mangrove manual_combied

Portland Mangrove Ecology:Status and Anthropogenic Impacts

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Includes analysis report from mangrove surveys conducted

November 2008 and January 2009

Tracey Edwards

Survey Analysis by

Hugh Small

Camilo Trench

University of the West Indies

Reviewed by

Prof. Alexander V. Ereskovksy

Centre d’Océanologie de Marseille

Dr. Mona Webber

University of the West Indies Mona

Co-Financed by the

Environmental Foundation of Jamaica: Mangrove Rehabilitation and Endemic Species

Protection Programme and the Drivers River: GEF-IWCAM project

Survey Analysis: Centre for Marine Sciences, UWI, Mona

Portland Environment Protection Association

6 Allan Ave., Port Antonio, Portland

www.pepa-jamaica.org

[email protected]


Table of Contents

List of Figures..................................................................................................5

List Photographs..............................................................................................6

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................7

Preface ..........................................................................................................8

Introduction ....................................................................................................9

Section One ................................................................................................13

Brief Overview of Mangroves ..................................................................13

Mangrove Types and Their Adaptations ....................................................14

RED MANGROVES - Rhizophora mangle ..................................................16

BLACK MANGROVES - Avicennia germinans ............................................21

WHITE MANGROVES - Laguncularia racemosa..........................................23

BUTTON WOOD - Conocarpus Erectus......................................................25

Economic Importance of Mangroves ........................................................27

Mangroves and the Food Web..................................................................27

Mangroves as a Habitat for Marine and Terrestrial Animals........................28

Mangroves Role in Soil Stabilization and Reef Protection ..........................28

Other Ecological Benefits of Mangroves....................................................30

Economic Value of Mangroves..................................................................30

Mangroves in Portland ............................................................................30

Location and Distribution ........................................................................30


Socio-Economic Dynamics of Portland......................................................31

Salt Creek ..............................................................................................33

Turtle Crawl ............................................................................................33

Manchioneal ..........................................................................................34

Threats to Mangroves in Portland ............................................................34

Characteristics and Practices of Squatters ................................................35

Other Uses..............................................................................................36

Conclusions ............................................................................................36

Section Two ................................................................................................39

Introduction ............................................................................................40

Methodology ..........................................................................................41

Mangrove Transects ................................................................................41

Description of Area..................................................................................42

Results ..................................................................................................53

Tree Distribution and Density ..................................................................77

Seedling Distribution and Density ............................................................83

Canopy Height and Water Depth ..............................................................87

Tree Proportion Comparison ....................................................................92

Proportion of Adult Trees to Seedlings ......................................................93

Figure 39 Graph Showing Proportion of Adult Mangrove and

Seedlings at All Areas Surveyed: (a) Salt Creek, (b) Dolphin Bay North,

(c) Dolphin Bay South, (d) Manchioneal.....................................................93

Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover..........................................................94

Discussion ..............................................................................................98

Salt Creek ..............................................................................................98

Dolphin Bay North ................................................................................100

Dolphin Bay South ................................................................................102

Manchioneal ........................................................................................103

Conclusions ..........................................................................................106

Glossary ......................................................................................................107

Appendix ....................................................................................................114

References ..................................................................................................122


List of Figures

Figure 1 Showing Portland in relation to other parishes ............................................................9

Figure 2 Showing location of Portland on the Jamaica map ....................................................10

Figure 3 Google Earth Image Showing Location of Surveyed Mangrove Forests.........................44

Figure 4 Google Earth Image Showing Area Surveyed at Salt Creek. ........................................45

Figure 5 Google Earth Image Showing Transect Line at Salt Creek. ..........................................46

Figure 6 Google Earth Image Showing Surveyed Area at Dolphin Bay North. ............................47

Figure 7 Google Earth Image Showing Transect Surveyed at Dolphin Bay North.........................48

Figure 8 Google Earth Image Showing Area Survey at Dolphin Bay South. ................................49

Figure 9 Google Earth Image Showing Surveyed Transect at Dolphin Bay South. ......................50

Figure 10 Google Earth Image Showing Surveyed Area at Manchioneal. ....................................51

Figure 11 Google Earth Image Showing Surveyed Transect at Manchioneal.................................52

Figure 12 Table Showing Data Collected From Salt Creek. ........................................................55

Figure 13 Table Showing Data Collected at Dolphin Bay North. ..................................................60

Figure 14 Table Showing Data Collected at Dolphin Bay South. ..................................................66

Figure 15 Table Showing Data Collected at Manchioneal. ..........................................................70

Figure 16 Table Showing Fauna Found at Salt Creek. ................................................................76

Figure 17 Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay North. ..............................................................76

Figure 18 Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay South. ..............................................................76

Figure 19 Table Showing Fauna at Manchioneal. ......................................................................77

Figure 20 Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Salt Creek. ................................77

Figure 21 Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay North. ....................77

Figure 22 Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay South. ....................77

Figure 23 Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Manchioneal. ............................77

Figure 24 Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Salt Creek. ........................................78


Figure 25 Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay North. ............................79

Figure 26 Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay South. ............................80

Figure 27 Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Manchioneal. ....................................81

Figure 28 Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Salt Creek. ................................83

Figure 29 Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay North. ......................84

Figure 30 Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay South. ....................85

Figure 31 Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Manchioneal. ..............................86

Figure 32 Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Salt Creek. ..................................87

Figure 33 Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Dolphin Bay North. ......................88

Figure 34 Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Dolphin Bay South. ......................89

Figure 35 Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Manchioneal. ..............................90

Figure 36 Graphs Showing Tree Proportional Distribution at All Areas Surveyed:

(a) Salt Creek, (b) Dolphin Bay North, (c) Dolphin Bay South, (d) Manchioneal. ............92

Figure 37 Graph Showing Proportion of Adult Mangrove and Seedlings at All Areas Surveyed:

(a) Salt Creek, (b) Dolphin Bay North, (c) Dolphin Bay South, (d) Manchioneal. ............93

Figure 38 Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Salt Creek. ..............................94

Figure 39 Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Dolphin Bay North. ..................95

Figure 40 Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Dolphin Bay South. ..................96

Figure 41 Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Manchioneal. ..........................97

Plate 1 Red Mangroves seen growing along the river in the Errol Flyn Marina ........................18

Plate 2 Red Mangroves along the sea in Turtle Crawl: Red mangrove roots partially submerged19

Plate 3 Showing whorled formation of Red Mangrove leaves on the stem ..............................19

Plate 4 Showing Red mangrove propagules before it detaches from the tree ..........................20

Plate 5 Showing Red mangrove flower-photo taken at the Errol Flyn Marina, Port Antonio........20

Plate 6 Showing Black mangroves as they appear in the forest ..............................................22

Plate 7 Showing Black mangrove roots (pneumatophores) growing out of the soil,

Photo 8 showing the seed and flower of the Black mangrove ....................................23

Plate 8 Showing roots of the white mangroves ......................................................................24

Plate 9 Showing flowers of the white mangroves ..................................................................24

Plate 10 Showing salt glands at the base of leaves on the White Mangrove stem......................25

Plate 11 Ornamental Button woods decorating the driveway at the Errol Fyn Marina ................26

List of Plates


Acronyms & Abbreviations

PEPA Portland Environment Protection Association

PAMP Proposed Port Antonio Marine Park

MRESPP Mangrove Rehabilitation and Endemic Species Protection Programme

NEPA National Environment and Planning Agency


Acknowledgements

Acknowledgment is hereby given to all who contributed to the timely development of this report. To Camilo

Trench and Hugh Small who spent much time completing the analysis of the survey data, Drs. Alexander

Ereskovksy and Mona Webber for their professional and scientific contribution in ensuring the validity of

the information presented.

To the GEF-IWCAM team for their support and participation during the collection of the survey data. With

particular mention of Nelsa English and Shannon Rease (Peace Corp Volunteer - PEPA) who regardless of

the muddy challenges pursued the goal and stuck with the task. To Machel Donegan who occasionally

sacrificed his weekends for the collection of photos and lastly but not least to Patrick Cargill and Omar

Doyley who had consistently offered their time and effort to the MRESSP and GEF - IWCAM Project.

For those who offered moral support, your kindness is forever appreciated.

Tracey Edwards


Portland Mangrove Ecology:Status and Anthropogenic Impact

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Preface1

Of the fourteen parishes in Jamaica, Portland is largely considered one of the most aesthetic, with five

major watersheds; one of which is considered the most pristine (NEPA). In addition to the aesthetic beauty,

there is a rich diversity of both terrestrial and marine species. Many of the endemic birds of Jamaica are

found in Portland, so too is the endangered Giant Swallow Tail Butterfly which makes its home in the

cascading landscape of the Blue Mountains. The marine environment has its own share of protected

species which include; the Manatee, Hawksbill and Leather Back Turtles.

It would have been splendid if the resources remained untouched, undamaged, unspoilt and unchanged

but there have been changes; changes that are affected by the increase in the population and the search

for better standards of living. With the unemployment epidemic in the parish of Portland, many have come

to rely on the natural resources of the land and the sea to sustain or improve their lives. As a result,

transformations occur which threaten vital ecosystems and their ëpreservative-natureí. One such

ecosystem is the wetlands found in Portland. The information which follows gives insight to mangrove

wetlands of Portland, their value to the people and the likelihood of them becoming a history to Portlanders

in unchanging circumstances.

