ellado et al . '0!**(

Saanen *.2 Tur&ey Ince '0!*!(

Taggar 'dry season( *.*7 >estern Sudan Bushara et al . '0!*-(

Taggar 'rainy season( *.1 >estern Sudan Bushara et al . '0!*-(

:reole goats *.7 India Ale@andre et al . '0!!*(

%ubian *.*0 Sudan Kamal and %i&haila '0!!(

%orwegian goats *. ?airo" Tan)ania Safari et al . '0!!7(

%ati#e goats *.27 Korea Song et al . ' 0!!+(

2..% M4/!6 /

3ortality is a maor constraint to goat production in the tropics. Kid mortality from birth

to weaning is one of the crucial elements in the economic process of goat raising

programs. Factors influencing &id mortality are closely related to the systems of

production and include low birth weight, low mil& production of the doe, season of birth,

type of birth, se@ of &id, season of &idding, parity order , predators, diseases and accidents

'Kamal and %i&haila, 0!!(.

*-


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Birth weight and se@ of the &id ha#e significant influence on pre"weaning mortality rate

'Eailu et al ., 0!!+(. Kid born with lower birth weight has a greater chance of e@pressing

higher mortality rate compared to &id born with higher birth weight 'Tur&son et al .,

0!!(. Kid mortality normally decreases as the birth weight of &id increases and increases

in larger si)e &ids 'rshadu))aman et al ., 0!!2H ?irma et al ., 0!**(. ?enerally male &id

e@hibits higher birth weight compared to female &ids. :on#ersely female &ids ha#e higher

&id mortality than male &ids. Eowe#er, a study conducted by Tur&son et al . '0!!(

obser#ed higher mortality in male &ids than in female &ids.

Type of birth is another factor which affects &id mortality. Single born &ids ha#e the

lowest mortality rate while twin born &ids ha#e higher mortality rate 'Snyman, 0!*!H

3tenga et al ., 0!!+H %damu&ong, 0!!+(. Eigh mortality rate for multiple " &id could be

associated with limited nutrients in the uterus and mil& consumption after birth. Age and

parity of does ha#e significant effect on mortality rate at birth and from birth to weaning.

This may be attributed to the physiological maturity of older does and their ability to

pro#ide more mil&, which increases the sur#i#al rate of the &ids '3arai et al ., 0!!0(.

Eigher incidences of mortality ha#e been obser#ed in *st and 0nd parities than in -rd and

th

parities '3ourand et al ., 0!!!(. Eigher mortality rate ha#e been reported in

primiparous than in multiparous dams '01.- #s *-.0/( 'Bushara et al ., 0!**(. This

supports the fact that age and parity of the doe significantly affects the reproducti#e traits.

3ortality rate is reduced with increase in parity number 'Bushara et al ., 0!**(.

Breed is another factor which affects &id mortality. Indigenous goats are more resistant to

diseases and stress, hence, ha#e higher sur#i#al rate compared to e@otic breeds 'Barbind

and Dandewar, 0!!(. 3ortality rate increases as the le#el of e@otic blood increases.

@otic breeds easily succumb to diseases and this result into higher mortality rate of &ids

*


29/113

than their indigenous counterparts. 3eat goats also ha#e been found to e@press lower &id

mortality rate than mil& goats.

Studies ha#e shown that, &ids born during the wet season e@hibit higher mortality rate

than those born in the dry season 'Tur&son et al ., 0!!(. The higher mortality rate in the

rainy season is associated with high rainfall and high relati#e humidity '3a)umdar et al .,

*7!(, both of which are &nown to promote diseases and parasitic infections. Kids seem

to be less able to withstand attac& by both physical and biological agents due to their lac&

of immunity. This ma&es them more susceptible to enteric and respiratory infections

'Bushara and %i&haila, 0!*0(. Eigh mortality rate in post weaning period is associated

with weaning stress and worm burden. Eigh pre " weaning mortality rate is influenced by

low birth weight and low mil& yield '?irma et al ., 0!**(. A study conducted in high

potential areas of Tan)ania re#ealed pre weaning mortality of 2. / for %orwegian goats

'i& et al ., 0!!7(.

2.% L-!48 P/34/>8-

Guality and $uantity of feed pro#ided to animals prior and after parturition influences

mil& yield, mil& $uality, lactation duration, &id #itality and growth rate 'Salama et al .,

0!!1(. The actual amount of mil& produced during lactation period is affected by se#eral

factors. These include breed, litter si)e, parity, stage of lactation, and health of does

during pregnancy, season of &idding, physiological state, disease, feed a#ailability and

stress from the en#ironment '3ellado et al ., 0!!-(.

2.%.1 L-!48 6!:

Breed of dairy goats has an effect on mil& yield. It has been documented by many authors

that temperate breeds produce more mil& than tropical breeds '?Mney et al ., 0!!+H %orris

et al ., 0!**(. Tropical breeds ha#e low mil& yield due to their low genetic potential and

*1


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pre#ailing en#ironmental conditions li&e stress caused by harsh weather and diseases.

5e#el of mil& production depends on breed and there is #ariation in mil& yield among

different breeds and within the breed 'Kendall et al ., 0!!(. Also high #ariations are due

to #ariable production en#ironment. ?enetic differences among the dairy goat breeds

affect ash and fat contents of the mil&, and it has been found that tropical breeds gi#e

higher percentage of these contents than temperate breeds 'Schmidely et al ., 0!!0H

Jahraddeen et al ., 0!!2(. 3il& from tropical goat breeds has higher total solids, due to

higher fat and protein contents than those of temperate dairy goat breeds. These

concentrations of nutrients are connected to small amount of mil& produced by tropical

breeds 'Abd et al., 0!!1(. 6rotein and fat contents are high on early lactation then drop at

pea& mil& yield and slowly increases until the doe dries off 'Salama et al ., 0!!1(.

