Kinship II: Marriage and Kinship II: Marriage and the Family the Family

Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology

Defining Marriage: General Defining Marriage: General IssuesIssues

Defining marriage: A daunting taskDefining marriage: A daunting taskNayar: The stretch of Nayar: The stretch of sambandhamsambandhamN. America: Extensive ceremonyN. America: Extensive ceremonyCommon elementsCommon elementsLegal or customary sanctionsLegal or customary sanctionsEconomic dimensionsEconomic dimensionsSocial recognitionSocial recognitionHaviland: mating is biological; marriage is Haviland: mating is biological; marriage is

culturalcultural

Defining Marriage: Defining Marriage: Notes Notes and Queries Definitionand Queries Definition

Named after a Royal Anthropological Named after a Royal Anthropological Institute newsletterInstitute newsletter

The definitionThe definitionA union between a man and a A union between a man and a

womanwomansuch that children born to the womansuch that children born to the womanare recognized legitimate offspring of are recognized legitimate offspring of

both parentsboth parents

Operative Term: Legitimate Operative Term: Legitimate OffspringOffspring

LegitimacyLegitimacy Children born of male-female unionsChildren born of male-female unions that are culturally approvedthat are culturally approved are allowed full membership in their cultureare allowed full membership in their culture have a right to inherithave a right to inherit have other rights pertaining to their birthhave other rights pertaining to their birth and to their status in societyand to their status in society Children of nonlegitimate unions have no Children of nonlegitimate unions have no

such membership or rightssuch membership or rights

Polygyny and Concubinage: Polygyny and Concubinage: Rights of OffspringRights of Offspring

PolygynyPolygyny Marriage of one man to many womenMarriage of one man to many women Marriages are “legally” recognizedMarriages are “legally” recognized Children of all unions (upper left in Children of all unions (upper left in

Nigeria) have birthrightsNigeria) have birthrights Concubinage/ConcubinesConcubinage/Concubines A union in Imperial China that did not A union in Imperial China that did not

involve full rightsinvolve full rights Offspring did not inherit or obtain full Offspring did not inherit or obtain full

rights of their imperial or noble fathersrights of their imperial or noble fathers Yet, concubine Wu Zetian (left) overthrew Yet, concubine Wu Zetian (left) overthrew

the empress and became one herselfthe empress and became one herself

Nayar: An IntroductionNayar: An Introduction

Nayar of Malabar Coast, SW Nayar of Malabar Coast, SW IndiaIndia

Comprised the warrior caste in Comprised the warrior caste in IndiaIndia

Organized into matrilineages Organized into matrilineages called called taravadtaravad

Women lived with their brothers: Women lived with their brothers: consanguine familiesconsanguine families

Brother and sister did not mateBrother and sister did not mate Each taravad was linked Each taravad was linked

ceremonially with other taravadsceremonially with other taravads

Nayar Sambandham: Tali Nayar Sambandham: Tali CeremonyCeremony

Tali CeremonyTali Ceremony Initiation of prepubescent girls into Initiation of prepubescent girls into

womanhoodwomanhood Girls “married” to boys from other Girls “married” to boys from other

taravads (left: a taravad residence)taravads (left: a taravad residence) After ceremony, each boy put a After ceremony, each boy put a talitali

or gold chain around each girl’s or gold chain around each girl’s neckneck

Each couple were secluded for a few Each couple were secluded for a few daysdays

Afterward took bath for purificationAfterward took bath for purification No obligation except period of No obligation except period of

woman’s mourning on death of woman’s mourning on death of “husband“husband””

Sambandham: A DescriptionSambandham: A Description

A right to entertain men at nightA right to entertain men at night After dinner and before breakfastAfter dinner and before breakfast A formal relationshipA formal relationship Gifts expected from man 3 Gifts expected from man 3

times/yeartimes/year Involved sexual intercourseInvolved sexual intercourse No other obligations were involvedNo other obligations were involved Up to 12 liaisons might be ongoing Up to 12 liaisons might be ongoing

(not during the same night, of (not during the same night, of course)course)

Sambandham: Relationship Sambandham: Relationship and Child Legitimacyand Child Legitimacy

Three restrictionsThree restrictionsMen had to be outside woman’s taravad Men had to be outside woman’s taravad Men had to be Hindus: no Muslims or Men had to be Hindus: no Muslims or