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Introduction

Portland parish is located at Latitude - 18º.133 N, Longitude - 76º.533 W (see map below). It lies under

the shadows of the Blue Mountains, which contribute to its high terrestrial biodiversity, which the Portland

Environment Protection Association (PEPA) has mandated to protect and preserve.

Figure 1 - Showing Portland in relation to other parishes.



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Figure 2 - Showing location of Portland on the map of Jamaica.

PEPA is a Non-Government Organization that was established in 1988 and serves as a steward for the

environment through successful implementation of awareness and action programs in schools and within

communities throughout the parish of Portland. In addition to its many activities, the organization

informally manages resources within the Proposed Port Antonio Marine Park (PAMP). The boundaries of

the park stretches from Downers Bluff - west of Port Antonio to the Northeast Point - Its north to south

boundaries goes up to the buffer zone of the Blue and John Crow Mountains to 100 metres off the coast.

It is within this zone that most of PEPA projects are implemented though not limited to. Conservation

activities include; the monitoring, rehabilitation and preservation of coastal and marine ecosystems which

include the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica, Mangrove Rehabilitation and Endemic Specie

Protection Programme (MRESPP)

Figure 3 - Showing the boundaries of theProposed Port Antonio Marine Park (PAMP).


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MRESPP is an eighteen (18) month project whose objectives were to: a. protect the family of

crocodiles in Turtle Crawl, b. Rehabilitate four mangrove sites in the parish c. Sensitize residents

and visitors to Portland about the ecological significance of mangrove ecosystems and, d.

Monitor the health of mangroves and facilitate the development of a report; on the status and

use of mangroves in Parish. The later arise out of the need to provide current baseline data on

mangrove ecosystems in the parish.

The information provided in this report is divided into two sections. The first section includes a

brief overview of mangroves, their type, ecological values and the location and use of

mangroves in Portland. The later contains the analysis of the data from surveys conducted at

four mangrove sites between November 2008 and January 2009.


Section One


Introduction to Mangrovesand Mangrove Location

and Use in Portland

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Brief Overview of Mangroves

Definition, Types and Natural Progression

Mangroves are a type of wetland plants which are members of a number of genera and species of low

trees and shrubs which grow and spread quickly on tidal mud in tropical areas (Clark, 1998). The term

mangroves refers to over fifty (50) species (Porcher, 1993) of similar trees and shrubs which are adopted

to striving in salt tolerant, waterlog soils, but only four of these species are considered strict mangroves.

Mangroves are at a unique advantage to other plants as they readily adapt to almost any adverse

conditions and changes in the environment except frost (Kathiresan, 2003), hence like corals with which

they have an inter-relationship, their distribution is limited to tropical and sub-tropical areas. Mangrove

forests in Jamaica constitute 1% of the total land area, covering 10,624 hectares (26,252 acres) with an

estimate of 101 sites (Wordsworth, et. Al. 2001).

Mangrove forests are at the transition between land and sea (Molles, 2002) and as a result are driven by

tidal flows and support a rich biodiversity. Mangroves grow in coastal mud flats where the topographic

gradients are moderate and the tidal influence is great. Flooding is consistent throughout the year in these

types of forests.

Mangrove forests are among the most productive ecosystems on earth and the well drained soil supports

a rich growth of mangrove plants. They normally grow poorly in stagnant waters and have luxuriant growth

in the alluvial soil substrates with fine-textured loose mud or silt, rich in humus and sulphides (Kathiresan,

2003).


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Mangroves can also be found in virgin soils where the substrate is like coastal reefs. In such

areas, the mangrove plants grow on peat, which is derived from decayed vegetation. They find

it difficult to colonize the coastal zone with waves of high energy and hence they normally

establish themselves in sheltered shorelines (Kathiresan, & Bingham, 2001) such as lagoons.

Mangrove Types and Their Adaptations

Mangroves as said before are adaptive to the environment in which they are found and

consequently grow in succession. Succession is the sequence of which a biotic community

constantly changes in composition until it achieves near perfect balance with its environment

(Kaplan, 1988). A description of mangrove forest types and mangroves follows below.

Mangrove structures are differentiated into four types:

The Fluvial mangroves develop in river estuaries and on banks benefitting from

periodic salt input.

Fringing mangroves develop in coastal regions along sheltered shorelines.

Basin mangroves developed in the shallows of great stretches bathed by a laminar

and very low flow.

Dwarf mangroves developed when the growth of trees is limited by the edaphic

factors (soil factors, the biological, chemical and physical properties of a soil)(Clark,

1998).



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Figure 4 - Showing mangrove type and succession as the forest progresses towards land.

Association of mangrove species and their adaptations:

RED MANGROVES - Rhizophora mangle

Red mangroves are known as pioneers and are the first to colonise a virgin area (Porcher, 1988).

They sit at the periphery of the forest, growing out into the sea and inland where the soil is often

flooded during high tide. Red mangroves have prop root systems, which the basic function is to

provide anchorage and oxygen (oxygen is derived from the lenticels (pores) found on the prop roots

of red mangroves). Another unique adaptation of the red mangrove is the nurturing of its seeds

which remain on the parent tree until it develops into a seedling. In most other plants the embryo

is buried within the seed and surrounded by food, the seed remains in that state until it is covered

in moist soil (Kaplan, 1988). The reproductive cycle begins when the red mangroves burst into

flower usually during the spring or summer except in the Caribbean where it may flower all year

round (Wordsworth, 2001). The waxy bright yellow star shaped blossoms attract beesí causing the

flower to fertilize quickly. The embryo remains on the tree growing to about 30cm before it drops

off the tree into the water. The elongated seedling floats until the pointed end absorbs water,

becomes heavy and sinks; the waxy fruit end repels the water and floats so that the seedling bobs

around pointed end down until it finds suitable soil and then it penetrates the sediment and takes

root. The seedling can remain in its floating state for up to a year (Kaplan, 1988). Red mangroves

grow very quickly and in the right conditions will produce many prop roots within three years.


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Red mangroves maintain a normal salt concentration in their tissues by exuding salt from

their leaves or transferring salt into the older leaves which are then shed (Webber 2007).

Older leaves before they are shed appear yellow on the tree. The leaves of the red

mangrove are shiny, broad dark green and rhododendron-like (Kaplan, 1988). The trees of

the red mangroves grow to a height of 6m (20ft) to 24m (80ft).

Plate 1 - Red Mangroves seen

growing along the

river in the Errol Flynn

Marina.

Plate 2 - Red Mangroves along the sea in Turtle Crawl:Red Mangrove roots partially submerged.



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Plate 3 - Showing whorled formation of RedMangrove leaves on the stem.

Plate 5 - Showing Red Mangrove flower-photo taken atthe Errol Flynn Marina, Port Antonio.

Plate 4 - Showing Red Mangrove propagulesbefore they detached from the tree.

BLACK MANGROVES - Avicennia germinans

Black mangrove trees are generally found behind the red mangroves below the high tide

mark towards the interior of the forest. It is more tolerant to the cold and can grow more

favourable in soils where the salinity is higher. Because of its unique adaptations to these

edaphic factors its distribution is wider (Porcher, 1993). The black mangrove is so named

because of the dark colour of the trunk which is a result of the blue green algae living in

the bark of the tree (Webber 2007).


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The black mangroves adaptation to living in these anaerobic soils is slightly different from

the red mangroves; unlike the red mangroves its root system is primarily to facilitate

gaseous exchange rather than anchorage. The black mangrove has horizontal roots

which extend from the main trunk, from the horizontal roots that extend vertical pencil

shape roots called pneumatophores or breathing roots which often extends far beyond

the canopy of the black mangroves. They are generally about 30cm in length which

ensures that the roots stick out above ground during the high tide. On the horizontal roots

below the surface there are fine root hairs which absorb nutrients from the soils.

The black mangroves have leaves that are opposite each other on the stem. The leaves

are narrow and elliptical ( Kaplan 1988) The top part of the leaves are shiny green, while

the base are a dull or gray-green in colour and have fine leave hairs. The leaves of the

black mangroves are coated with salt crystals, which is derived from the excess salt

excreted from the plant. The tree often reaches a height of 21m (70ft) (Kaplan 1988). The

black mangrove flowers throughout the summer, but the lima bean shaped propagules

are produced during the later part of summer. The flowers are 6mm (1/4in) long, 1cm

(3/8in) wide and grow in clusters of white stalkless flowers.

Plate 1 - Showing Black Mangrovesas they appear in the forest.



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Plate 2 - Showing Black Mangrove roots (pneumatophores) growing out of the soil, Photo 8 showing the seedand flower of the Black Mangrove.

WHITE MANGROVES Laguncularia racemosa

White mangroves are similar to black mangroves in that they too have a high tolerance to saline

soils. They are however found in the interior of the forest above the high tide mark. Like black

mangroves, white mangroves produce pneumatophores which are wider and knobby in

appearance. Also the pneumatophores of the white mangroves are less dense around the base of

the tree than those of the black. In other regions of the world, white mangroves may produce prop

roots depending on the specie and the location. White mangroves excrete excess salt through salt

glands found on opposite sides at the base of the leaves (petiole). White mangrove leaves are

rounded, broadly oval and sometimes have pinkish or reddish stems; the leaves are arranged

opposite on the stem and are yellow-green. The bark is gray-brown, rough and fissured on the

trunk

(Kaplan, 1988). They bore clusters of small whitish flowers and clustered fruits that are gray-

green, pear shaped with ridges. The trees may grow to a height of 18m (60ft) tall (Kaplan, 1988).