3il& yield #aries according to the stage of lactation. ;n first lactation does produce small

amount of mil& per day and mil& yield increases progressi#ely with parity until third

lactation '%orris et al ., 0!**(. ?oats are more persistent mil&ers than cattle. They reach

their pea& mil& yield during 7 th to *0th wee&s after &idding. ;n the 0! th wee& of lactation,

the mil& yields decrease slowly and thereafter yield remains fairly constant. Total mil&

yield has been found to be affected by parity, season and year of &idding, litter si)e and

interaction between year and season. Total mil& yield increases gradually with the

increase in parity until the fourth parity 'Eamed et al ., 0!!(. 5itter si)e has an influence

on lactation yield. Does with twins produce more mil& compared to those with singles

':arnicela et al ., 0!!7H Jahraddeen et al ., 0!!(. The difference in mil& yield due to litter

si)e is probably attributed to the e@tra pressure or stimulation on the mammary gland as a

result of the additional suc&ling of the second &id. Also the increasing trend of mil&

production may be due to more physiological de#elopment with ad#ancement of litter

si)e.

*+


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In a study conducted by Jahraddeen et al . '0!!2( mil& yield of goats was found to be

higher during the wet season than the dry season. This is in close agreement with the

findings of Iloee et al . '*7*( who reported that in %igeria >AD does that &idded from

9anuary to 3arch produced more mil& than those that &idded from April to 9uly.

?enerally, does that &id during the rainy season produce more mil& than those &idding in

the dry season. This may be attributed to a#ailability of good $uality feed resources

during the rainy seasons and #ice #ersa during the dry season '%orris et al ., 0!**(.

;n the other hand, when does &id in the wet season there is low dry matter inta&e,

reduced gra)ing time, high pre#alence of diseases, especially worm infestation which

cause low mil& yield 'Eoste et al ., 0!!1H Singh et al ., 0!!(.

6arity is another factor which influences mil& production. As the number of parities

increase from the first to the thirdH mil& yield increases with increasing rate, thereafter

mil& yield increases with decreasing rate up to the fifth parity 'Eansen et al ., 0!!+(.

ffect of parity on total lactation yield and daily mil& yield shows an almost steady

increasing trend from first to fourth lactation. Singh et al . '0!!( obser#ed increase in

mil& production from second parity to fifth parity, thereafter declined substantially.

During the first &idding, does ha#e low weight and this contributes to low daily mil&

yield. As the number of parity increases, the animal is attaining maturity and energy

competition between growth and mil& synthesis is reduced, hence, high mil& yield

'3ellado et al ., 0!!-H Bushara et al ., 0!**H %orris et al ., 0!**(. This is in agreement with

Singh et al . '0!!( who reported increase in mil& production of does with high weight at

&idding.

*2


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3il& yield increases with age, as the age of the animal increases, the hormonal status of

the animal body, metabolic acti#ity, secretory cells and nutrient inta&e which are used in

mil& synthesis increase too 'Eansen et al ., 0!!+H :arnicella et al ., 0!!7(. ;lder does are

larger in body si)e and produce more mil&. 3anagement practices which include

fre$uency of mil&ing, nutrition and body condition are other factors influencing mil&

production. 3il&ing once per day yield little amount of mil& compared to mil&ing twice a

day 'Salama et al ., 0!!1(. Shortage of feeds during pregnancy affect mil& yield as a carry

o#er effect after &idding.

This is because good body condition of doe at late pregnancy has positi#e effect on early

lactation mil& yield. 3orand "Fehr et al. '0!!2( reported that apart from genetic limits,

nutrition during lactation is the primary factor that influences mil& yield and mil& fat

content decreases as the mil& yield increases. Does body condition scores significantly

influence mil& yield 'Jahraddeen et al ., 0!!2(. A#erage mil& yield, total lactation yield,

time of pea&, persistency, fat and protein contents depends on the $uality and $uantity of

feed consumed by the animal.

2.%.2 L-!48 8;7

5actation length is the period in which the doe is in mil&. The total amount of mil& to be

har#ested is partly influenced by lactation length. 5actation length has an ob#ious effect

on mil& yield with greater $uantities of mil& and mil& components being obtained for

longer lactations '?oetsch et al ., 0!**(. 5actation length is a breeds property. ach breed

has its own lactation length depending on its producing ability, but usually lasts from 0!

to -!! days. Also #ariation is found from goat to goat within a breed. Findings by Ahuya

et al. '0!!( indicated the lactation length of 001 days. Study conducted by i& et al .

'0!!7( shows lactation length of *!.! months. 5actation length of 7 months has been

*7


33/113


34/113

and maintenance costs are low. Also most of the small"scale farmers ha#e limited access

to land and capital, and so the rearing of dairy goats using common property resources at

least gi#es them an opportunity to impro#e their income position '8iethmuller, 0!!-(.

Small scale dairy farming has been shown to contribute significantly to household

incomeH and this seems to be higher compared to other enterprises. 3anure from the dairy

goats cause substantial impro#ement in soil $uality, increase crop yield, hence, impro#e

food security and income to household '6eacoc&, 0!!1H Safari et al ., 0!!7H 5welamira et

al ., 0!*!(. ?enerally, income determines the purchasing power at household le#el, such

that the higher the income the higher the ability of the households to meet their basic

needs.

?oat mil& greatly impro#es the diet of many rural families because it is rich in basic food

nutrients. It is traditionally #alued for the elderly, the sic&, babies, children who are

allergic to cow mil&, and patients with ulcers. ?oat mil& also contributes to reduction of

malnutrition among the #ulnerable groups. It is e#en preferred for raising orphan foals

and other young domestic animals. ?oat mil& is richer than cow mil& in some important

nutrients #itamin A, niacin, choline, and inositolH but it is poorer in folic acid '6inoy,

0!!7H Kipserem et al., 0!**H %orris et al ., 0!**(. 6rotein le#el, fat and mineral contents in

goat mil& are relati#ely higher than that of cows mil& 'Table (. ?oat mil& has been

reported to contain a higher proportion of short and medium chain fatty acids with smaller

globules than cow mil&, this ma&es goat mil& promising in relie#ing stress and

constipation '?urmesa et al ., 0!**H ;)ung et al ., 0!**(. It has been found to contain

higher medicinal #alue 'curing people with migraine and asthma(, #itamin B content and

higher digestibility ';chepo and 3omoh, 0!*!( than cow mil& 'Table (.