Christians allowedChristians allowedMen had to be of warrior or Brahmin casteMen had to be of warrior or Brahmin casteLegitimationLegitimationUpon childbirth one man paid for delivery Upon childbirth one man paid for delivery

costs, thereby recognizing legitimacycosts, thereby recognizing legitimacy If no man did so, illegitimacy suspectedIf no man did so, illegitimacy suspected

The Nayar Household: The Nayar Household: Consanguineal FamilyConsanguineal Family

Child was reared by the mother and Child was reared by the mother and mother’s brothermother’s brother

Two concepts of fatherTwo concepts of father Genitor: Genitor: The biological father--the The biological father--the

visitorsvisitors Pater:Pater: The social father The social father Woman’s brotherWoman’s brother Child’s mother’s brother.Child’s mother’s brother.

Redefining MarriageRedefining Marriage

Other examples:Other examples: Nuer: Woman marriageNuer: Woman marriage Kwakiutl: Man marriageKwakiutl: Man marriage Haviland’s definitionHaviland’s definition Relationship between one or more men Relationship between one or more men

(male or female)(male or female) With one or more women (male or female)With one or more women (male or female) Recognized by society as having claimRecognized by society as having claim to right of sexual access to one anotherto right of sexual access to one another

Functions of Marriage/Nuclear Functions of Marriage/Nuclear FamilyFamily

George Peter Murdock’s George Peter Murdock’s Social Structure Social Structure argues:argues:

Nuclear families (upper Nuclear families (upper left) embedded in: left) embedded in:

Extended families (lower Extended families (lower left)left)

Polygynous familiesPolygynous families There are universal There are universal

functionsfunctions Sexual gratificationSexual gratification Gender division of laborGender division of labor ReproductionReproduction EnculturationEnculturation

Sexual GratificationSexual Gratification

Sexual behavior allowed through Sexual behavior allowed through a legitimate channel--marriagea legitimate channel--marriage

Diminishes sexual competitionDiminishes sexual competitionLessens disruption through Lessens disruption through

jealousyjealousyProblems with explanationProblems with explanationSexual behavior occurs outside Sexual behavior occurs outside

wedlockwedlock

Gender Division of LaborGender Division of Labor

Gender-assigned tasksGender-assigned tasks Relieve spouse of a block Relieve spouse of a block

of tasksof tasks Assigned according to Assigned according to Strength (of male) for Strength (of male) for

heavier and dangerous jobsheavier and dangerous jobs Domestic tasks (women) Domestic tasks (women)

including child careincluding child care Erigbaatgsa woman Erigbaatgsa woman

planting garden is one planting garden is one exampleexample

Drawbacks of explanationDrawbacks of explanation

Women often active outside Women often active outside homehome

Long-distance tradeLong-distance trade Women do perform strenuous Women do perform strenuous

tasks (left: Yanomamo tasks (left: Yanomamo women bringing in loads)women bringing in loads)

And perform dangerous tasks And perform dangerous tasks (e.g. Atga woman hunting)(e.g. Atga woman hunting)

Navajo women were first Navajo women were first sheep herderssheep herders

ReproductionReproduction

Both sexes required for reproductionBoth sexes required for reproductionAssumption: genitor and pater roles Assumption: genitor and pater roles

exercised by same manexercised by same manExceptionsExceptionsNayar separation of genitor from Nayar separation of genitor from

paterpaterMother’s brother performs pater role Mother’s brother performs pater role

in many matrilineal societiesin many matrilineal societies

Nurturance and EnculturationNurturance and Enculturation

Family has primary role of child rearingFamily has primary role of child rearingUsually mother provides nurturanceUsually mother provides nurturanceRobin Fox: Primary bond is mother-childRobin Fox: Primary bond is mother-childBeyond this, enculturation may occur Beyond this, enculturation may occur

within other institutionswithin other institutionsEast Africa: Age set/age grade system East Africa: Age set/age grade system New Guinea: Men’s housesNew Guinea: Men’s housesTrobriand Islands: Mother’s brotherTrobriand Islands: Mother’s brotherConsanguineal families Consanguineal families

