managing trees in scotland’s · lichens, as dry dead wood rots slower in the east than the west,...

Fron

t co

ver

imag

e: A

venu

e of

lich

en-c

over

ed w

aysi

de t

rees

in P

erth

shir

e ©

Pla

ntlif

eD

esig

n:

rjp

de

sig

n.c

o.u

k

Managing trees in Scotland’sopen habitats for lichens, bryophytes and fungi Back from the Brink Management Series

24433_HabitatLeaflet_ascophyllum leaflet 18/03/2010 16:46 Page 3

24433_HabitatLeaflet_ascophyllum leaflet 18/03/2010 16:46

This booklet will help land managers and conservationistswho manage parkland and trees in open habitats. Thesetrees are not only part of our well-loved natural andcultural heritage but provide important habitat for manyorganisms, including threatened species of internationalimportance. This booklet explores the ecology of lichens,bryophytes and fungi that grow on these trees. It looks atthreats to their survival and outlines managementrecommendations to encourage and conserve thesespecial communities.

Back from the Brink Management Series

Plantlife is the organisation that isspeaking up for the nation’s wild plants.We work hard to protect wild plants on theground and to build understanding of thevital role they play in everyone’s lives. Wildplants are essential to life – they clean ourair and water, provide food and shelter for ourinsects, birds and animals and are critical inthe fight against climate change.

Plantlife carries out practical conservationwork across Scotland, manages naturereserves, influences policy and legislation, runsevents and activities that help people discoverwild plants and works with others to promotethe conservation of wild plants for the benefitof all. HRH The Prince of Wales is our Patron.

� Lichens and moss cushions on Rowan, Whitelee, South Lanarkshire © John Douglass

Wild plants have been marginalised andtaken for granted for too long. Please help us by supporting our work.

To find out more, please visit our website orcontact us at the office below.

Plantlife ScotlandBalallan HouseAllan ParkStirlingFK8 2QGTel. 01786 478509/01786 479382

[email protected]

1


More detail is provided later on page 17

● Maintain the number of mature andveteran trees

● Ensure future habitat continuity and agood age structure

● Where natural tree regeneration is notpossible, plant new trees from local nativestock

● Maintain high levels of native trees such asoak and ash in proportion to non-natives

● Maintain grazing at a sustainable level ● Control invasive non-native scrub ● Continue any existing pollarding where

appropriate ● Leave standing and lying dead wood in situ

wherever possible● Control levels of timber collection for

firewood● Where conditions are not naturally damp,

allow vegetation to grow up immediatelyaround fallen dead wood to maintainhumidity

● Avoid sudden or dramatic changes in shadeand humidity by carrying out work such asbranch lopping of clear felling in adjacentareas in a gradual manner, perhaps overseveral years where importantcommunities of lower plants and fungi arealready established


● Explore alternative options to felling ifhealth and safety issues demand action

● Consider using Tree Preservation Orders● Consider the cultural and historical

importance of veteran trees when planningmanagement intervention of any kind

● Avoid spreading fertiliser, slurry, pesticideor herbicide within the vicinity ofimportant trees, to prevent drift

● Where arable farming or ploughing andreseeding cannot be avoided, leave a bufferzone of 5m beyond the edge of the canopy

● Take measures to reduce access whereheavy use has compacted the soil abovethe root plate

● Prevent and control fly tipping, litteringand fires in the vicinity of target trees

● Seek specialist advice from lichenologists,bryologists and mycologists if there is aproposed change in the management of animportant site

● If you are aware of the presence ofbiodiverse trees of open habitat on yourland, ensure that any contractors and landmanagers are made aware of theirimportance and vulnerability

● Ensure regular access for monitoring ismaintained

2

Summary of management recommendations for trees of open habitat

Avenue of lichen-covered wayside trees in Perthshire © Plantlife


3

What do we mean by open habitat?Trees of open habitats are defined here as treesin open wood-pasture, waysides, parklands,farmland, churchyards, orchards and gardens,where sunlight is plentiful. The lichen,bryophyte and fungi communities associatedwith trees in these open habitats are often welldeveloped and include rare and endangeredspecies of international importance.