0!


35/113


36/113

;n" farm dairy goat &eeping is promoted by de#elopment agents as one of the strategy for

po#erty reduction. The main reasons were to upgrade the local breeds, increase growth

rates, mil& yield, impro#e food security and increase household income. ;n the other

hand, income generations through sale of mil&, mil& products, and li#e animals ha#e

contributed much to pro#ision of better nutrition and other responsibilities within the

household. The present study was carried out to determine the abo#e parameters in two

different en#ironments and assess the contribution of dairy goats to income of the

households.

00


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CHAPTER THREE

.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

.1 L4-!48 8: D5-/!!48 43 7 S=:6 A/5

The study was conducted in Babati District, 3anyara 8egion and Kongwa District in

Dodoma 8egion, Tan)ania. These two districts were chosen because they ha#e been

engaged in dairy goat production for many years.

.1.1 B*! :!5/!-

Babati District is located between latitude -! and 1! South of the e$uator and longitude

-1! and -2! ast of ?reenwich. The area lies between 1! and 0,1! metre abo#e sea

le#el. A#erage annual rainfall ranges from 1!! to *,0!! mm. The rains are bimodal and

the short rains begin in %o#ember and end in DecemberN9anuary, while the long rains

begin in February and end in 3ay. The short and the long rains are often connected.

The rain season is followed by cool dry season from 9une to September. The a#erage

mean temperature ranges from 00! : to 01!:. The main economic acti#ities in the district

are crop and li#estoc& production. Subsistence crops grown in the area include mai)e,

pigeon peas, beans, bananas and sunflower which is used for e@tracting coo&ing oil, seed

ca&e as feed supplement for li#estoc& and fertili)er. 5i#estoc& species &ept in the area

include dairy and indigenous goats, cattle, pigs, chic&ens and sheep.

.1.2 K48;


38/113

0!O: and --O:. The main rain season is from %o#ember to April with an annual a#erage

rainfall of 1!! to 7!! mm. The maor economic acti#ities are li#estoc& and crop

production. 3aor crops grown in the area are sorghum, groundnuts, mai)e, simsim and

sunflower. 5i#estoc& reared in the area are pigs, local cattle and goats and local chic&en.

.2 S>!8; D5!;8 8: S> S!9

A purposi#e sampling design was used to select farmers who &eep dairy goats and ha#e

an e@perience of at least fi#e years. In addition, farmers who do not &eep dairy goats

within the area were randomly selected and inter#iewed using a structured $uestionnaire

'Appendi@ *(. A total of *+! smallholder farmers were in#ol#ed in the study, of which,

eighty farmers had dairy goats 'fourty from each district( and eighty had no dairy goats

'fourty from each district(.

A purposi#e sampling procedure as described by Bryman '0!!*( was adopted to ensure

that the selected households comprised of the dairy goat farmers. %on"dairy goat farmers

were randomly sampled. The difference between the two groups was possession of a dairy

goat enterprise while other economic acti#ities were the same. %on dairy goat farmers

were included in this study as a control group to assess the contribution of dairy goats in

comparison to other enterprises within the household. Four #illages per district were

selected for the study. These were ?iebosh&a, ?iedabung, Eimiti and Earaa for Babati

District, and 3langa, Ibwaga, Sagara and 3&o&a in Kongwa District.

.2.1 D -4-!48

A structured $uestionnaire was prepared 'Appendi@ *( and pre"tested before being

administered then, refining and corrections were made in accordance to the respondents

perception. The respondents were #isited indi#idually at their premises after ma&ing

0


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appointment with the researcher. Before carrying out the inter#iew, the first session was

used by the researcher to build confidence with farmers so that they could participate

fully and without reser#ation. Data were collected by inter#iewing household heads

engaged in small scale dairy goat &eeping and had stayed in the proect for at least fi#e

years. Furthermore, head of the non"dairy goat &eeping households were inter#iewed.

.2.2 P/>/5 5=:!:

.2.2.1 R/4:=-!" 8: -!48 /34/>8-5 43 :!/6 ;4 */:5

Eousehold sur#eys were conducted to determine the performance of dairy goats.

Information on age at first &idding, &idding inter#al, litter si)e, &id mortality rate, daily

mil& yield, lactation length and dry period were gathered through face to face inter#iew

using a well structured $uestionnaire.

.2.2.2 I8= 8: 4== /!4857!5 43 7 :!/6 ;4 8//!55

Information on $uantity and price of inputs used for raising dairy goats were collected.

The inputs included feeds, #eterinary ser#ices, drugs, labour 'familyNhired(, repair and

maintenance of goat houses incurred in 0!**. The outputs obtained included sales of li#e

animals, mil&, manure and goat products consumed at home which were con#erted into

cash.

.2.2. A5555>8 43 -48/!*=!48 43 :!/6 ;4 8//!55 4 74=574: !8-4>

The information on income from other enterprises contributing to annual household

income apart from dairy goats was collected from the farmers with dairy goats and those

with no dairy goats. These included maor crops 'such as mai)e, sunflower, sorghum,

pigeon pea( produced, other li#estoc& species and small business within the household

'inputs included drugs, labour, feed, #eterinary ser#ices, repair and maintenance of animal

01


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shed, cost for breeding of animals and land preparation costs, seeds, weeding, har#esting,

transport cost for crops(. Information on $uantity and price of inputs for each enterprise

were collected and total costs of production were computed. 4ield from each enterprise

and price of commodities were determined. ;utputs were considered as sales of products

from each enterpriseH these included sale of mil&, mil& products, sale of li#e animals and

all products consumed at home were con#erted into cash. For crops, amounts har#ested

were con#erted into cash and re#enues from each enterprise were computed.

.2.2.% G/455 >/;!8 865!5

6rofitability of each enterprise was computed using gross margin analysis. ?ross margin

'total re#enue " total #ariable costs( analysis was carried out using the system described

by %yaribo et al . '*!( which in#ol#es the use of #ariable costs only as &ey components

for decision ma&ing in day to day operations.