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Plate 4 - Showing flowers of the White Mangroves.

Plate 3 - Showing roots of the White Mangroves.

BUTTON WOOD - Conocarpus Erectus

Unlike the three species mentioned above, Button Wood mangroves have leaves that

alternate on the stem, are long and pointed at both ends and generally produce leaves

that are brown or green in colour.

Plate 5 - Showing salt glands at the base of leaves

on the White Mangrove stem.



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Plate 6 - Ornamental Button woods decorating the driveway at the Errol Flynn Marina.

The fruits grow in clusters on the stem, appear spiny and berrylike, about 1.2cm (1/2in) wide

(Kaplan 1988). The Button Woodís are shrub like, barely growing to a height of 1.2m (4ft). Button

Woods are found further inland where they grow well on rocky shores. The presence of Button

Woods are usually an indication of more suitable, better drained soils (Wordsworth, et. Al., 2001).

Due to the suitability of the soil in which they grow, Button Woods have normal root systems unlike

the other three mangrove species mentioned here. There is also a variant of this specie called

ornamental Button Wood, the main difference between this specie and the actual Button Wood

mangroves are the small silvery gray leaves. However, like white mangroves, Button Woods have

two small nodes (glands) opposite each other at the base of the leaves to facilitate the excretion

of excess salts.


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Economic Importance of Mangroves

It has been repeatedly stated that mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth; so true

is that statement that it cannot be overemphasized. Mangroves indeed support a wide range of

biodiversity; they are of ecological significance to the food web from the primary producers to the peak of

the pyramid where man is found. Mangroves interface between land and sea and as such, are of economic

value to both terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

Mangroves and the Food Web

The rapid shedding of mangrove leaves, particularly the red mangrove leaves, increase the leaf litter within

the forest. Bacteria and fungi quickly decompose leaves and increase the protein content from 3% to 21%,

providing a rich food source for animals, such as; mangrove crabs, caterpillars and many other insects.

Crocodiles feed on the crabs and insects. Caterpillars and other insects attract birds. Fishes also feed on

algae in the water and on the prop roots of red mangroves, the food web is more dynamic than this simple

example, but from here one can see how they benefit from the rich source of food supply.

Mangroves as a Habitat for Marine and Terrestrial Animals

From the water to the canopy, mangroves serve as a habitat, nursery and breeding ground for many

species of marine animals and birds, including seabirds.



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Bacteria and fungi live in the mud and helps in the decomposition process; without these organisms we

would be stuck deep in the remains of dead animals and plants. In the water above the mud are juvenile

fishes, sea squirts and shrimp which feed on algae and on the roots of the mangroves. On the roots are

brightly coloured sponges, fan worms, sea anemones, mangrove oysters and barnacles. Herons, egrets

and crabs perch on the roots above the water to rest and feed on any animals exposed during low tide.

On the trunk are found borrowing insects and birds such as the parrots and woodpeckers which nest in

holes in the trunk of mangrove trees. In the canopy of the tress are found many species of shorebirds

among other birds. Like the mangroves which grow uniquely in these unproductive anaerobic soils, so

distinctive are some of the animals that live among the mangroves. If the mangroves are removed the

habitat of these animals are lost; and preservation is always better than restoration.

Mangroves Role in Soil Stabilization and Reef Protection

Mangroves share a world with corals and sea grass bed ecosystems. The term often used to describe this

dynamic association is inter-relationship. There is an association between some mangrove species and

the species of animals found among sea-grass beds and coral reefs; in fact, some animals like the

parrotfish spend the first part of their lives feeding and sheltering among mangrove roots. Later when they

are more mature, they will migrate to the grass beds before going out to the reefs.

Mangroves protect corals and other animals by trapping sediments on their way to the sea. Corals would

not be able to survive without this added protection by mangroves since corals will only strive well in a

pollution free environment where water quality is high and sedimentation is low. Sediments smoulder reef

organisms and impede sunlight, preventing it from reaching corals. Corals need sunlight for the

zoozanthellae (single celled algae living within corals) to manufacture food for themselves and the corals.


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Corals are also filter feeders and increased sedimentation prevents them from extending their tentacles

and feeding on planktons within the water column. Additionally, coral recruitment will be reduced as coral

zygotes (fertilized reproductive cells) taste the substrate before they inhabit the area and begin to grow,

they will not colonise if the substrate is unfavourable (polluted or highly sedimented). Coral spawning only

occurs once per year so zygotes have only a few hours to find a suitable place to inhabit; if there are no

suitable areas found during that period, recruitment would be suspended for another year.

Other Ecological Benefits of Mangroves

In addition to the roles described above, “mangroves are vital in coastal stabilization due to their extensive

rooting system. They form natural “breakwater” systems by the roots and trunks reducing wave energy

and so reduce coastal erosion and protect the coast from flooding” (Webber 2007). Mangroves also act

as a buffer zone, protecting the coastline from strong winds during a storm or hurricane.

Economic Value of Mangroves

Depending on the locality, mangroves are used for varying economic gain. They supply important

quantities of wood for carpentry, firewood and charcoal (Porcher, 1993). They function as a nursery

habitat for commercial fishes and shrimps, which are beneficial to fishermen.



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Location and Distribution

Unlike the south coast and the great morass, Portland mangroves are not as vast and in some areas are

so degraded that restoration might not be possible due to severe human impacts. For this study, four

mangrove sites were identified for observation, survey and rehabilitation. They included; West Harbour, Salt

Creek, Turtle Crawl and Manchioneal. Of the four, the most significant site with respect to size and perhaps

functionality are the mangroves and wetlands of Turtle Crawl, with Manchioneal being the second largest.

In each of the four forests observed, Rhizophora dominates over Lagungularia and Avicennia while

Laguncularia dominates over Avicennia. As is the case with mangrove forest succession, the dominant red

mangroves were at the margin of the forest where they interface between the sea and land, towards the

interior of the forest while white mangroves were observed intermingled with Red mangroves. Black

mangroves are fewer in these forests and in some cases are completely absent. In Turtle Crawl, three of

the four species of mangroves found in Jamaica were identified: that is the Red, Black and White

mangroves. No true Button Wood was identified in Portland; however, the Ornamental Button Wood, which

is a variant of the Button Wood, was observed at the Errol Flynn Marina in Port Antonio.

Socio-Economic Dynamics of Portland

The population of Portland now stands at over eighty thousand; 23.4 percent of which lives in urban towns

such as Port Antonio and Buff Bay (STATIN 2002). The average household supports 3.5 persons with a

large percent being dependent individuals.

Mangroves in Portland


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Portland is said to have the highest incidence of poverty than any other parish in Jamaica, but the

population continues to grow, particularly within the small urban town of Port Antonio. Like the rest of

Jamaica, challenges arise when there is an influx of people from rural to urban centres (Tindigarugaya,

2006) and in this case rural town. According to Tindigarugaya, one of the major factors underlying this

type of migration is rural poverty. The Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions also states that the majority of

the poor live in rural areas and the Policy Development Unit (PDU) of the Planning Institute of Jamaica

outlines four possible explanations for this which include; skewed land distribution, unproductive small

farm sector, low levels of education and underdeveloped physical and social infrastructure (Tindigarugaya,

2006). Portland as a parish suffers from all the above. The socio-economic issues mentioned are the main

factors threatening the already fragile resources with the main problems being illegal scatter settlements

and unmanned farming practices.

Scattering results from housing shortages, unemployment and low income makes affording homes under

existing schemes near impossible and the high cost of renting does not make things easier. Consequently,

individuals settle on land left idle for long periods of time and this practice continues due to political

influences since the poor in Portland (as in the rest of Jamaica) makes up the grand majority of voters;

members of the leading parties are weary of potential unrest and loss of votes, so the conditions are

prolonged. Unfortunately, many of the idle lands in the parish is in close proximity to the coast “where

happenings occur” and are the wetlands themselves. Perhaps the very reason property owners have not

made an attempt to carry out any form of development on the lands. Of the four sites identified for

rehabilitation, three are currently housing a cadre of informal settlers. Salt Creek, Turtle Crawl north and

south and Manchioneal all have squatters living in sections of the mangroves and while occupying practice

of subsistence farming is carried out nearby.



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Salt Creek

At first glance, all seems intact at this site but closer inspection reveals the unsightly conditions of the

scatters and the vast degradation of the wetland (more details provided in the survey analysis). At the rear

of the mangroves, an entire section has been cleared to accommodate incapacitated houses which are

supported by logs in preparation for flooding. To deter the frequency of flooding in the area, one of the two

streams which flows adjacent to the wetland out to sea has been rechanneled. For the four houses located

in the mud flat, only one sanitary convenience was found. In a survey (see Analysis of Water Quality Trend-

Report-PEPA 2006) conducted by the Portland Environment Protection Association between 2005-2006,

results showed that more than 60 percent of householders living in informal houses had no form of

sanitary convenience nor were any areas designated for garbage disposal. The survey was conducted over

a three month period and included householders in communities in Port Antonio, Turtle Crawl and

Nonsuch.