Wood-pasture and parklandIn Scotland, wood-pasture developed overtime through the use of natural woodland aspasture, and where animal grazing limitedwoodland regeneration. In contrast,parkland is usually part of a more recent

designed landscape. A few parks date frommedieval times when sections of ancientforest were fenced into deer-parks, but mostparks date from the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries. Wood-pasture andparkland habitats exhibit a mosaic ofgrassland with large, open-canopied,spreading trees, that are isolated or in smallgroups and often associated with largeamounts of fallen or standing dead wood.Some of the best examples of old woodpasture and parkland in Scotland can beseen at Dalkeith Oakwood, Cadzow Oaks,Glenlee Park, Taymouth Castle, Glen Finglas,Rassal Ashwood, The Nest, Gannochy andDrummond Lochs.

Cadzow Oaks, Hamilton High Parks SSSI, an example of a medieval hunting park © John Douglass




4

Factors that affect bryophytes, lichensand fungi of trees in open habitats

Geographical distribution: The oceanic climate of western Britain is milderand wetter than the east. This influencesepiphytic and fungal community types.

Underlying rocks and soils: The geology of an area will affect thebryophyte, fungi and lichen communities byaffecting both tree bark chemistry (seebelow) and drainage. Sites with poordrainage and high humidity often supportgood epiphytic and fungal communities.

Tree species: Native deciduous trees including Ash, Oak, Elmand Field Maple normally provide the besthabitats for bryophytes, lichens and fungi butsome exotic conifers, for example, larch, cansupport relatively luxuriant communities oflichens even though their species diversitymay be low. Exotic broadleaved plantings suchas Sycamore, Horse Chestnut, Lime, Tulip-tree,and Walnut can also support interest.

Natural bark pH: Tree species naturally differ in bark pH,which in turn influences the communitiesthey can support. Bark pH will also varyaccording to levels and type of atmosphericpollution. Most bark is to some extentacidic. Conifer bark tends to be more acidthan deciduous bark. pH 1 is highly acidic,pH 7 is neutral and pH 14 is highly alkaline.

Wayside Ash at Whitelee, south of Glasgow© John Douglass

Orchards Old orchards can be good refuges for epiphytesand fungi, as the trees have not been subjectedto biocides or high levels of fertilisers. Orchardtrees are often pruned regularly, whichincreases their lifespan and creates particularveteran tree niche habitats ideal for somebryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornworts),lichens or fungi. Orchards are often associatedwith large estates near urban centres, such asthose in the Clyde Valley.

Wayside treesSome wayside trees may be remnants fromancient forests while others were planted forshelter-belts, pollards and timber production.These trees are either isolated individuals orgrow in small groups, rows or avenues. Theyprovide predominantly well-lit, relativelyopen habitats for lower plants and fungi andare found:

● by roads, tracks or paths ● along rivers and stream edges ● in hedgerows or fields ● beside buildings or gates● in streets and gardens ● in churchyards


Table 1. Selected tree species and theirrelative bark pH.

Tree species Bark pHPine 3.4 - 3.8Birch 3.2 - 5Oak 3.8 – 5.7Ash 5.2 – 6.6Elm 4.7 – 7.1

Taken from Orange (1994)

Ecological continuity: If ancient or veteran trees are present, theymay be remnants of ancient woodland andare therefore more likely to support rare anddiverse epiphytic and fungal species.

Dead wood: Dead wood in the form of snags (attached,dead wood and decorticate branches),exposed lignum of standing trunks, fallenbranches and trunks or old stumps provideimportant habitats for many species. If a

high number of each of these niches isavailable, the epiphytic and fungal diversityis likely to be high.

Growth form:The trunks and branches of trees in openhabitats provide relatively stable, well-litniches with differing exposures to wind andrain. Water seepage zones often contrastwith dry bark crevices and fissures. Thesmooth, young bark of twigs and smallbranches can differ greatly in their textureand therefore their moisture holdingcapacity, and even their pH when comparedwith the main trunk. Different epiphytic andfungal communities will occupy thesedifferent niches.

Threats:Trees of open habitat are susceptible to anumber of threats including pollution andover-grazing. For more detail please seepage 15.