?3 P Q6y4i " 6@Ri .. '*(

>hereH

?3 P ?ross margin 'Tshs(,

4i P $uantity of output in &g,

6y P product price 'TshsN&g(,

Ri P $uantity of input in &g and

6@ P input price 'TshsN&g:omparisons were done between districts and those with and without dairy goats for #ariable

costs and re#enue.

. D P/4-55!8; 8: A8655

Data obtained from the $uestionnaire were coded and summari)ed prior to analysis.

68;: F8G of SAS '0!!( was employed to analy)e $ualitati#e data. Data on

reproducti#e and lactation performances were coded and analy)ed by ?eneral 5inear

3odel '?53( procedure of SAS '0!!( programme to assess the producti#ity of the dairy

goats.

0+


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i. The first data set was for Toggenburg breed in Kongwa and Babati Districts. For

this analysis the factors assessed were type of birth, le#el of e@otic blood and

location.

Age at first &idding 'AFK( data were analy)ed using the following model

4i&l P U Ti U L U 4& Uei&l ....................................................................................... '0(

>hereH

4i&l P age at first &idding of an indi#idual animal,

P general mean,

Ti P effect of ith type of birth of the doeling 'single or multiple(

L P effect of th le#el of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/(,

4& P effect of & th location 'Kongwa and Babati(

ei&l P random error

Kidding inter#als 'KI( data were analy)ed using the following model

4i&l P U Bi U ? U 5& U ei&l ... '-(

>hereH

4i&l P Kidding inter#al of a doe

P general mean,

BiP effect of ith birth type of the doeling 'single or multiple(

? P effect of

th

le#el of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/(5& Peffect of & th location 'Kongwa and Babati(

ei&l P random error

L!/ 5!9 @LS

5itter si)e P Total &ids born .................................................................................. '(

%umber of does &idded

Data on litter si)e were analysed using chi"s$uare and effect of location was tested.

M4/!6 /Data were organi)ed and pre weaning mortality rate was calculated from birth to

months.

K38 / P %umber of &ids that died before weaning V*!! '1(

Total number of &ids born in year 0!**

K38/ P Kid mortality rate 'percent(

Data were analysed using :hi"s$uare test and the effect of se@, location and type of birth

were tested.

02


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5actation traits measured were daily mil& yield 'D34(, monthly mil& yield '334(, total

lactation mil& yield 'T534(, lactation length '55( and dry period 'D6( and were

analysed using the following model

4i&l P U Bi U ? U 5& U ei&l .. '+(

>hereH

4i&l P obser#ation of a doe,

P general mean,

Bi P effect of ith birth type,

? P effect of th le#el of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/(,

5& P effect of & th location and

ei&l P random error

T4 >!? 6!:

This was computed as amount of mil& 'litres( produced throughout the lactation period.

ii. The second data analysis compared Toggenburg and Saanen breeds of Kongwa

district. The factors tested were type of birth, le#el of e@otic blood and breed.

Data on age at first &idding 'AFK( were analy)ed using the following model

4i&l P U Ti U L U 4& Uei&l ..................................................................................... '2(

>hereH

4i&l P age at first &idding of an indi#idual animal, P general mean,

Ti P effect of ith type of birth,

L P effect of th le#el of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/(,

4& P effect of & th breed 'Toggernburg, Saanen(

ei&l Prandom error

Data on &idding inter#al 'KI( were analy)ed using

4i&l P U Bi U ? U 5& U ei&l . '7(

>hereH

4i&l P Kidding inter#al of a doe

P general mean,Bi P effect of i

th birth type of the doe

? P effect of th le#el of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/(,

5& P effect of & th breed and

ei&l P random error

Data for lactation traits were analysed using the following modelH

4i&l P U Bi U ? U 5& U ei&l .. '(

>hereH

4i&l P obser#ation of doe

P general mean

Bi P effect of ith birth type

? P effect of th of le#el e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/( 5& P effect of &

th breed

ei&l P random error

07


43/113

0


44/113


45/113

%.1.2 E-484>!- -!"!!5

Eousehold farm si)e a#eraged +. and *!.2 acres for dairy goat farmers and 0. and **.

acres for non"dairy goat farmers in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely. The study

re#ealed that the maor income generating acti#ities were both crop and li#estoc&

production, this was reported by *!!/ of dairy goat farmers in both districts, 0.1/ and

7!/ of non"dairy goat farmers in Babati and Kongwa, respecti#ely. :rops grown in

Babati District were mai)e, banana, pigeon peas, beans, sunflower and coffee, while in

Kongwa District the crops grown were groundnuts, sorghum, mai)e, simsim and

sunflower. ;ther li#estoc& &ept in both districts were chic&ens, pigs, sheep, local goats

and cattle.

%.1. F4-? 5/=-=/

The a#erage number of dairy goats was 2.0 and .* per household in Babati and Kongwa,

respecti#ely. The floc&s were raised under the Ccut and carry feeding system and that is

why in both districts the numbers of animals per household were small. The numbers of

female goats were higher than those of males in both districts 'Table +(.

T* ' A"/; 8=>*/ 43 :!/6 ;45 @5 ? / 74=574:

C;4/6 B*! K48;


46/113

was mentioned as the second reason '-.2/(. Farmers reported that, income from sale of

mil& and li#e animals were used to sol#e household needs such as paying school fees,

medical bills, buying farms inputs and buying food in case of crop failure. 6ro#ision of

manure was the third reason '22.1/(. 3ost farmers said that they use manure to impro#e

soil fertility in their farms.

T* ( R5485 34/ ?!8; :!/6 ;45 !8 B*! 8: K48;


47/113

Feeding system Jero gra)ing 0.1 *!!.! +.-

Tethering 1.! !.! 0.1

Free gra)ing 0.1 !.! *.-

>ater access ;nce per day 10.1 72.1 2!.!

Twice per day 0!.! *!.! *1.!