Turtle Crawl

Turtle Crawl is the largest of the sites and land ownership is a dynamic issue. The mangrove is divided

into north and south and while a section is considered Grown Land, other areas are said to be privately

owned, but the land is mostly unoccupied giving rise to scattering and small farming activities. On the

northern side, several houses are found on the outer fringe of the forest and in recent times the occupants

have reconstructed their dwellings from board to concrete. Bordering the rivers, are piggery units/feedlots

which are constructed to facilitate the removal of waste from the units into the rivers.


16



Manchioneal

Manchioneal also has two sites situated in a more developed area. The small town is primarily a fishing

village, so squattering is mainly carried out by the fishermen and their families. The houses here are more

organized and the rivers/streams have been silted to accommodate the squatter communities. Similarly,

sanitary conveniences are absent. Here pigs room freely throughout the struggling forest thereby impeding

the growth and survival of mangrove seedlings.

Threats to Mangroves in Portland

From the information provided above, there is a clear indication that the fate of the mangroves in Portland

and consequently coral reefs, are determined by two fundamental factors: the level of poverty among

individuals and the roles and effectiveness of policy makers.

Characteristics and Practices of Squatters

Because the land is not owned by the occupants living on them, they avoid any interactions with the law

and therefore, construct their houses without the local parish council permission. In which case cannot be

provided because squattering in Jamaica is illegal. In most cases they (squatters) do not build permanent

structures that might be bulldozed should the rightful owners reclaim their property, but erect Instead

temporary lodgings or shacks that may include some form of sanitary convenience regardless of the

inadequacies or they may opt for another method of disposal; commonly called “parachuting” or “kiting”.



17


This is the practice of depositing faecal waste in plastic bags, which is then slung into the nearest

waterway or further into the wetland. In other cases defecation will occur on the bare soil at a convenient

location inside the wetland. When a sanitary convenience is constructed it is usually in close proximity to

the water source where seepage is facilitated. In addition to human excretory waste, the mangroves are

frequently used as a dump by the occupants of the wetlands.

Other Uses

In addition to deforestation of mangrove areas for housing construction and farming, residents cut

mangroves for use as timber and for the production of coal. The young mangroves are also use to make

fish pots, whereas on some fishing beaches, such as Manchioneal, it is cleared and burnt for improved land

space.

Several negative effects occur when people begin to clear the wetland for housing. The first is

the size of the wetland is greatly reduced and so is the habitat, it simply means it will

accommodate fewer organisms than befor,e including birds. It changes the structure of the

wetland and important mangrove flora could be lost, including some species of mangrove. Others

may begin to die off as there is a shift in the ecological balance. Additionally any changes in the

flow or direction of the river channel could increase salinity resulting in high mortality of mangrove

seedlings or dwarf trees. Furthermore an increase in solid waste on the forest floor impedes the

growth of seedlings; recruitment is necessary for any living systems to preserve itself. Finally,

the increase nutrients may also reduce the chance of mangrove seedling survival or even that of

some marine fishes. Fishes, shrimps and crustaceans nursing among mangroves are the same

food resources we rely on.


18



Conclusions

Mangroves are important natural resources that, like coral reefs, are productive biological systems. They

facilitate existing populations of marine organisms inclusive of fishes, they function as a nursery for

juveniles marine fishes, in particular game fishes such as parrot, they fix sediments and play a role of

natural purification of pollutants that would otherwise make their way to the sea and impede the growth

of corals. Additionally, they are a habitat for terrestrial species such as crabs and birds and finally they act

as wind breaks in the protection against storms.

In Portland, the ecological benefits of mangroves are barely recognized resulting in their improper use.

Due to the high incidents of poverty, housing requirements and hardships, coupled with poor social and

physical infrastructure and a lack of governmental interventions, mangrove systems are rapidly degrading.

The combined practices of the poor makes natural rehabilitation a challenge for mangroves.

PEPA under the Mangrove Rehabilitation and Endemic Specie Protection Project Programme conducted

the following activities to increase mangrove awareness among residents as well as to aid in the

rehabilitation of mangrove habitats in Portland.

• Erecting of signage at the four mangrove sites mentioned.

• Print brochures on mangroves for distribution as part of the resource materials for students.

• Conduct clean-ups with participants from the College of Agriculture Science and Education,high schools and community groups.



19


• Host Teacher Training Workshops to improve mangrove awareness in schools.

• Involve twelve schools in presentations and field excursions to various wetlands across the island.

• Install fencing in Turtle Crawl to protect the family of crocodiles living in the Turtle Crawl wetland.

• Conduct surveys to determine the status of mangroves in Portland.

• Conduct mangrove replanting at Salt Creek.

• Host a forum for the collective mitigation approach to mangrove rehabilitation in Portland.


20



Section Two

Analysis of Mangrove SurveyConducted

December 2008 - January 2009


Contractor: Centre For Marine Sciences, University Of The West Indies, Mona


Introduction

The Portland Environmental Protection Association contracted The Centre for Marine

Sciences of The University of the West Indies to conduct an Ecological Assessment

of selected Mangrove areas of Portland, namely: Salt Creek, Dolphin Bay (Turtle

Crawl) and Manchioneal.

This evaluation undertook determination of species composition and forest

structure, vegetation profiles, faunal observations and recording of physio-chemical

parameters. The data presented from these findings should give an idea of the

functions and importance of these particular areas in respect to the expected role

of the mangrove forest. An identical evaluation technique was used to survey all the

mangrove areas.


22



Methodology

Mangrove Transects

1. A one hundred (100) meter transect was laid from the tidal (northern) end of theforest, running in a southern direction to the south of the forest.

2. 2 m x 2 m quadrats were used to assess the area of mangrove forest along thelength of the transect. Therefore in total for the entire 100 m of transect, 50quadrats were examined.

3. A YSI Multi-parameter probe was used to collect: Temperature, Salinity andDissolved Oxygen at the start of each transect and at any other point that waterwas found present in the forest.

4. Parameters collected in each 2 m x 2m quadrat along the transect include:

a. Tree types and numbers.

b. Diameter at breast height (DBH) of largest rooted individual inquadrat.

c. Canopy percentage cover and the tree type that makes up thecanopy.

d. Canopy height.

e. Red Mangrove prop root percentage cover.

f. Black and White Mangrove pnematophores percentage cover.

g. Seedling types and numbers.

h. Saplings types and numbers.

i. Water depth where possible.

5. Area and perimeters of the areas examined were determined using Google EarthPro.



23


Figu

re 5

- Go

ogle

Ear

th Im

age

Show

ing

Loca

tion

of S

urve

yed

Man

grov

e Fo

rest

s.



25

Description of Area


Figu

re 6

- Go

ogle

Ear

th Im

age

Show

ing

Area

Sur

veye

d at

Sal

t Cre

ek.


26



Figu

re 7

- Go

ogle

Ear

th Im

age

Show

ing

Tran

sect

Lin

e at

Sal

t Cre

ek.



27


Figu

re 8

- Go

ogle

Ear

th Im

age

Show

ing

Surv

eyed

Are

a at

Dol

phin

Bay

Nor

th.


28



Figu

re 9

- Go

ogle

Ear

th Im

age

Show

ing

Tran

sect

Sur

veye

d at

Dol

phin

Bay

Nor

th.



29


Figu

re 1

0-

Goog

le E

arth

Imag

e Sh

owin

g Ar

ea S

urve

y at

Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th.


30



Figu

re 1

1-

Goog

le E

arth

Imag

e Sh

owin

g Su

rvey

ed T

rans

ect a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th.



31


Figu

re 1

2-

Goog

le E

arth

Imag

e Sh

owin

g Su

rvey

ed A

rea

at M

anch

ione

al.


32



Figu

re 1

3-

Goog

le E

arth

Imag

e Sh

owin

g Su

rvey

ed T

rans

ect a

t Man

chio

neal

.



33



34

• Table Showing Data Collected at Dolphin Bay North

• Table Showing Data Collected at Dolphin Bay South

• Table Showing Data Collected at Mancioneal

• Table Showing Fauna Found at Salt Creek

• Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay North

• Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay South

• Table Showing Fauna at Mancioneal

• Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Salt Creek

• Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay North

• Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay South

• Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Manchioneal

• Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Salt Creek

• Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay North

• Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay South

• Graph Showing Tree Distribution and Density at Manchioneal

• Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Salt Creek

• Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay North

• Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Dolphin Bay South

• Graph Showing Seedling Distribution and Density at Manchioneal

• Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Salt Creek

• Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Dolphin Bay North

• Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Dolphin Bay South

• Graph Showing Canopy Height and Water Depth at Manchioneal

• Graphs Showing Tree Proportional Distribution at All Areas Surveyed:

(a) Salt Creek, (b) Dolphin Bay North, (c) Dolphin Bay South, (d) Manchioneal

• Graph Showing Proportion of Adult Mangrove and Seedlings at All Areas Surveyed:

(a) Salt Creek, (b) Dolphin Bay North, (c) Dolphin Bay South, (d) Manchioneal

• Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Salt Creek

• Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop root Cover at Dolphin Bay North

• Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Dolphin Bay South

• Graph Showing Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover at Manchioneal

Results - February 2009



35

Figu

re 1

4- T

able

Sho

wing

Dat

a Co

llect

ed F

rom

Sal

t Cre

ek.



36



37



38



39

Figu

re 1

5- T

able

Sho

wing

Dat

a Co

llect

ed a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Nor

th.