5

Fallen logs, stumps and branches forming an important habitat for lichens, bryophytes and fungi inDalkeith Oakwood SSSI, Lothian © John Douglass


Lichen communities of trees inopen habitatsTrees of open habitats provide a uniqueenvironment for a range of lichens that thriveon relatively high levels of light and lowerlevels of humidity than is found in dampshaded woodland.

The Lobarion lichen community of largeleafy lichens including Lobaria, Nephromaand Pannaria species is best developed innorth-western Scotland in ancient woodpasture and parks. See Plantlife Lichens ofAtlantic Woodland guide 1 for help withidentification.

The drier climate of eastern Scotland suitsthe Calicion lichen community of Pin-headlichens, as dry dead wood rots slower in theeast than the west, allowing more time forthis community to develop. The Calicioncommunity is often found in dry crevices,fissures and sheltered overhangs on deadwood and bark of mature and ancient trees.See Plantlife’s Lichens of Scottish pinewoodsguide 2 for some extra information.

Old stumps, snags and dead wood in the eastand west can support communities ofMatchstick and Pixie-cup (Cladonia) speciestogether with Dog-tooth (Peltigera) lichens.

The Xanthorion community with thecharacteristic yellow Xanthoria and greyPhyscia species occurs on nutrient enrichedbark in well-lit situations. This communitycontains a number of rare species includingAnaptychia ciliaris subs. ciliaris and the

Textured Lungwort (Lobaria scrobiculata), a species found in ancient wood pasture andparkland in north western Scotland

Pin-head Lichen (Calicium viride) (x20magnification) found in dry crevices and shelteredbark of trees in open habitats

� Sea-storm Lichen (Cetrelia olivetorum), a leafylichen of broadleaved trees along burns and rivers,mainly in the west


Powdery Sunburst Lichen (Xanthoriaulophyllodes). Common species of theXanthorion community are increasing theirrange through the widespread application ofnitrogen based fertilisers. However, whenconditions become hyper-eutrophic even theXanthorion community dies off and greenalgae can dominate the bark. Species fromacid bark communities which require non-nutrient enriched substrates such asHypogymnia species, are now in markeddecline in nutrient enriched areas.

The ‘Matchstick’ Lichen (Cladonia floerkeana)growing on a fallen log

Monk’s Hood Lichen (Hypogymnia physodes) – aspecies of acid barked trees and now in decline innutrient enriched areasAll images on this spread © John Douglass

Wall Lichen (Xanthoria parietina) and FringedRosette Lichen (Physcia tenella), members of theXanthorion community of nutrient enriched bark

Green algae indicating nutrient enrichment.


Other common lichens occurring on trees inopen habitats include crustose Lecanora,Lecidella and Pertusaria species; leafyMelanelixia, Melanohalea, Parmelia andPhysconia species and shrubby Evernia,Ramalina and Usnea species all of which arefound throughout Scotland.

The crustose Orange Fruited Elm Lichen(Caloplaca luteoalba) and Sap-groove Lichen(Bacidia incompta) together with the leafyPleurosticta acetabulum are now rare, owingto the loss of their main host tree, the Elm, toDutch Elm Disease in many areas. Thesespecies survive in much reduced numbers onremaining Elms and on Sycamore, FieldMaple and Ash.

8

Typical lichen trunk community of broadleaved trees in open habitats including the crustose speciesBitter Wart Lichen (Pertusaria amara), Pertusaria albescens and the fruticose species Oakmoss Lichen(Evernia prunastri) and Dotted Ramalina (Ramalina farinacea)

Melanohalea exasperata occurs on twigs andbranches of broadleaved trees in open habitatsmostly in western Scotland

� Ramalina calicaris is a shrubby species of treesin open habitats, often near the coast All images on this spread © John Douglass


9

The Pepper Pot Lichen (Pertusaria pertusa) acommon crustose lichen of open habitats

Hammered Shield Lichen (Parmelia sulcata) acommon leafy lichen of open habitats

A large colony of Orange Fruited Elm Lichen(Caloplaca luteoalba) mostly on the exposedlignum of a damaged wayside Sycamore. Thesedamaged trees may be targeted for removal bylocal councils if they are considered unsafe