Ad"libitum 00.1 0.1 *0.1

;nce per two days 0.1 !.! *.-

Thrice per day 0.1 !.! *.-

Breeding buc& Eired 00.1 1.! *-.7

6roect 1!.! 72.1 +7.7

;wn 02.1 2.1 *2.1

;#erall criteria for choosing a buc& for breeding were based on the source. In Babati

District dam performance was the most commonly used criterion '+2.1/(, followed by

shape and conformation '00.1/(. In Kongwa District, farmers depended on buc&s from

the proect '70.1/( and shape and conformation '*2.1/( were the most important criteria

used for selecting breeding buc&s 'Table (.

T* C/!/! =5: !8 -7445!8; */:!8; *=-? !8 B*! 8: K48;


48/113

the lactation traits included were daily mil& yield, monthly mil& yield, total lactation

yield, lactation length, and dry period.

%.2.1 A; 3!/5 ?!::!8;

Age at first &idding differed significantly between the two districts '6 W !.!1(. The o#erall

means of AFK for Toggenburg breed were *.+ !.- and *-.! !. months in Babati and

Kongwa, respecti#ely 'Table *!(. Type of birth in the two districts significantly '6W!.!1(

influenced AFK. Does born single in Babati District '*.2 !. months( were slightly

older at AFK than those born as twins '*. !.- months(. The trend was different in

Kongwa District whereby, does born single '*0. !.1 months( had lower AFK than

those born twins '*-.* !.+ months(. Age at first &idding for goats with 1!/ blood le#el

was higher compared to that of goats with 21/ and *!!/ blood le#el in Babati District.

The trends of AFK in Kongwa District were found to increase as the le#el of dairy goat

blood increased 'Table *!(.

T* 10 C4>/!548 43 //4:=-!" /34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/; *


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le#el

21/ .- !. .1 !.+ !.2+

*!!/ .1 !.7 .+ *.* !.-Type of

birth

Single .* !.1 .- !.+ !.70

3ultiple . !.1 .* !.2 !.+1

;#erall .- !. .0 !.1 !.72

%umber of ser#icesN

conception '/(

;nce 10.1 10.1

Twice -!.! 1.!

Thrice *!.! 0.1

Four 1.! !.!

%.2.2 K!::!8; !8/"

Kidding inter#al 'KI( is one of the maor components of reproducti#e performance that

influences li#estoc& production system. The o#erall least s$uares means for KI were .-

!. and .0 !.1 months in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely. The mean KIs of

Toggenburg were not significantly '6X!.!1( different in the two districts. Eowe#er, the

mean KI for Babati was slightly longer than that of Kongwa District. Both type of birth

and blood le#el had no significant '6X!.!1( effects on KI 'Table *!(.

%.2. K!: >4/!6 /

From the results, there was no significant '6X!.!1( difference in &id mortality between the

two districts 'Appendi@ 2(. The o#erall &id mortality rates were *-./ and 2./ in

Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely 'Table **(. Eigher mortality rates were

obser#ed in female &ids compared to male &ids. Eowe#er, the differences in &id mortality

between the se@es and between the types of birth were not significant '6X!.!1( in the two

districts.

T* 11 K!: >4/!6 /5 *6 5# 8: 6 43 *!/7 !8 *47 :!5/!-5

B*! K48;


50/113

;#erall * 0+ *-. ** 2.

Se@ 3ale 72 *! **.1 !.-2 %S 17 2.* .+2 %S

Female *!2 *+ *. 1+ 1 7.Type Single 0* 0. !.-! %S 0- + 0+.* !.01 %S

3ultiple * ** 12. *2 - *2.+

%.2.% L!/ 5!9

;#erall litter si)e was *.0 and *.- in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely.

The results showed no significant '6X!.!1( difference between the districts 'Appendi@ 2(.

%. L-!48 P/34/>8- T/!5

%..1 D!6 >!? 6!:

Daily mil& yield differed significantly between the two districts '6 W !.!1(. The o#erall

mean daily mil& yields were *.2 !.* and *. !.0 litres in Babati and Kongwa Districts,

respecti#ely. Eigh mean D34 was obser#ed in does of Babati District and low mean

D34 was obser#ed for does in Kongwa District 'Table *0(. Does with multiple births in

Babati District were superior to does with single &ids by !.0* litres of mil& per day.

Eowe#er, in Kongwa District does with single &ids produced slightly higher amount of

mil& by !.!- litres than those with multiple &ids 'Table *0(.

5e#els of e@otic blood '1!, 21 and *!!/( affected daily mil& yield significantly

'6W!.!!*( 'Appendi@ 0(. 6ure does '*!!/ Toggenburg( in Babati District e@ceeded those

with se#enty fi#e blood le#els by *.+ litres of mil&. Does with se#enty fi#e blood le#el

produced higher amount of mil& than those with fifty percent by !.+ litre per day.

In Kongwa District, does with fifty percent blood le#els produced lower amount of mil&

by !.-0 litre per day compared to does with se#enty fi#e percent blood le#els. 6ure does

were superior in producing mil& by !.2+ litre per day than the does with se#enty fi#e

-+


51/113

percent blood le#els 'Table *0(. These re#eal that mil& production increased with

increasing le#els of Toggenburg blood.

A#erage monthly mil& yields '334( in Babati and Kongwa Districts were 1*.- 0.1 and

*.* -. litres, respecti#ely. 3onthly mil& yields were significantly '6W!.!1( different

between the two districts. Does with multiple births e@ceeded the does with single births

by +.- litres in Babati District. In Kongwa District does with single births produced

slightly higher amount of mil& than the does with multiple births 'Table *0(. Does with

Toggenburg blood le#els of fifty percent produced low amount of mil& compared to the

does with se#enty fi#e percent blood le#els. 6ure does produced more mil& compared to

se#enty fi#e and fifty percent blood le#els.

%..2 T4 -!48 >!? 6!:

The total lactation mil& yield 'T534( for Toggenburg goats in Babati and Kongwa were

02+.0 0.1 and 0*. -7.+ litres, respecti#ely. The difference in total mil& yield

between the two districts was not significant '6X!.!1(. Total mil& yield for does with

single &id in Babati was 01*.0 -0.2 litres while in Kongwa was 0-.7 -. litres.