40



41



42



43



44



45

Figu

re 1

6- T

able

Sho

wing

Dat

a Co

llect

ed a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th.



46



47



48



49

Figu

re 1

7- T

able

Sho

wing

Dat

a Co

llect

ed a

t Man

chio

neal

.



50



51



52



53



54


Figure 18 - Table Showing Fauna Found at Salt Creek.

Figure 19 - Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay North.

Figure 20 - Table Showing Fauna at Dolphin Bay South.




55

Figure 21 - Table Showing Fauna at Manchioneal.

Figure 22 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Salt Creek.

Figure 23 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay North.

Figure 24 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay South.

Figure 25 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Manchioneal.


Figu

re26

-Gr

aph

Show

ing

Tree

Dist

ribut

ion

and

Dens

ityat

Salt

Cree

k.


56

Tree Distribution and Density


Figu

re 2

7-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay N

orth

.



57


Figu

re 2

8-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay S

outh

.


58



Figu

re 2

9-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at M

anch

ione

al.



59




55

Figure 21 - Table Showing Fauna at Manchioneal.

Figure 22 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Salt Creek.

Figure 23 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay North.

Figure 24 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Dolphin Bay South.

Figure 25 - Table Showing Physical and Chemical Parameters at Manchioneal.


Figu

re26

-Gr

aph

Show

ing

Tree

Dist

ribut

ion

and

Dens

ityat

Salt

Cree

k.


56

Tree Distribution and Density


Figu

re 2

7-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay N

orth

.



57


Figu

re 2

8-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay S

outh

.


58



Figu

re 2

9-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Tr

ee D

istrib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at M

anch

ione

al.



59


Figu

re 3

0-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Se

edlin

g Di

strib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at S

alt C

reek

.


60

Seedling Distribution and Density


Figu

re 3

1-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Se

edlin

g Di

strib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay N

orth

.



61


Figu

re 3

2-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Se

edlin

g Di

strib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at D

olph

in B

ay S

outh

.


62



Figu

re 3

3-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Se

edlin

g Di

strib

utio

n an

d De

nsity

at M

anch

ione

al.



63


Canopy Height and Water Depth

Figu

re 3

4-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Hei

ght a

nd W

ater

Dep

th a

t Sal

t Cre

ek.


64


Figu

re 3

5-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Hei

ght a

nd W

ater

Dep

th a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Nor

th.



65


Figu

re 3

6-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Hei

ght a

nd W

ater

Dep

th a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th.


66



Figu

re 3

7-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Hei

ght a

nd W

ater

Dep

th a

t Man

chio

neal

.



67


Tree Proportion Comparison

Figu

re 3

8-

Grap

hs S

howi

ng T

ree

Prop

ortio

nal D

istrib

utio

n at

All A

reas

Sur

veye

d:(a

) Sal

t Cre

ek,(

b) D

olph

in B

ay N

orth

,(c)

Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th,(

d) M

anch

ione

al.

ab

cd


68


Figu

re 3

9-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Pr

opor

tion

of A

dult

Man

grov

e an

d Se

edlin

gs a

t All A

reas

Sur

veye

d:(a

) Sal

t Cre

ek,(

b) D

olph

in B

ay N

orth

,(c)

Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th,(

d) M

anch

ione

al.


69

Proportion of Adult Trees to Seedlingsa

b

cd


Canopy Cover and Prop Root Cover

Figu

re 3

9-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Cov

er a

nd P

rop

Root

Cov

er a

t Sal

t Cre

ek.


70


Figu

re 4

0-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Cov

er a

nd P

rop

Root

Cov

er a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Nor

th.



71


Figu

re 4

1-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Cov

er a

nd P

rop

Root

Cov

er a

t Dol

phin

Bay

Sou

th.


72



Figu

re 4

2-

Grap

h Sh

owin

g Ca

nopy

Cov

er a

nd P

rop

Root

Cov

er a

t Man

chio

neal

.



73


Discussion

Salt Creek

The Salt Creek wetland system is a disturbed mangrove forest located

approximately 1.5 km east of Port Antonio at Latitude 18º 11’2.60”N Longitude

76∞26’2.60”W . The mangrove forest occurs along the edge of a moderate to large

sized culvert to the west and a smaller channel (man-made) on the eastern side,

separated from the ocean by the Port Antonio main road. The Eastern channel

emanates into the mangrove/mud flat area is not continuous to the larger culvert.

A high (33 ppt.) salinity was recorded on the coastal end of the system, while a

salinity of 14 ppt. was recorded along a drainage channel half way along the

transect.

This study area shows extreme forest fragmentation, invasion of non-mangrove

wetland plants and visible solid waste impact. These attributes may be strongly

hinged to the human influence and subsequent disturbance. The southern end of

the mangrove forest has been removed (historically) and is presently used as

housing and farmland. Inhabitants access the area by traversing the culvert as there

is no road access present. It is important to note that high amounts of anthropogenic

and natural (tree limbs, foliage) debris are found along the entire area.


74



Despite the high levels of human impact and cleared mud flats, there was the presence of

a high number of birds observed on the survey date. Moderate amounts of crabs were

observed in the mud and canopy and large amounts of snail shells were observed along the

waterways.

There is a high level of silty, riverine sediment, occurring especially along the exposed

eastern channel and mud flat, making the sediment quite soft and causing moderate sinking

upon contact. The influence of the channels flows easily towards the coast resulting in very

little detrital / anoxic material (dark-brown/black) settled on the forest floor, therefore the

forest floor shows a consistent light brown colour. The visible outflows of fresh water could

also be responsible for the small amounts of mangrove seedlings being present in the

wetland. Only red mangrove seeds were seen along the sample areas, despite white

mangrove trees being observed along the periphery of the sample area. White Mangrove

seeds would be very unlikely to successfully germinate and establish in this area due to the

constant tidal and riverine influence observed.

The forest shows less than 10% mangroves and numerous gaps. There is some evidence

that the gaps in the forest were areas of high salinity, showing dwarfed Red Mangrove trees

and the presence of new Red Mangrove growth. Red Mangroves occur along the entire

length of the sample area, however, the dominance of the mangrove disappears closer to

the Eastern channel. The Golden Leather Fern dominates the areas closest to the smaller

channel, having a reduction in canopy cover and salinity moving south. This invasive plant

is accompanied by numerous wetland runners (mangrove rubber vine, coin vine) and true

terrestrial plants (Blue Mahoe, coconut and grasses).

The low occurrence of mangrove seedlings and high levels of human impact observed is an

indication that if this wetland forest is left in its current ecological state, then the wetland

would have little potential of surviving and persisting as a mangrove forest. However, the

dominance of the mangrove fern could be limited by the high salinities and high water/tidal

levels experienced at the northern end of the forest.



75


Dolphin Bay North

This mangrove forest found at latitude N 18º 10’ 28.2”, longitude W 76º 25’ 09.9” at the south end of

the Dolphin Bay, is the largest mangrove forest on the Portland coastline combined with the Dolphin

Bay South area, having an area of 94,604.41 m2. This is an estuarine system, fresh water influences

provided by three moderately sized (10-20 ft.) culverts and streams crossing the Port Antonio to

Drapers main road. The salinity measured on assessment date using a YSI multiprobe was 16 parts

per thousand (ppt.), indicating a 50% mixture of fresh and sea water inputs. This wetland is a mixture

of wetland and terrestrial plant species and varying soil types from coarse sand, peat and (loam), gently

sloping from the coastline showing high amounts of sea-grass (Thallasia and Syringodium), to the

wetlandís southern boundary being delimited by the main road.

This mangrove forest shows domination by Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) and Laguncularia

racemosa (white mangrove) and small amounts of Avicennia germinans (black mangrove). A White

Mangrove tree attaining a height of 33 ft. was the tallest tree found along transect. The presence of

some terrestrial plant species in the interior of the forest was accounted for by patches of coarse

sand/loam elevated from the sea level and apparent constant fresh water inputs. Red and White

Mangroves proceed past the main road only at the largest culvert at the eastern end of the wetland.

This wetland system appears to be a productive parent stand of mangrove forest in the area with high

amounts of propagules and seedlings and a relatively shallow and low energy bay and riverine / storm

outflows providing out-movement of propagules.


76



This mangrove forest shows great scope for continuity with high recruitment of the two

major mangrove species and fresh water inputs. However, there is evidence that the

invasion of the Golden Back Fern could threaten the genuine / native mangrove forest area.

This invasive swamp plant was observed to take root in areas of White Mangrove breathing

roots and dominating the drainage channels adjacent to the main road.

Dolphin Bay North mangroves boasts a high amount of endemic and resident avi - fauna

(approximately 10 different species observed), small amounts of bivalves encrusting on the

roots, large amounts of riverine snails and a range of crabs found in the mud and trees. The

area is also reputed to provide habitat for the American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus),

evidence for this provided by confirmed sightings (PEPA) and scoured mud areas within the

mangrove/swamp interface. However, no crocodiles were observed on the survey date.

Dolphin Bay South

This study area is located at Latitude 18º 10’22.26”N Longitude 76∞25’8.15”W, south of

the Dolphin Bay to Drapers/San San main road. The portion of the mangrove forest is

connected to the larger portion of the Dolphin Bay mangrove forest (Dolphin Bay North),

collectively having an area of 3,110,000 m2.