Physconia distorta is a common leafy lichen ofopen habitats

Orange Fruited Elm Lichen (Caloplaca luteoalba)is a UKBAP species that has suffered a markeddecline due to the death of Elm trees throughDutch Elm Disease

Pleurosticta acetabulum is a rare leafy species ofwayside and parkland trees in eastern andcentral Scotland


Bryophyte communities of trees in open habitatsBryophytes are common on parkland andwayside trees in Scotland, often with a greatluxuriance in the oceanic west but a greaterdiversity in the drier east. In the west, muchof the bryophyte cover on acid-barked treeswill be of common woodland species likeDilated Scalewort (Frullania dilatata),Tamarisk Scalewort (Frullania tamarisci),Cypress-leaved Plait-moss (Hypnumcupressiforme), Slender Mouse-tail Moss(Isothecium myosuroides var.myosuroides)and Broom Fork-moss (Dicranum scoparium).On the trees with less acidic bark the varietyof species increases, often with the additionof carpets of Silky Wall Feather-moss(Homalothecium sericeum) and LargerMouse-tail Moss (Isothecium alopecuroides)on trunk and branches, and cushions ofPincushion mosses (Ulota spp), Yoke mosses(Zygodon spp.), Wood Bristle-moss(Orthotrichum affine) and Smooth Bristle-moss (Orthotrichum striatum). This morediverse community is usually limited to a fewtrees and in the most oceanic areas the morecommon species tend to prevail, giving arobust but not very diverse flora.

In the drier conditions further east inScotland, similar communities occur but theyare usually less luxuriant and may includeother species. Again it is the trees with morebasic bark that support much more diversecommunities. Two fine epiphytes morefrequent in the east are Pendulous Wing-moss (Antitrichia curtipendula) and Squirrel-tail Moss (Leucodon sciuroides) which canfestoon trunk and limbs on Ash, Elm andSycamore. There is also a greater variety ofcushion forming mosses with Lyell’s Bristle-moss (Orthotrichum lyellii), Straw Bristle-moss (Orthotrichum stramineum), ElegantBristle-moss (Orthotrichum pulchellum),Syntrichia laevipila and Syntrichia papillosaall locally common and the nationally scarceShowy Bristle-moss (Orthotrichumspeciosum) can be frequent, particularly onAspen. In this more ‘continental’ climate,some rare species also occur with records forBlunt-leaved Bristle-moss (Orthotrichumobtusifolium), Aspen Bristle-moss(Orthotrichum gymnostomum), which is onlyfound on Aspen, Pale Bristle-moss(Orthotrichum pallens), Dwarf Bristle-moss(Orthotrichum pumilum) and the tiny, mat-forming Lesser Squirrel-tail Moss (Habrodon


10

Dilated Scalewort (Frullania dilatata), a commonepiphytic liverwort

Squirrel-tail Moss (Leucodon sciuroides), ahandsome and robust moss of base-rich bark inthe east


11

Blunt-leaved Bristle-moss (Orthotrichumobtusifolium), a rare moss with a handful of sitesin parkland in eastern Scotland

Ulota bruchii, a common epiphytic moss

perpusillus), all of which are UKBAP species.It is likely that some, if not all of these rarerspecies, are under-recorded in this neglectedhabitat but all are of conservation concern,particularly since habitat loss, especially thedemise of the Elms, has removed so manyhost trees. If parkland or wayside trees have

a lot of small cushions of mosses scatteredover much of the trunk, it is probable that thetree will have at least a local importance.

Old Sycamore at Leith Hall with Blunt-leavedBristle-moss (Orthotrichum obtusifolium)All images this spread © Gordon Rothero


Fungal communities of trees in open habitatsMuch of what we know about the distributionand ecology of fungi is based on observationsof the fruiting bodies only. Fruiting bodiesproduce spores and are the means by whichfungi reproduce sexually. Knowing where andwhy these organisms fruit is important, forexample in understanding how the fungimight respond and adapt to managementpractices and to predicted climate changes.The mycelium does not, however, always fruitregularly and there will undoubtedly besurprises ahead with regard to fungaldistribution and ecology as modern molecularstudies begin to survey mycelia more closely.