The difference between the districts on single birth was insignificant '6X!.!1(. The results

in Table *0 show that does with multiple &ids produced more mil& than those with single

&ids. The difference in mil& yield was mar&ed as the blood le#els of Toggenburg

increased from fifty to hundred percent.

%.. L-!48 8;7

From Table *0, o#erall means for 55 were 1. !. and 1. !.1 months in Babati and

Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely. There was no significant difference in lactation length

-2


52/113

between the two districts '6 X !.!1(. 3oreo#er, the effects of type of birth and blood le#el

on 55 were not significant '6 X !.!1(.

%..% D/6 /!4:

The results showed that the a#erage dry periods were 0.0 and 0.* months in Babati and

Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely. The dry period of goats in Kongwa District was slightly

higher than that of goats in Babati District. Eowe#er, the dry period #alues did not differ

significantly between the two districts '6X!.!1(. From Table *0, it is seen that mean dry

periods were increasing as the le#el of e@otic blood increased from fifty to hundred

percent. Eowe#er, the differences were not significant among the blood le#els '6X!.!1(.

-7


53/113

T* 12 C4>/!548 43 -!48 /34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/; !8 B*! 8:

K48;/!548 43 R/4:=-!" P/34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/; 8: S88 G45 !8

K48;


54/113

the differences at all le#els were not significantly '6X!.!1( different. From the results &ids

born as singles had lower AFK compared to &ids born in multiple births, this was

obser#ed in both Toggenburg and Saanen. Single &ids from Toggenburg showed lower

AFK than single &ids from Saanen. The same obser#ation was noted in multiple &ids from

Toggenburg and that of Saanen. Eowe#er, type of birth showed no significant '6X!.!1(

effect on AFK for both breeds in Kongwa District 'Table *-(.

%.%.2 K!::!8; !8/"

3ean &idding inter#als were .0 !.- and .1 !. months for Toggenburg and Saanen,

respecti#ely, in Kongwa District. Blood le#els and type of births had no significant

'6X!.!1( effect on KI 'Table *-(. Kidding inter#als of Toggenburg does with fifty percent

blood le#el were lower compared to those with se#enty fi#e and hundred percent blood

le#els. The same trend was obser#ed for Saanen does at fifty and se#enty fi#e percent

blood le#els, but at hundred percent blood le#el the KI was lower than at the other two

le#els 'Table *-(. Toggenburg does showed lower KI at fifty and se#enty fi#e percent

blood le#els than Saanen does of the same blood le#els. From the results, Toggenburg

does with single &id had lower KI compared to Saanen does with single &ids. Eowe#er,

the difference was not significant '6X!.!1(. For multiple births Toggenburg does had

lower KI than Saanen does. Saanen does with multiple &ids had higher KI than Saanen

does with single &id.

T* 1 C4>/!548 43 //4:=-!" / 34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/; 8: S88 !8

K48;/ F-4/ L"5 T4;;8*=/; S88 P "=

Age at first &idding Blood le#el 1!/ **. !.+ *.! !. !.!+21/ *-.* !. *0. !. !.70

*!!/ *-.* !.2 *-. !.- !.

Type of birth Single *0. !. *-.1 !.+ !.+0

3ultiple *-.* !.1 *-.+ !.1 !.10

;#erall *-.! !.- *-. !. !.2

!


55/113

Kidding inter#al Blood le#el 1!/ 7. !.1 .1 !.2 !.0*

21/ .1 !.- .7 !.2 !.20

*!!/ .+ !.1 .- !.- !.+0Type of birth Single .- !. . !.1 !.0

3ultiple .* !. .2 !. !.01

;#erall .0 !.- .1 !. !.-

*


56/113

%.$ C4>/!548 43 L-!48 P/34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/; 8: S88 !8 K48;/!548 43 -!48 8: //4:=-!" /34/>8- 43 T4;;8*=/;

8: S88 !8 K48;


57/113

%.$.1 D!6 >!? 6!:

A#erage daily mil& yields were *. !.* and *.1 !.* litres for Toggenburg and Saanen,

respecti#ely, in Kongwa District. 3ean D34 for Saanen breed was slightly higher than

that of Toggenburg. Eowe#er, the difference between the two breeds was not significant

'6X!.!1(. As the blood le#els increased from fifty to hundred percent, mil& production

also increased. This was obser#ed in both Toggenburg and Saanen breeds. ;n the other

hand, Saanen does produced more mil& than Toggenburg at fifty, se#enty fi#e and

hundred percent blood le#els, respecti#ely. Saanen does with single &id had higher mil&

yield compared to Toggenburg does with singles. Does with multiple &ids for Saanen

breed e@hibit also higher mil& production than Toggenburg does with multiple &ids.

%.$.2 M4876 >!? 6!:

;#erall monthly mil& yields '334( were *.* 0.* and 1. 0. litres for Toggenburg

and Saanen, respecti#ely, in Kongwa District. 3ean 334 for Saanen breed was slightly

higher than that of Toggenburg by .7* litres. Eowe#er, the difference was not significant

'6X!.!1( between the two breeds. From the results 'Table *( Saanen does with fifty

percent blood le#el produced 0.- litres more than Toggenburg does of the same blood

le#el. Saanen does showed higher mil& production at se#enty fi#e and hundred percent

blood le#els than Toggenburg does. Toggenburg does with single and multiple &ids had

lower mil& production than Saanen does with single and multiple &ids. Blood le#els and

type of births did not significantly '6X!.!1( influence 334 'Table*(.