Types of MarriageTypes of Marriage

MonogamyMonogamy: One man, one woman: One man, one woman Serial monogamy:Serial monogamy: multiple partners in multiple partners in

lifetime but never at the same timelifetime but never at the same time Polygamy:Polygamy: Multiple marriage Multiple marriage Polygyny: Polygyny: One man, two or more womenOne man, two or more women Polyandry: Polyandry: One woman, two or more menOne woman, two or more men Group Marriage (Polygynandry): Group Marriage (Polygynandry): More More

than one man, more than one womenthan one man, more than one women The last is rare and transitoryThe last is rare and transitory

Polygyny Polygyny

Found among societies with Found among societies with intensive female labor: intensive female labor: horticulturists, pastoralists (top)horticulturists, pastoralists (top)

Extra hands are always welcomeExtra hands are always welcome Often found with wealth Often found with wealth

generationgeneration Often a potential source of Often a potential source of

divisiondivision ““Fault lines” between sons of Fault lines” between sons of

different co-wives (bottom)different co-wives (bottom) Large herds reduced by such Large herds reduced by such

divisiondivision

Sororal Polygyny: A Mitigating Sororal Polygyny: A Mitigating FactorFactor

Defining Defining sororal polygynysororal polygynyMarriage involving sistersMarriage involving sistersFrom family of orientationFrom family of orientationSibling familiarity breeds (some) Sibling familiarity breeds (some)

harmonyharmonyTension minimal compared to Tension minimal compared to

nonsistersnonsisters

PolyandryPolyandry

Found in fewer than a dozen Found in fewer than a dozen societiessocieties

Tibet: Tibet: Fraternal polyandryFraternal polyandry is practiced is practiced Marriage of one women to two or Marriage of one women to two or

more men who are brothers to more men who are brothers to each othereach other

There is only one child bearerThere is only one child bearer In mountainous regions, arable In mountainous regions, arable

land is scarceland is scarce Helps maintain land as one parcelHelps maintain land as one parcel Controls population growthControls population growth

Same-Sex MarriageSame-Sex Marriage

Woman marriage (Nuer and Nandi)Woman marriage (Nuer and Nandi) Both societies are pastoralistsBoth societies are pastoralists Mothers with no sons has no one to inherit Mothers with no sons has no one to inherit

man’s propertyman’s property They “marry” a young woman They “marry” a young woman Second woman provides male heirs barren or Second woman provides male heirs barren or

sonless woman lackssonless woman lacks The first women becomes “female” The first women becomes “female”

husband/fatherhusband/father Actually enhances her status--as a “man”Actually enhances her status--as a “man”

Family and HouseholdFamily and Household

Family: Not all are residentialFamily: Not all are residentialHousehold definedHousehold definedBasic residential unitBasic residential unit in which production, consumption, child in which production, consumption, child

rearing, and inheritancerearing, and inheritanceare organized and implementedare organized and implementedVariationsVariationsMay form subunits of extended familyMay form subunits of extended familyMay be nonfamily: New Guinean men’s housesMay be nonfamily: New Guinean men’s housesOr spouses may form separate unitsOr spouses may form separate units

Nuclear FamilyNuclear Family

Couple may form own householdCouple may form own householdNeolocal Residence: Neolocal Residence: Couple forms an Couple forms an

entirely new householdentirely new householdNuclear Family: Nuclear Family: Family comprising one Family comprising one

husband, one wife, and their childrenhusband, one wife, and their childrenNuclear families usually found whereNuclear families usually found where Industrial societies as in U.S. and CanadaIndustrial societies as in U.S. and CanadaHarsh environments such as the Arctic Harsh environments such as the Arctic

among Inuit or desert among !Kungamong Inuit or desert among !Kung

Extended FamiliesExtended Families

Textbook definitionTextbook definitionA collection of nuclear familiesA collection of nuclear familiesUnited consanguineallyUnited consanguineallyLiving in one householdLiving in one householdA common definition:A common definition:A family of three or more generationsA family of three or more generationsof married kin.of married kin.Extended family householdExtended family household refers to refers to

such families sharing a residence such families sharing a residence

Patrilocal ResidencePatrilocal Residence

Couple moves in with groom’s Couple moves in with groom’s parents/kinparents/kin

Sometimes called Sometimes called virilocal virilocal residenceresidence

Patrilocal Extended Family:Patrilocal Extended Family: Comprises all consanguineal Comprises all consanguineal

malesmales All unmarried femalesAll unmarried females All females married into familyAll females married into family Occurs where male Occurs where male

cooperation important in cooperation important in subsistence or war subsistence or war