Alongside species that are a part of a broaderwoodland mycota, there are some fungi thatare so far only known to fruit on, or inassociation with, the trees of open habitats inScotland. This preference may be connectedwith the age that these trees often achieve;veteran trees are a reflection of long termecological continuity and it seems that somefungi need this before they are able to developfully. It may also be connected to the opennature of this habitat where for instance, deadwood becomes much drier than in a moreenclosed woodland situation. Dry wood decays

slowly because many of the more commonfungi wood rotters are not able to function.This may leave the way open for slow growing,non-competitive species that can function inthe difficult conditions of dry heartwood.

Oak Polypore (Piptoporus quercinus), withonly one known site in Scotland in Dumfries& Galloway, grows exclusively on the deadwood of either living or dead standingveteran Oak trees, causing a brown rot.Research suggests that this is a slow growingspecies that is not particularly competitivewith other wood decomposing fungi andwhich thrives in the low pH of oak heartwood.Oak Polypore fruits in early summer betweenJune and August. Records of this specieswould be very welcome (please see contactinformation on page 20).

Chicken Of The Woods (Laetiporussulphurous) is a species commonly found onveteran oaks, but also on a range of othertree species. It is another heart rottingspecies and young fruit bodies could beconfused with the Oak Polypore.

Mature Ash trees can often be seen with thelarge and coarsely hairy-topped brackets of theShaggy Bracket (Inonotus hispidus), usually


12

Chicken Of The Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus)© Nev Kilkenny

Shaggy Bracket (Inonotus hispidus) © Nev Kilkenny


growing high up on the trunk. This fungus cancause the death of healthy sapwood, causingcavity rot and, in some circumstances, thefailure of the branch or trunk.

Dryad’s Saddle (Polyporus squamosus) isanother large and distinctive bracket thatoccurs on several hosts, but often onSycamore. Its yellowish brown, scaly-topped

brackets are very distinctive and provide animportant habitat for invertebrates.

Old orchards provide a habitat where, becauseof traditional management, apple trees havebeen able to reach a considerable age. Where

Oak Polypore (Piptoporus quercinus) © Stuart Skeates

Dryad’s Saddle (Polyporus squamosus) © Nev Kilkenny

13


these trees are allowed to develop knotholesor hollow limbs, Orchard Toothcrust(Sarcodontia crocea) will sometimes fruit. It isa particularly distinctive encrusting funguswith its bright colour, waxy teeth and astrong, sweet smell.

The presence of wood rotting fungi is notnecessarily a sign of ill health in a tree. Thehollowing out of the already dead heartwoodcan actually make a tree more able to


withstand wind throw – a hollow tube beingmore resilient than a solid one. In addition,fungal decay in different parts of the treecreates a range of niche habitats that are usedby other organisms including some lichens,bryophytes, invertebrates, birds and mammals.

Most of the trees in this habitat will begrowing with a symbiotic (mycorrhizal) fungalpartner linking onto their roots andexchanging nutrients in a manner beneficialto both organisms. These fungi fruit in thesurrounding soil rather than on the wood itself.

Rooting Bolete (Boletus radicans) is consideredto be a fungus of parklands, usually with well-drained, rather calcareous soils and growingwith Oak, Beech and Lime. Typical of warmersites, this species was unknown in Scotlanduntil 2004, but has now been found at tworoadside locations with mature Oak. Thisspecies is definitely one to look out for.

Orchard Toothcrust (Sarcodontia crocea) © Malcolm Storey

Rooting Bolete (Boletus radicans) © Liz Holden

14


Threats to lichens, bryophytes andfungi of trees in open habitats

Tree and woodland management● Fragmentation, and even complete loss of

habitat, caused by a lack of treeregeneration and replacement

● Over-zealous felling and removal of hosttrees

● Clear felling, which dramatically reduceshumidity levels

● Invasion by non-native shrubs and treesincluding Rhododendron ponticum andLaurel

● Removal of dead wood from either thestanding tree or the ground

● Tree diseases such as Dutch Elm Disease,Ash canker, or Oak and Alder die-back

● Lack of awareness amongst land managersand conservation staff of the habitatrequirements, ecology and identificationof lichens, bryophytes and fungi