%.$. T4 -!48 >!? 6!:

;#erall total lactation mil& yields were 0*. *2. and 0++.+ *. litres for

Toggenburg and Saanen, respecti#ely, in Kongwa District. 3ean T534 for Saanen breed

was higher than that of Toggenburg by 01 litres. Eowe#er, the difference was not

-


58/113

significant '6X!.!1( between the two breeds. Saanen does with blood le#el of fifty

percent produce more mil& than Toggenburg does of the same blood le#el. This trend was

also obser#ed at se#enty fi#e and hundred percent blood le#els. ?enerally, Saanen does

outperformed Toggenburg does in mil& production. Does with multiple &ids in both

breeds produced more mil& than does with single &ids. The amount of mil& produced by

Toggenburg does with single &ids was lower compared to Saanen does with single &ids.

Saanen does with multiple &ids produce more mil& than Toggenburg does with multiple

&ids. Blood le#els and type of births had no significant '6X!.!1( effect on T534

'Table *(.

%.$.% L-!48 8;7

;#erall lactation length '55( was 1. !.0 and 1.2 !.- months for Toggenburg and

Saanen goats, respecti#ely. The effect of breed was not significant '6 X!.!1( on 55.

5actation length for Saanen does was longer by *.*- months than that of Toggenburg does

at hundred percent blood le#el. Eowe#er, 55s at fifty and se#enty fi#e percent blood

le#els were not significantly '6X!.!1( different in the two breeds. Does with single &ids

had longer 55 than those with multiple &ids, this was obser#ed in both breeds. Saanen

does with single and multiple &ids were found to ha#e longer 55 for single and multiple

&ids than Toggenburg does 'Table *(.

%.$.$ D/6 /!4: @DP

;#erall mean D6 length in Kongwa District were 0.* !.* and 0.7 !.0 months for

Toggenburg and Saanen goats, respecti#ely. Does with single &id showed longer D6 than

those with multiple &ids. The result re#ealed that blood le#el and type of births had no

significant '6X!.!1( effect on D6 'Table *(.


59/113

%.' P/43!*!!6 43 D!/6 G4 E8//!55

The results show that, a#erage profit per annum per household from dairy goat enterprise

was Tsh +2 0*+ *+* 171 and Tshs -00 227 2 !! in Babati and Kongwa Districts,

respecti#ely 'Table *1(. The breeding buc&, repairNmaintenances, sales of young females,

and gross margin of dairy goat enterprise in the two districts were significantly different

'6W!.!1(. Eowe#er, cost of labour, cost of drugs, feeds, #eterinary ser#ices, sales of mil&,

sale of adult female, sales of young and adult males, and household mil& consumption in

the two districts were not significantly '6X!.!1( different.

T* 1$ A88= -455, 55 8: ;/455 >/;!8 43 :!/6 ;4 8//!5 !8 B*!

8: K48;/;!8 @6# +2 0*+ *+* 171 -00 227 2 !! !.!-

1


60/113

%.( C4>/!548 43 !8-4> 3/4> 47/ 8//!55 */5 8:

848:!/6 ;4 3/>/5

The re#enue from crop production was compared between households with dairy goats

and non"dairy goat households to determine whether the use of manures by dairy farmers

had benefited them in impro#ing producti#ity and food security. From Table *+ annual

total cost of production 'T6:R( which includes land preparation, weeding, har#esting and

transport for dairy goat farmers was Tsh 2! 00+. Total sales of produce 'TS64(

including those consumed at home were Tsh * +0 200 and annual gross margin was

Tsh 77 +. For non dairy goat farmers T6:R was Tsh -20 71 TS64 was Tsh 7*2 21

and annual gross margin was Tsh 17! in Babati district. In Kongwa District, T6:R

for crops on dairy goat farmers was Tsh -2 7*-, TS64 was Tsh * !!! !!! and annual

gross margin was Tsh +07 001. For non dairy goat farmers T6:R was Tsh -7 0*-, TS64

was Tsh 21 and Annual gross margin was Tsh 1+! 0+*. The income from crops for

dairy and non dairy goat farmers differed significantly in Babati District '6 W

!.!1(. Eowe#er, the results re#ealed no significant '6X !.!1( differences between total

cost of production, total sales of produce and gross margin between dairy and non"dairy

goat farmers in Kongwa District 'Table *+(.

;ther li#estoc& species &ept included chic&ens, pigs, local cattle and goats. From Table *+

Total sale of products and gross margin differed significantly '6W!.!1( for dairy and non

dairy goat farmers in Babati District. Eowe#er, no significant '6X!.!1( differences were

found on the same parameters in Kongwa District. ;ff"farm acti#ities which included

selling of local brews, #egetables, and Z&ios&, butcher and food #endors were measured

in terms of cost incurred and their output. The results showed no significant

'6X!.!1( differences between the two districts.

+


61/113

T* 1' C4>/!548 43 !8-4> 3/4> :!33/8 8//!55 >48; :!/6 8: 848:!/6 ;4 3/>/5

B*! K48;/ D!/6 ;4 3/>/5 N48:!/6 ;4

3/>/5

P "= D!/6 ;4 3/>/5 N48:!/6 ;4

3/>/5

P "=

:rops T6:R 2! 00+ *- +-1 -20 71 -2 7!* W.!!! -2 7*- 2- 02* -7 0*- *! 7!* !.

T6S4 * +0 200 0+ +*7 7*2 21 ! 1! W.!!! * !!! !!! *77

027

21 0-1 *0 !.7

?3: 77 + *1 *1 17! +2 1- W.!!! +07 001 *-! +1 1+! 0+* *7 !+ !.2-

;ther li#estoc& T6:R 0* *17 -2 2+2 *11 *-* * 01- !.*- 0 *+ *0 + + 7*2 * +2 !.0

TS64 17 71! *!- +2 -+ !7* 0 *- !.!0 0+- 21+ - -2 00! 701 02 +-+ !.--

?35 -7 +0 77 *0- *! 1! 0+ 21 !.!- *2! 7- 0 0 *1* !!2 0! -7 !.1-

;ff"farm T6:R 00+ 01 *! 2-! * *0.1 1!- !.00 *- 272 07 21+ ** **0 02 !- !.2

TS64 -22 721 *17 !+ 0* 2+0 + + !.- 02 7!! 07 21+ 02 +01 - !* !.+1

?3S *1* 1! +1 21* *07 -1! -1 11 !.21 *-1 !*0 02 -+ *!+ 1*0 *1 -+0 !.-+

T6:R P total production cost, T6S4 P total sales of product, ?3:P :rop gross margin, ?35P other li#estoc& gross margin and

?3SP ;ff"farm gross margin 'per year(, other li#estoc& including sheep, chic&ens, pigs and cattle

7

2


62/113

%.( C48/!*=!48 43 D!/6 G4 E8//!5 4 H4=574: I8-4>

8esults show that -*/ and 0+/ of the households total income was contributed by dairy

goat enterprises, in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely 'Table *2(. The percentage

contribution of dairy goats in Kongwa was found to be lower compared to that of Babati.