The substrate of this mangrove forest is extremely soft, consisting predominantly of detrital

matter, no pebbles or gravel was observed within the sample area. The area appears to have

an equal magnitude of riverine and coastal influences, with the edges of the sample area

(quadrat 1) being at sea level and approximately 20m from the Bay. Small adjacent

streams/drainage channels were also observed in the area. The salinity of the area upon

sampling date was 14 ppt. indicating an approximate mix of 40:60 fresh to sea water ratio.

These brackish/estuarine conditions are often optimal for mangrove tree growth. The area

is consequently a true mangrove forest, showing an overwhelming proportion of Red and

White Mangrove to other species, two ferns being found along the transect.



77


The forest canopy cover was also observed to be quite uniform, having an average tree height of 12

m and mid to high canopy cover along the transect. There were no significant gaps in the forest, as it

transitioned from a Red to White zone around quadrats 30-32. The tree with the highest diameter at

breast height was a Red Mangrove found in the Dolphin Bay forest.

The mangrove forest at Dolphin Bay South may be characterized as a parent forest, having relatively

large amounts of Red and White Mangrove trees and seedlings per unit area. An adult to parent tree

comparison shows a 77% seedling presence in the area. This figure is a strong indication that the

forest has a very high regeneration capability. This is further supported by the fact that no Mangrove

Ferns were observed in any quadrats, being the main invaders of disturbed mangrove forests. The

Dolphin Bay mangrove forest showed the highest number of birds on the survey date. The drainage

channels on the edge of the forest are also reputed to show regular sightings of the American Crocodile

(Crocodylus acutus).

Manchioneal

The mangrove forest in Manchioneal located between Latitude 18º 10’53.61”N and Longitude 76

16’41.82”W and is strongly influenced by a relatively large riverine system. The salinity at the date

of the survey was less than 1 ppt. confirming the significant fresh water conditions present at this

location. In addition, there were no encrusting organisms on the prop roots at the tidal zone. The

absence of oysters on coastal prop roots usually indicates a consistent fresh water input, which is not

favourable to marine bivalves’ persistence.


78



This area may be categorized as a disturbed transitional mangrove forest, having significantly

more non - mangrove trees and approximately 10% mangrove species (Red and White)

occurring along the 50 quadrats. No Black Mangroves were identified in the area. The soil

occurring in this area being moderately soft and compact sandy loam substrate with some

amount of pebbles, disallowing rapid sinking when stepped on. Substrate of this nature may

be attributed to a soil consisting of predominantly hard geologic materials (from rivers and

coral reefs) and a lower percentage of detritus matter (leaf litter and faunal organics), which

would be more characteristic of an undisturbed mangrove forest.

The area has a relatively large population of the invasive Mangrove Fern / Golden Leather

Fern (Acrostichum aureum), having more than 100(%) rooted individuals along the transect

line. This represents more plants per unit area than all mangrove species combined. The

Mangrove Fern shows a high level of invasion in the Manchioneal forest being found in over

sixty percent (60%) of quadrats examined. The low salinity occurring in the forest is

apparently a limiting factor to mangrove growth and more favorable to the Mangrove Fern

and other species such as coconut (Cocos nucifera), Noni (Morinda citrifolia), Dalbergia and

Malvaviscus sp.

The tallest individual within the sample area was a Red Mangrove, attaining a height of 9 m.

Red Mangroves only occurred for just more than half of the 100 m sample area, disappearing

at quadrat 32 onwards. Thereafter, the area shows small amounts of White Mangroves and

is clearly dominated by the Mangrove Fern. It is noteworthy that this point of transition shows

a relatively low canopy cover as compared to the coastal sections of the forest dominated by

the Red Mangrove. This reduction in canopy cover is synonymous with the invasion of the

Mangrove Fern, occupying these areas with a lower canopy cover and therefore greater light

exposure. The regenerative ability of this forest is very low. This is apparent from the

extremely low seedling to adult percentage (88% adults), with less than 20 mangrove

seedlings found along the entire sample area.



79


Conclusions

• Portland mangroves are dominated by Red and White Mangroves.

• Small amounts of Black Mangroves occur in Dolphin Bay only.

• The highest biodiversity of Avi-fauna was found in the largest mangrove

forest (Dolphin Bay).

• The Golden Leather Fern is a major invader of disturbed mangrove forests

in Portland.

• Low canopy cover/ forest disturbance is a stimulus for Mangrove Fern

invasion.

• The Mangrove Rubber Vine (Rhabdadenia biflora) is common in disturbed

mangrove forests in Portland.

• The Dolphin Bay mangrove forest is a parent forest which has the highest

regeneration capability and seedling production/germination success.


80



Glossary



81

Absorption: The uptake of water , other fluids, or dissolved chemicals by a cell or an organism (as tree roots

absorb dissolved nutrients in soil.)

Aerobic: Life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the presence of oxygen. (See: anaerobic.)

Agricultural Pollution: Farming wastes, including runoff and leaching of pesticides and fertilizers; erosion and

dust from plowing; improper disposal of animal manure and carcasses; crop residues, and debris.

Algae: Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients. They

can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small

aquatic animals.

Alluvial: Relating to and/or sand deposited by flowing water.

Anthropogenic: Involving the impact of man or nature; induced or altered by the presence and activities of man

Bacteria: (Singular: bacterium) Microscopic living organisms that can aid in pollution control by metabolizing

organic matter in sewage, oil spills or other pollutants. However, bacteria in soil, water or air can also cause

human, animal and plant health problems.


Biodiversity: Refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological

complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their

relative frequencies. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from

complete ecosystems to the biochemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. Thus,

the term encompasses different ecosystems, species, and genes.

Biotic Community: A naturally occurring assemblage of plants and animals that live in the same

environment and are mutually sustaining and interdependent. (See: biome).

Blackwater: Water that contains animal, human, or food waste.

Brackish: Mixed fresh and salt water. breaking down organic matter.

Carrying Capacity: (1) In recreation management, the amount of use a recreation area can sustain

without loss of quality. (2) In wildlife management, the maximum number of animals an area can

support during a given period.

Catalyst: A substance that changes the speed or yield of a chemical reaction without being

consumed or chemically changed by the chemical reaction.

Characteristic: Any one of the four categories used in defining hazardous waste: ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity.

Cleanup: Actions taken to deal with a release or threat of release of a hazardous substance that

could affect humans and/or the environment. The term “cleanup” is sometimes used

interchangeably with the terms remedial action, removal action, response action, or corrective

action.


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Coastal Zone: Lands and waters adjacent to the coast that exert an influence on the uses of the sea and its

ecology, or whose uses and ecology are affected by the sea.

Community: In ecology, an assemblage of populations of different species within a specified location in space

and time. Sometimes, a particular subgrouping may be specified, such as the fish community in a lake or the

soil arthropod community in a forest.

Concentration: The relative amount of a substance mixed with another substance. An example is five ppm of

carbon monoxide in air or 1 mg/l of iron in water.

Conservation: Preserving and renewing, when possible, human and natural resources. The use, protection,

and improvement of natural resources according to principles that will ensure their highest economic or social

benefits.

Contaminant: Any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter that has an adverse effect

on air, water, or soil.

Contamination: Introduction into water, air, and soil of microorganisms, chemicals, toxic substances, wastes,

or wastewater in a concentration that makes the medium unfit for its next intended use. Also applies to surfaces

of objects, buildings, and various household and agricultural use products.


Decomposition: The breakdown of matter by bacteria and fungi, changing the chemical makeup

and physical appearance of materials.

Degradation: Generally refers to the destruction or decomposition of material through the corrosive

effects of chemicals, oxidation, heat, ultraviolet exposure, abrasion, etc.

Discharge: Flow of surface water in a stream or canal or the outflow of ground water from a flowing

artesian well, ditch, or spring. Can also apply to discharge of liquid effluent from a facility or to

chemical emissions into the air through designated venting mechanisms.

Disposables: Consumer products, other items, and packaging used once or a few times and

discarded.

Disposal: Final placement or destruction of toxic, radioactive, or other wastes; surplus or banned

pesticides or other chemicals; polluted soils; and drums containing hazardous materials from

removal actions or accidental releases. Disposal may be accomplished through use of approved

secure landfills, surface impoundments, land farming, deep-well injection, ocean dumping, or

incineration.

Drainage: Improving the productivity of agricultural land by removing excess water from the soil by

such means as ditches or subsurface drainage tiles.

Dump: A site used to dispose of solid waste without environmental controls.

Ecological/Environmental Sustainability: Maintenance of ecosystem components and functions

for future generations.


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Ecological Impact: The effect that a man-caused or natural activity has on living organisms and their non-

living (abiotic) environment.

Ecology: The relationship of living things to one another and their environment, or the study of such

relationships.

Ecosystem: The interacting system of a biological community and its non-living environmental surroundings.

Ecosystem Structure: Attributes related to the instantaneous physical state of an ecosystem; examples

include species population density, species richness or evenness, and standing crop biomass.

Endangered Species: Animals, birds, fish, plants, or other living organisms threatened with extinction by

anthropogenic (man-caused) or other natural changes in their environment. Requirements for declaring a

species endangered are contained in the Endangered Species Act.

Environment: The sum of all external conditions affecting the life, development and survival of an organism.

Environmental Indicator: A measurement, statistic or value that provides a proximate gauge or evidence of

the effects of environmental management programs or of the state or condition of the environment.