Land management, farming and pollution● Damage or loss of trees from works

including road expansion projects,ditching, paving, lawn mowing,strimming, building or vandalism

● Acid rain from sulphur dioxide and nitrousoxide pollution continuing to change barkpH, affecting epiphytic communities. Acid rain, where it falls, makes tree barkmore acidic, and can destroy rich epiphyticcommunities. This is now less of a threatas power stations ‘scrub out’ these oxidesat source, but many parkland epiphyticand fungal communities have sufferedfrom high levels of pollution in the pastand remain impoverished.

● Use of chemical herbicides and pesticidesaround the host tree

● Eutrophication from fertilisers, slurry andanimal faeces, dust particles and mud whichlimit the range of species which can survive More than 20% cover of algal growth on treesis an indication of hyper-eutrophication.

● Deep ploughing and re-seeding, which candamage tree roots, mycorrhizal fungi andaffect local humidity levels

● Compaction of soil by cattle or machinery,which can affect the ability of the treesroots to uptake water and damagemycorrhizal associations

● Inappropriate changes to site drainage.


15

Slurry spraying increases nutrient levels in thelocal vicinity favouring the yellow Xanthorionlichen community. © Alan Bannister


Threats related specifically to grazing: ● Regenerating shrubs, trees and/or ivy

through lack or loss of grazing willincrease humidity and can shade outepiphytic species if a closed canopywoodland is allowed to develop.

● Bark rubbing by grazing animals candislodge epiphytes and fungal fruit bodies.However bark with seepage tracks andexposed lignum, produced by some barkrubbing, can also be ideal habitat for therare lichens Caloplaca luteoalba (OrangeFruited Elm Lichen), Caloplaca ulcerosaand Sap-groove Lichen (Bacidia incompta).

● Excessive grazing, which prevents naturalregeneration of host trees nearby.

What you can do to find out more aboutlichens, bryophytes or fungi on trees inopen habitats that you manage

● Photograph the species present and writea description of your observations,habitat, and grid reference and contactPlantlife or a specialist for furtherassistance. If the species cannot beidentified this way, a small amount ofcollecting may be necessary. Collectionof species of conservation concern shouldbe kept to the minimum necessary toestablish identification. Collection of anyspecies listed on Schedule 8 of theWildlife & Countryside Act (1981) e.g. OakPolypore (Piptoporus quercinus) willrequire a government licence.

● Use your observations to assess the treesfor the diversity of the epiphytes and fungiassociated with them. For more information

16

Ivy on wayside trees will kill off lichenand bryophyte interest by shading outlight. © John Douglass


go to www.plantlife.org.uk. If you thinkyou have an interesting and richcommunity, contact Plantlife or a specialistconsultant.

● Refer to the management guidelines belowif interventions are proposed for the site.

● Pass on any records of the species toPlantlife and your local Scottish NaturalHeritage office.

How you can help the lichens,bryophytes and fungi of trees in openhabitats

● Maintain the number of mature andveteran trees.

● Ensure future habitat continuity and agood age structure by enabling somenatural regeneration of native trees; onlysmall numbers of seedlings every decadeare required to achieve a diverse, longterm age structure.

● Where natural tree regeneration is notpossible, plant new trees from local nativestock such as Oak, Ash and Field Maple.Provide adequate protection from grazingfor new planting. Only small numbers needto be planted so fencing costs need not beonerous. A canopy cover of between 20%to a maximum of 50% is desirable.

● Maintain high levels of native trees such asOak and Ash in proportion to non-natives.

● Maintain grazing at a sustainable level -low enough to reduce negative effectssuch as trunk abrasion and groundpoaching and to allow for someregeneration of the host trees nearby, buthigh enough to prevent excessive treeregeneration and the development ofclosed canopy woodland.

● Control invasive non-native scrub,

including Rhododendron ponticum andSnowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), whichcan shade tree boles. Suitable techniquescan be indentified in Long and Williams(2007).

● Continue any existing pollarding, whereappropriate, and as long as the trees inquestion can sustain such management.If in doubt seek specialist advice, forexample by contacting your local ScottishNatural Heritage office.