Matrilocal ResidenceMatrilocal Residence Couple moves in with bride’s Couple moves in with bride’s

parents/kinparents/kin Sometimes called Sometimes called uxorilocal uxorilocal

residenceresidence Matrilocal Extended Family:Matrilocal Extended Family: Comprises all consanguineal Comprises all consanguineal

femalesfemales All unmarried malesAll unmarried males All males married into familyAll males married into family Found where female Found where female

cooperation important incooperation important in Subsistence or land ownershipSubsistence or land ownership

Avunculocal ResidenceAvunculocal Residence

Occurs only with Occurs only with matrilineal descentmatrilineal descent

Household FormationHousehold Formation Boy moves in with Boy moves in with

mother’s brother at age mother’s brother at age 5-65-6

Reared by mother’s Reared by mother’s brotherbrother

On marriage, wife move On marriage, wife move inin

Their boys move in with Their boys move in with wife’s brotherwife’s brother

Avunculocal Residence: A Likely Avunculocal Residence: A Likely explanationexplanation

Formerly relied on female Formerly relied on female cooperationcooperation

Male property becomes valuableMale property becomes valuableVariation: chiefly class in TrobriandsVariation: chiefly class in Trobriands

Ambilocal (Bilocal) ResidenceAmbilocal (Bilocal) Residence

Occurs with bilateral Occurs with bilateral descentdescent

Household Household formationformation::

Couple moves in Couple moves in eithereither with groom’s parents or with groom’s parents or wife’s parentswife’s parents

Occurs where resources Occurs where resources are limitedare limited

Choice depends on Choice depends on resource advantageresource advantage

Example: Gilbert Islanders Example: Gilbert Islanders OoOo and Bwotiand Bwoti

Oo: Oo: An overarching bilateral An overarching bilateral descent groupdescent group

BwotiBwoti: Community council : Community council seatseat

Membership is based on land Membership is based on land rights, potentially severalrights, potentially several

A man or woman can choose A man or woman can choose only one only one bwoti,bwoti,

Here, 8 individuals have Here, 8 individuals have chosen 6 chosen 6 bwotisbwotis::

Four in father’s group (2, Four in father’s group (2, 3,5,6) 3,5,6)

Four in mother’s group Four in mother’s group (1,4,7,8) (1,4,7,8)

Example: Gilbert Islanders Example: Gilbert Islanders KaingaKainga

Kainga:Kainga: Localized Localized landowning group landowning group based on marriagebased on marriage

If a couple decides to If a couple decides to move into man’s move into man’s group, woman retains group, woman retains rights to her rights to her kaingakainga

But she may not pass But she may not pass it down to her childrenit down to her children

Kainga Kainga is structurally is structurally similar to the similar to the bwotibwoti

Over time, Over time, ramagesramages or or ambilineal ambilineal descent groupsdescent groups form form

Matrifocal (Matricentric) Matrifocal (Matricentric) HouseholdHousehold

Today, single parent Today, single parent households are becoming households are becoming commoncommon

Matrifocal (MatricentricMatrifocal (Matricentric) ) households comprise a households comprise a woman and her childrenwoman and her children

Reasons: deindustrialization, Reasons: deindustrialization, divorce, inability of man to divorce, inability of man to support familysupport family

Patrifocal (patricentric) Patrifocal (patricentric) households are also households are also increasingincreasing

Successor Marriage: Levirate Successor Marriage: Levirate and Sororateand Sororate

Levirate:Levirate: Marriage Marriage in which widow in which widow marries the brother marries the brother of her deceased of her deceased husbandhusband

Sororate:Sororate: Marriage in which Marriage in which widower marries widower marries the sister of his the sister of his deceased wifedeceased wife

SummarySummary

Marriage has been defined in two waysMarriage has been defined in two waysOne stressing legitimacy of childrenOne stressing legitimacy of childrenOne stressing relationship of personsOne stressing relationship of persons

Household and Family have been definedHousehold and Family have been definedTypes of family definedTypes of family defined

Extended familyExtended familyExtended family by postmarital residence.Extended family by postmarital residence.

Next: what about larger kin-based Next: what about larger kin-based groups?groups?