Environmental Sustainability: Long-term maintenance of ecosystem components and functions

for future generations.

Erosion: The wearing away of land surface by wind or water, intensified by land-clearing practices

related to farming, residential or industrial development, road building, or logging.

Estuary: Region of interaction between rivers and near-shore ocean waters, where tidal action and

river flow mix fresh and salt water. Such areas include bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and

lagoons. These brackish water ecosystems shelter and feed marine life, birds, and wildlife.

Exotic Species: A species that is not indigenous to a region.

Fecal Coliform Bacteria: Bacteria found in the intestinal tracts of mammals. Their presence in

water or sludge is an indicator of pollution and possible contamination by pathogens.

Feedlot: A confined area for the controlled feeding of animals. Tends to concentrate large amounts

of animal waste that cannot be absorbed by the soil and, hence, may be carried to nearby streams

or lakes by rainfall runoff.

Food Chain: A sequence of organisms, each of which uses the next, lower member of the sequence

as a food source.

Food Web: The feeding relationships by which energy and nutrients are transferred from one

species to another

Fresh Water: Water that generally contains less than 1,000 milligrams-per-liter of dissolved solids.


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Commercial/Game Fish: Species like trout, salmon, or bass, caught for sport. Many of them show more

sensitivity to environmental change than “rough” fish.

Garbage: Animal and vegetable waste resulting from the handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking, and

serving of foods

Habitat: The place where a population (e.g. human, animal, plant, micro-organism) lives and its surroundings,

both living and non-living.

Household Waste (Domestic Waste): Solid waste, composed of garbage and rubbish, which normally

originates in a private home or apartment house. Domestic waste may contain a significant amount of toxic or

hazardous waste.

Hydrology: The science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water.

Indicator: In biology, any biological entity or processes, or community whose characteristics show the presence

of specific environmental conditions. (2) In chemistry, a substance that shows a visible change, usually of color,

at a desired point in a chemical reaction. (3) A device that indicates the result of a measurement; e.g. a pressure

gauge or a moveable scale.


Landscape: The traits, patterns, and structure of a specific geographic area, including its biological

composition, its physical environment, and its anthropogenic or social patterns. An area where

interacting ecosystems are grouped and repeated in similar form.

Leaching/seepage: The process by which soluble constituents are dissolved and filtered through

the soil by a percolating fluid. (See: leachate).

Marsh: A type of wetland that does not accumulate appreciable peat deposits and is dominated by

herbaceous vegetation. Marshes may be either fresh or saltwater, tidal or non-tidal. (See: wetlands).

Mangroves: (1) A member of a number of genera and species of low trees and shrubs which grow

and spread quickly on tidal mud in tropical areas so that their dense root systems are covered by salt

or brackish water at each tide and effectively bind the mud. The roots under the mud have air

supplies by aerial roots which rise above the surface. (2) A plant community dominated by such trees

and shrubs.

Mangrove Swamp: the association of low trees and shrubs covered by the collective term

MANGROVE, growing with members of families in tidal mud in DELTAS, ESTUARIES and along the

coasts in TROPICAL regions.

Nutrient: Any substance assimilated by living things that promotes growth. The term is generally

applied to nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater, but is also applied to other essential and trace

elements.

Nutrient Pollution: Contamination of water resources by excessive inputs of nutrients. In surface

waters, excess algal production is a major concern.


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Organism: Any form of animal or plant life.

Outfall: The place where effluent is discharged into receiving waters.

pH: An expression of the intensity of the basic or acid condition of a liquid; may range from 0 to 14, where 0

is the most acid and 7 is neutral.

Photosynthesis: The manufacture by plants of carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide mediated by

chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight.

Plankton: Tiny plants and animals that live in water.

Pollutant: Generally, any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the usefulness of a

resource or the health of humans, animals, or ecosystems.

Pollution: Generally, the presence of a substance in the environment that because of its chemical composition

or quantity prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable environmental and health

effects. Under the Clean Water Act, for example, the term has been defined as the man-made or man-induced

alteration of the physical, biological, chemical, and radiological integrity of water and other media.



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Population: A group of interbreeding organisms occupying a particular space; the number of

humans or other living creatures in a designated area.

Release: Any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting,

escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment of a hazardous or toxic chemical or

extremely hazardous substance.

Risk: A measure of the probability that damage to life, health, property, and/or the environment will

occur as a result of a given hazard.

River Basin: The land area drained by a river and its tributaries.

Salinity: The percentage of salt in water.

Sanitation: Control of physical factors in the human environment that could harm development,

health, or survival.

Sanitary Convenience: Water closet or urinal that facilitates the excretion and containment of

human waste.

Sediment: Topsoil, sand, and minerals washed from the land into water, usually after rain or snow

melt.

Sedimentation: Letting solids settle out of wastewater by gravity during treatment.

Sediments: Soil, sand, and minerals washed from land into water, usually after rain. They pile up in

reservoirs, rivers and harbors, destroying fish and wildlife habitat, and clouding the water so that

sunlight cannot reach aquatic plants. Careless farming, mining, and building activities will expose

sediment materials, allowing them to wash off the land after rainfall.


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Silt: Sedimentary materials composed of fine or intermediate-sized mineral particles

Solid Waste: Non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes that

contain complex and sometimes hazardous substances. Solid wastes also include sewage sludge, agricultural

refuse, demolition wastes, and mining residues. Technically, solid waste also refers to liquids and gases in

containers.

Solid Waste Disposal: The final placement of refuse that is not salvaged or recycled.

Species: (1) A reproductively isolated aggregate of interbreeding organisms having common attributes and

usually designated by a common name. (2) An organism belonging to belonging to such a category

Stabilization: Conversion of the active organic matter in sludge into inert, harmless material.

Submerged Aquatic Vegetation: Vegetation that lives at or below the water surface; an important habitat for

young fish and other aquatic organisms.

Swamp: A type of wetland dominated by woody vegetation but without appreciable peat deposits. Swamps

may be fresh or salt water and tidal or non-tidal.



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Tidal Marsh: Low, flat marshlands traversed by channels and tidal hollows, subject to tidal

inundation; normally, the only vegetation present is salt-tolerant bushes and grasses. (See: wetlands).

Waste: (1) Unwanted materials left over from a manufacturing process. (2) Refuse from places of

human or animal habitation.

Watershed: The land area that drains into a stream; the watershed for a major river may.

Watershed Area: A topographic area within a line drawn connecting the highest points uphill of a

drinking waterintake into which overland flow drains.

Wetlands: An area that is saturated by surface or ground water with vegetation adapted for life

under those soil conditions, as swamps, bogs, fens, marshes, and estuaries.


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Appendix - Flora



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Scientific Name Commom Name

Rhizophora mangle Red Mangrove

Acroshchum aureum Mangrove Leather Fern/Mangrove Fern

Rhabadenia biflora Mangrove Rubber Vine

Dalbergia ecastaphyllum Coinvine

Vigna luteola Hairypod cowpea

Arundo Giant Reed, Spanish Cane

Panicrum

Piscidia piscipula Jamaica Dogwood

Waltheria Sleepy morning

Laguncularia racemosa White mangrove

Avicennia germinans Black Mangrove

Morinda citrifolia Noni

Thespesia sp. Mahoe rose

Hibiscus elatus Blue Mahoe

Prunus dulcis Almond

Chrysopogon zizanioides Vetiver grass

Cocos nucifera Coconut

Dalbergia brownie Brown’s Indian rosewood

Fimbristylis complanta Slender Fimbristylis, Low Fimbristylis


Appendix - Fauna


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Scientific Name Commom Name

Goniopsis Mangrove Root Crab

Balanus Barnacle

Anolis Green Lizard

Aratus pisonii Mangrove Tree Crab

Uca Fiddler Crab

Butorides virescens Green Heron

Nesopsar nigerrimus Cling Cling

Columba leucocephala Baldplate (White Crowned Pigeon)

Nycticorax violaceus Yellow Crowned Night Heron

Dendroica phatra Ants Picker (Arrow Headed Warbler)

Terrestrial Crab

Trochilus polytmus Red Billed Streamer Tail Hummingbird

Ardea herodias Great Blue Heron

Setophaga ruticilla American Redstart

Coereba flaveola Bananaquit

Icterus leucopteryx Jamaican Oriole

Unidentified Snail

Callinectes sapidus Blue Crab

Termites

Long Jaw Fish

Spiders

Egretta thula Snowy Egret


Bird Pictures

All information was taken from: Birds Of Jamaica and the West Indies

- G. Michael Flieg and Allan Sander



95

The male Greater Antillean Grackle has a long tail held in a V-section,and its black plumage reflects bluish. Both sexes have a yellow eye,but the female is smaller and duller than the male. It is endemic andcommon in the lowlands of the Greater Antilles and Cayman Islands,though the Cayman Brac population is extinct. In Hispaniola it occursin the highlands. A common species of urban areas, as well asfarmland. Feeds principally on insects, but also on food scraps, whichboldly taken from human habitations.

Greater Antillean Grackle - Quiscalus niger (25-30 cm)

The White-crowned Pegeon is a common permanent resident of the West Indies. Itmoves freely among the islands where it prefers wooded areas at lower elevations.A very distinctive bird in flight, as the conspicuous white crown contrasts with thedark grey body, though in young birds and females the crown is rather greyer orbrowner. The hindneck is iridescent, but this is difficult to see in any but good light.Arboreal, it nests in mangroves, feeds on fruit and flowers, and on some islands itundergoes altitudinal migration.