● Leave standing and lying dead wood insitu wherever possible. There are manytechniques discussed in the literature thatcan enhance the attractiveness of deadwood for target species (e.g. Humphrey etal, 2002 and Read, 2000). Which of thesewould be appropriate in particularsituations will depend on location and treespecies present. If in doubt, seekspecialist advice as above.

● Control levels of timber collection forfirewood, both in terms of felling for thispurpose as well as the collection of deadwood.

● Where conditions are not naturally damp,allow vegetation to grow up immediatelyaround fallen dead wood to maintainhumidity.

● Avoid sudden or dramatic changes inshade and humidity by carrying out work,such as branch lopping or clear felling inadjacent areas, in a gradual manner,perhaps over several years, whereimportant communities of lower plantsand fungi are already established. Thisincludes work to control invasive trees andscrub and removing trees that are infillingwood pasture.

● Explore alternative options to felling ifhealth and safety issues demand action.


17


For example, if a limb has becomeunstable, its removal can be just aseffective as felling the entire tree, and thehabitat remains intact.

● Consider using Tree Preservation Orders,where they are not already in place as ameans of protecting trees from being felled.

● Consider the cultural and historicalimportance of veteran trees when planningmanagement intervention of any kind.

● Avoid spreading fertiliser, slurry, pesticideor herbicide within the vicinity ofimportant trees, to prevent drift. Trunks,branches and twigs should not carry morethan 20% cover of algal growth, which isan indication of hyper-eutrophication.

● Where arable farming or ploughing andreseeding cannot be avoided, leave abuffer zone of 5m beyond the edge of thecanopy (Read 2000). This will help to

avoid damage to tree roots and theirmycorrhizal fungal associates.

● Take measures to reduce access whereheavy use has compacted the soil abovethe root plate. This could include fencingand mulching of affected areas.

● Prevent and control fly tipping, litteringand fires in the vicinity of target trees.

● Specialist advice from lichenologists,bryologists and mycologists should besought if there is a proposed change inthe management of an important site.

● If you are aware of the presence of thesespecies on your land, ensure that anycontractors and land managers are madeaware of their importance and vulnerability.

● Ensure regular access for monitoring ismaintained. Remember Plantlife’s FloraGuardian programme could be used toconduct regular monitoring.


18

Corral protecting several oak recruits, Dalkeith Oakwood SSSI, Lothian © John Douglass


This leaflet was written for PlantlifeScotland by lichenologist John Douglass,bryologist Gordon Rothero andmycologist Liz Holden.

Recommended texts and references

Church, J.M. Coppins B.J. Gilbert O.L, JamesP.W, Stewart N.F. (1996) Red Data Books ofBritain and Ireland: Lichens, Volume 1:Britain. JNCC.

Fletcher, A. (ed) (2001). Lichen HabitatManagement. British Lichen Society andCountryside Council for Wales. Chapter 6:Parkland lichens and management by F.Rose; Chapter 7, Wayside trees, hedgerowsand shrubs by A.M. Coppins.

Gilbert, O. (2000). Lichens. Collins NewNaturalist series. Harper Collins London.

Hansen, L. & Knudsen, H. (Editors) (1997)Nordic Macromycetes Vol. 3 (Heterobasidioid,Aphyllophoroid and Gastromycetoidbasidiomycetes) Nordsvamp.

Holl, K. (2002). Ancient Wood Pasture inScotland: Classification and ManagementPrinciples. Report Number F01AA108.Scottish Natural Heritage.

Humphrey, J., Stevenson, A., Whitfiled, P. &Swailes, J. (2002) Life in the deadwood. ForestEnterprise – Environment andCommunications, Edinburgh

Long, D., and Williams, J. (2007)Rhododendron ponticum: impact on lowerplants and fungi communities on the westcoast of Scotland. Plantlife.

Lonsdale, D. (1999) Principles of tree hazardassessment and management. No.7 Researchfor amenity trees. TSO (The Stationery Office)

Orange, A. (1994). Lichens on Trees. A guideto some of the commoner species. BritishPlant Life, Number 3. National Museum ofWales, Cardiff.