Dairy goats were sold at a price of Tsh*!! !!! in Kongwa while in Babati they were sold

at price of Tsh*1! !!! to !! !!! depending on e@otic blood le#els. :rops were found to

contribute 1/ 'Tsh 77 +( and 1!/ 'Tsh +07 001( to income of the households per

year, in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely 'Table *2(.

Farmers were also &eeping other types of li#estoc&, specifically local chic&ens, pigs and

to a lesser e@tent local goats and cattle. ;ther li#estoc& species were found to contribute

*2/ and */ of the total income of the household, in Babati and Kongwa Districts,

respecti#ely. Small businesses were found to contribute 2/ and **/ of the total income

of household in Babati and Kongwa Districts, respecti#ely.

7


63/113

T* 1( C48/!*=!48 43 :!/6 ;4 8//!5 4 74=574: !8-4>

B*! D!5/!- K48;/ /43! N4 :!/6 ;4 3/>/

/43!

D!/6 ;4 3/>/ /43! N4 :!/6 ;4 3/>/

/43!

Dairy goat +2 0*+ '-*.!( " -00 227 '0+.!( "

:rops 77 + '1.!( 17! '17.!( +07 001 '1!.!( 1+! 0+* '+.!(

;ther li#estoc& -7 +0 '*2.!( *! 1! '01.!( *2! 7- '*.!( *1* !!2 '*.!(

Small business *1* 1! '2.!( *07 -1! '*2.!( *-1 !*0 '**.!( *!+ 1*0 '*-.!(

T4 !8-4> 2 20 )$% (' ))0 1 2$' )$$ )1( ()1

In parenthesis are percentage

1 !


64/113

%.) U5 43 I8-4> 3/4> D!/6 G4 E8//!55

The results from the sur#ey 'Table *7( show that respondents from Babati District spent

01.0 / of the income earned from sales of mil& and animals on school fees, 0!/ on

other uses, *-/ on medical bills, *0.0 / on house construction and furnishing, **/ for

buying food during crop failure. ;n the other hand, respondents from Kongwa District

reported to spent 07.+/ of the income on school fees, 00.-/ on other uses, 7/ on

medical bills, *-./ on house construction and furnishing, 7/ for buying food during

crop failure. ;ther uses encountered in both districts included impro#ing nutrition of the

family, buying more land and meeting cost of production during farming, buying more

goats to increase floc& numbers and goats house repair.

%. C485/!85 E8-4=8/: *6 D!/6 G4 F/>/5

The results show that the important constraints to dairy goat &eeping was feed a#ailability

'0-.-/(, this was reported by farmers in Babati District. ;ther problems included

diseases '-!.0/(, high price of inputs '*/( and low price of selling animals '.7/(.

In Kongwa District, 1!./ of the farmers reported feed a#ailability as a constraint, 0.7/

reported diseases, 2/ mentioned high price of inputs, and *0.-/ pointed out low price of

selling animals as crucial constraint. ;thers were few buc&s in the area which may lead to

inbreeding, infre$uent #isit by e@tension staff and low conception rate 'Table *7(.

1!


65/113

T* 1) U55 43 !8-4> 3/4> :!/6 ;45 8: -485/!85 4 :!/6 ;4 /4:=-!48

B*! @ K48;

6urchase of food **.- 7.!

Impro#ed nutrition +.* .1

School fees 01.0 07.+

Eouse constructionNimpro#ement *0.0 *-.

Buying land !. 0.2

Eome consumption 'mil& and meat( 0!.! 00.-

3eeting farm preparation cost 1.0 .7

Increase floc& number 1.0 0.2

3edical bills *-.! 7.!

?oat house repair !. !.!

C485/!85

Shortage of feeds 0-.7 1!.

Diseases -!.0 0.7

Eigh prices of input *.! 2.!

Few buc&s **.* !.!

Infre$uent #isit by @tension staff -.0 !.!

5ow price of selling animal .7 *0.-

5ow conception rate 2. !.!

1*


66/113

CHAPTER FIVE

$.0 DISCUSSION

$.1 C7/-/!5!-5 43 7 R548:85

$.1.1 H4=574: -7/-/!5!-5

The household sur#ey re#ealed that men dairy goat farmers were fewer compared to the

number of women. The high percentage of women dairy goat farmers in the study areas is

due to the fact that dairy goats were introduced by de#elopment proects which were

mainly focused on women and disad#antaged groups within the community. During

recruitment of the farmers in the proect female " headed households were purposely

considered. This resulted into ha#ing more women dairy goat farmers than men in the

proect #illages. This obser#ation agrees with ;gola et al . '0!*!( who reported that dairy

goat multiplication programme mainly target women. This obser#ation is also similar to

the findings reported by Lerbee& et al . '0!!2( and Kosgey et al . '0!!7(.

Eowe#er, for non dairy goat farmers there were more males than females in Babati

District. This is the reflection of males dominance in ownership of production resources.

Similar obser#ation has been reported by Bitende et al . '0!!*( who obser#ed that in

li#estoc& &eeping communities there is strong ethnic bac&ground biased against women.

ducation is a critical instrument in effecti#e running of economic acti#ities and it

increases the ability to sol#e problems in a more s&illful manner. In the present study, the

maority of the respondents, both dairy and non dairy goat farmers, had primary school

education, implying that impro#ing goat management through training would be easy.

The proportion of farmers with formal education in the present study is higher compared

10

mary jackson dissertation

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