White-crowned Pigeon - Columbia leucocephala (29-40 cm)


One of the most abundant species of the WestIndies, rare only on Cuba. Its plumage varies fromisland to island, being entirely black in St. Vincentand Grenada. A white supercilium is the diagnosticfeature in most plumages, but look also for yellowon the under-parts, a white wing-patch and sharp,downcurved bill. Frequents all habitats fromlowlands to mountains. It punctures the bases offlowers to obtain nectar, and also feeds on fruit andinsects. Acrobatic, sociable and noisy. Common inurban areas.

Bananaquit - Coereba flaveola (10-12 cm)

The Arrow-headed Warbler is endemic to Jamaica. The headand back are white, finely streaked with black, and thispattern is alos continuous over the face, breast andremaining underparts. The undertail-coverts are buffy; alsostreaked with black. The eye is brown surrounded by a whiteeye-ring, and there are two white wing-bars. Constantlyflicks its tail downward. Feeds at all levels of humid forest,where it gleans insects from leaves. Not found in the drylowlands or on cultivated land. Similar to Black and WhiteWarbler, but doesn’t flick its tail.

Arrow-headed Warbler - Dendroica phaetra (13 cm)

Bahamas race (above) • St. Lucian race (above right) • Grenadian race (right)


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Generally a fairly common winter visitor to the West Indies. There are also recentnesting records from Cuba. The male has black upper-parts, with orange patchesat the base of the flight and tail feathers; the female is greenish-grey, with theorange replaced by yellow. A very active warbler that constantly displays its coloursby fanning tail and flicking wings. In the West Indies it frequents mangroves andlowland forest. Feeds on insects, berries and seeds, usually on the forest floor ormid-level, but sometimes snatches insects from the air. Very curious, andresponsive to pishing.

American Redstart - Setophaga ruticilla (13 cm)

A beautiful species which can well be described as ‘dainty’. Its breedingplumage is bright white and very conspicious. Legs are black, feet brightyellow. The bill is black and appears pencil thin, tapering to a fine point.Snowy Egret is common in the West Indies, but patchily so in the LesserAntilles. An active feeder. Though sometimes confused with the immatureLittle Blue Heron, that species is a deliberate feeder, and has greenish legsand a thicker bill; immature Little Blue Herons have no head plumes.

Snowy Egret - Egretta thula (51-71 cm)



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Male (top) • Female (bottom)


The Yellow-crowned Night Heron is a medium-sized but ratherchuncky grey heron. The adult is dark grey with black andyellowish-white head markings. The immature resembles theyoung black-crcowned Night heron but is light grey with finerspecks. In flight the legs of this species extend well beyond thetail. Solitary and nocturnal, it feeds on hard-shelledinvertebrates for the most part. Feeds and breeds in a variety ofhabitats, though preferring saltwater areas.

Yellow-crowned Night Heron - Nyctanassa violacea (56-71 cm)

The most common bird in Jamaica, ranging from arid lowlands to themountains, and the most spectacular hummingbird of the WestIndies. The male has a red, black-tipped bill, and long tail-streamers,which due to their shape produce a hum in flight. When perchedthese streamers are usually crossed. The body is iridescent green,the wings brown and the tail black; a black crown and ear-tufts areevident. The female is green above and white below, with nostreamers. feeds o nectar and small insects. Endemic to Jamaica,being absent only from the extreme east, where it overlaps withBlack-billed Streamertail.

Red-billed Streamertail - Trochilus polytmus (22-25 cm)

Male (above)Female (inset)


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Endemic to, and a common resident of, Jamaica and St.Andrew’s Island; it was formerly also present on theCaymans but is noe extinct there. An unmistakable paleyellowish-green oriole with a black face and bib, and largewhite wing-patches; the St. Andrew’s race is a brighteryellow. Found commonly in all habitats exceptmangroves, from the coast to the mountains; a commongarden bird. Pries away loose bark as it forages froinsects; also feeds on fruits and flowers.

Jamaican Oriole - Icterus leucopteryx (21 cm)

This, the largest heron of the Americas, is common inthe West Indies. An uncommon white form occurs inthe Caribbean, considerably larger than the otherwise-similar Great Egret; it also differs from that species inhaving yellow legs. The food is a wide variety of preysuch as mice, crabs, shorebirds and frogs, as well asfish. Birds nest singly or in colonies, the size of whichis dictated by the presence of suitable large treeswhere are isolated from distrurbance.

Great Blue Heron - Ardea herodias (107-132 cm)

Normal (left) • white phase (right)



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This species is common throughtout the West Indies. Its small size, variable but always darkcoloration, short chestnut-coloured neck, and short, yellow to orange legs are distinctive. Arare rufous form is confined to Cuba. The immature is brownish above, and whitish withheavy brown streaks on the underparts. It is usually a solitary bird, and a skulking one, andcan be found by waterbodies of any size.

Green Heron - Butorides virescens (40-48 cm)

Adult Immature


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Pictorals



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“A section of Salt Creek that has been cleared and degraded.”

“Squatter house in the wetland.” “Student of CASE participating in clean-up.”

“Camilo Trench (left) taking breathe of rooted mangrove tree (left to right) Hugh Small, ......, Tracey Edwards.”


103

“The team shows it is not clamourous but it can be fun conducting mangrove survey (Turtle Crawl)(and thanks to God for helping those who went in too deep).”

“A student of CASE looking on at the garbage recentlyremoved from the mangrove forest in Salt Creek.”

“Signage erected by PEPAat Salt Creek mangrove site.”

“Piggery unit constructed on thebank of a river in Turtle Crawl.”

“American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) one of a familyof four found in the Turtle Crawl Mangrove Forest.”


References

Audrey N. Clark (1998). Penguin Dictionary of Geography, Second editon, Penguin Books Ltd © GeographicalPublications Ltd.

C. D. Woodroffe (1988). Mangroves and Sediments in Reef Environments: Indocators of Past Sea-LevelChanges, and Present Sea-Level Trends, Dept. of Geography, Unlversity of Wollongon. Vol 3, 535-539.

Craig H. Faunce, Joseph E. Serafy,( 2006). Mangroves as fish habitat: 50 years of field studies: Division ofMarine Biology and Fisheries, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, MarineEcology Progress Series. Vol. 318: 1-18.

Dirk Schories, Audrey Barletta-Bergan, Mario Barletta, Uwe Krumme, Ulf Mehlig & VerenaRademaker, (2003). The keystone Role of Leaf-removing Crabs in Mangrove Forests of North Brazil. WetlandsEcology and Management 11: 243-255.

Environment Statistics 2005 and Water. Statistical Institute of Jamaica.

Eugene H. Kaplan (1988). Southeastern and Caribbean Seashores: Peterson Field Guide. Hughton MifflinCompany, Boston New York.

Gordon Dickson & Kevin Murphy (2007). Ecosystems, Second edition, Routhledge, Taylor and Francis Group.

Ivan Valiela, Jennifer L. Bowen, and Hoanna K. York (2001); Mangrove Forests: One of the World’sThreatened Major Tropical Environments, BioScience/ Vol. 51 No. 10.

Jimmy Kazaara Tindigarukayo (2006). Challenges in Housing the Poor in Jamaica: The Case of Squatters,Sir Arthur Lewis Institute, University of the West Indies, Mona Campus.

Joseph R. Pawlik*, Steven E. McMurray, Timothy P. Henke (2007). Abiotic Factors Control Sponge Ecologyin Florida Mangroves. University of North Carolina Wilmington, Center for Marine Science. Vol. 339: 93-98.


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K. Kathiresan and B.L. Bingham (2001). Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Centre ofAdvanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, , Advances inMarine Biology VOL 40: 81-251, Biology Annamalai University.

Klaus R.tzler and Ilka C. Feller (1996) Caribbean Mangrove Swamps: Scientific American 94-99.

Klaus Rutzler, Sandra Duran2 & Carla Piantoni ( 2007). Adaptation of reef and mangrove sponges tostress:evidence for ecological speciation exemplified by Chondrilla caribensis new species(Demospongiae,Chondrosida): Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution, Marine Ecology. ISSN0173-9565, 28 (Suppl. 1), 95-111.

Manuel C. Molles Jr. (2002). Ecology: Concepts and Applications, Second edition, University of New Mexico,McGraw Hill Companies.

M. Dunlap, J.R. Pawlik (1996). Video-Monitoreed Predation by Caribbean Reef Fishes, on an Array ofMangroves and Reef Sponges. Marine Biology 126:117-123.

M. Porcher (1993). Intertropical Coastal and Coral Reef Areas and their Development: A Practrical Guide, StudyMethodologies and Technical Recommendations. France Direction de la nature et des - Ministére del’Environnement Français, Direction de la Nature.

Mona Webber (2007). Biodiversity of Jamaica Mangrove Areas: University of the West Indies, Mona.

Williams Wordsworth (2001). Wondrous West Indian Wetlands: Teachers Resource Book. Society of CaribbeanOrnithology.

Roy R. Lewis 111. Mangrove Forest Ecology, Management and Restoration. Lewis Environmental Services, Inc.

R.S.K. Barnes, K.H. Mann (1991). Foundamentals of Aquatic Ecology. Blackwell Science Ltd.



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