Plantlife (2008) Lichen guides. Lichens ofAtlantic Woodlands. Guide 1: Lichens on ash,hazel, willow rowan and old oak. Guide 2:Lichens on birch, alder and oak Plantlife,Salisbury.

Plantlife (2009) Lichen guides. Lichens ofScottish Pinewoods. Guide 1: leafy andscrubby lichens on pine, birch, alder anddeadwood. Guide 2: Crustose and scalylichens on pine, birch and alder, and lichenson trees with less acidic bark

Read, H. (2000). Veteran Trees: a guide togood management. English Nature,Peterborough.

Spooner, B. & Roberts, P. (2005). Fungi. InNew Naturalist Library, Collins.

Smith, C.W., Aptroot, A., Coppins, B.J.,Fletcher, A., Gilbert, O.L., James, P.W. &Wolseley, P.A. (2009). The Lichen Flora of theGreat Britain and Ireland Natural BritishLichen Society.

Smout, T.C. & MacDonald, A.R. (2007). AHistory of the Native Woodlands in Scotland.Edinburgh University Press.

Stiven, R (2009) Management of ancientwood pasture. Forestry Commission Scotland.


19


Stiven, S. & Holl, K. (2004). Wood Pasture.Scottish Natural Heritage.

Watling, R. & Hills, A.E. (2005). Boletes andtheir allies. British Fungus Flora Vol. 1 revisedand enlarged edition. Royal Botanic GardenEdinburgh.

Websites

www.bls.org.uk The British Lichen Society(BLS) has information on all aspects oflichenology and includes details of otherpublications, courses and web links.

www.britishbryologicalsociety.org.uk TheBritish Bryological Society exists to promotethe study of mosses and liverworts. With afull programme of events and publicationsthere is something for everyone interested inlearning about bryophytes.

www.britmycolsoc.org.uk The BritishMycological Society has information on allaspects of mycology and can put you intouch with local fungal recording groups.

www.field-studies-council.org/kindroganThe Field Studies Council centre at Kindroganruns a range of relevant courses.

www.forestry.gov.uk For information ondealing with invasive non-native plantspecies see the Forestry Commission PracticeGuides for example ‘Managing andcontrolling invasive rhododendron’ by ColinEdwards (2006).

www.ukbap.org.uk Habitat Action Plan forLowland wood-pasture and parkland.

www.uklichens.co.uk The UK lichenswebsite has useful photos of UK species.

www.tech.groups.yahoo.com/scottish_lichenology/join. Scottish Lichenology yahoogroup. This is a discussion group, which cananswer questions on all aspects ofLichenology.

www.nwdg.org.uk The Native WoodlandDiscussion Group (NWDG) runs courses onbryophytes, fungi and lichens.

Contacts for advice and furtherinformation

For help with reporting or identifying lichens,bryophytes and fungi contact:

Plantlife ScotlandBalallan HouseAllan ParkStirlingFK8 2QG

Tel. 01786 478509 / 01786 [email protected] www.plantlife.org.uk

Scottish Natural HeritageDr. David Genney, Policy & Advice Officer –Bryophytes, Fungi and [email protected]


20

� Dryad’s Saddle (Polyporus squamosus)© Nev Kilkenny



21


Fron

t co

ver

imag

e: A

venu

e of

lich

en-c

over

ed w

aysi

de t

rees

in P

erth

shir

e ©

Pla

ntlif

eD

esig

n:

rjp

de

sig

n.c

o.u

k

www.plantlife.org.uk [email protected]

Plantlife – speaking up for the nation’s wild plantsPlantlife Scotland

Balallan House, Allan Park, Stirling FK8 2QGTel. 01786 478509

ISBN 978-1-907141-15-7 © February 2010

Plantlife International – The Wild Plant Conservation Charity is a charitable company limited by guarantee.Registered Charity Number: 1059559 Registered Company Number: 3166339. Registered in England

Charity registered in Scotland no. SC038951

Chrysothrix candelaris, (yellow streaks on trees), Castle Fraser © John Douglass

British Lichen Society


managing trees in scotland’s · lichens, as dry dead wood rots slower in the east than the west,...

Documents