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Pneuma

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the philosophical concept. For other uses, see Pneuma (disambiguation).Pneuma (πνεῦμα) is an ancient Greek word for "breath," and in a religious context for "spirit" or "soul."[1][2] It has various technical meanings for medical writers and philosophers of classical antiquity, particularly in regard to physiology, and is also used in Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible and in the Greek New Testament. In classical philosophy, it is distinguishable from psyche (ψυχή), which originally meant "breath of life", but is regularly translated as "spirit" or most often "soul".[3]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Classical antiquityo 1.1 Presocraticso 1.2 Ancient Greek medical theoryo 1.3 Aristotleo 1.4 Stoic pneuma

2 Judaism and Christianity 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

Classical antiquity[edit]Presocratics[edit]

Pneuma, "air in motion, breath, wind," is equivalent in the material monism of Anaximenes to aer (ἀήρ, "air") as the element from which all else originated. This usage is the earliest extant occurrence of the term in philosophy.[4] A quotation from Anaximenes observes that "just as our soul (psyche), being air (aer), holds us together, so do breath (pneuma) and air (aer) encompass the whole world." In this early usage, aer and pneuma are synonymous.[5]

Ancient Greek medical theory[edit]See also: Pneumatic schoolIn ancient Greek medicine, pneuma is the form of circulating air necessary for the systemic functioning of vital organs. It is the material that sustains consciousness in a body. According to Diocles and Praxagoras, the psychic pneuma mediates between the heart, regarded as the seat of Mind in some physiological theories of ancient medicine, and the brain.[6]

The disciples of Hippocrates explained the maintenance of vital heat to be the function of the breath within the organism. Around 300 BC, Praxagoras discovered the distinction between the arteries and the veins. In the corpse arteries are empty; hence, in the light of these preconceptions they were declared to be vessels for conveying pneuma to the different parts of the body. A generation afterwards, Erasistratus made this the basis of a new theory of diseases and their treatment. Thepneuma, inhaled from the outside air, rushes through the arteries till it reaches the various centres, especially the brain and the heart, and there causes thought and organic movement.[7]

Aristotle[edit]See also: Spontaneous generation#Aristotle and On BreathThe "connate pneuma" of Aristotle is the warm mobile "air" that in the sperm transmits the capacity for locomotion and certain sensations to the offspring. These movements derive from the soul of the parent and are embodied by the pneuma as a material substance in semen. Pneuma is necessary for life, and as in medical theory is involved with the "vital heat," but the Aristotelian pneuma is less precisely and thoroughly defined than that of the Stoics.[3]

Stoic pneuma[edit]Main article: Pneuma (Stoic)In Stoic philosophy, pneuma is the concept of the "breath of life," a mixture of the elements air (in motion) and fire (as warmth).[8] For the Stoics, pneuma is the active, generative principle that organizes both the individual and the cosmos.[9] In its highest form, pneuma constitutes the human soul (psychê), which is a fragment of the pneuma that is the soul of God (Zeus). As a force that structures matter, it exists even in inanimate objects.[10]

Judaism and Christianity[edit]See also: Soul in the Bible

This section requires expansion. (July 2011)

In Judaic and Christian usage, pneuma is a common word for "spirit" in the Septuagint and the Greek New Testament. At John 3:5, for example, pneuma is the Greek word translated into English as "spirit": "Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit (pneuma), he cannot enter into the kingdom of God."See also[edit]

The Pneumatic or "spiritual human" of Gnosticism

The concept of Christian pneumatology Pneuma akatharton, unclean spirit Pneuma (journal), subtitled "The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal

Studies"References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Entry πνεῦμα, in Liddell-Scott-Jones, A Greek–English Lexicon, online version.

2. Jump up^ See pp.190, 195, 205 of François, Alexandre (2008), "Semantic maps and the typology of colexification: Intertwining polysemous networks across languages", in Vanhove, Martine, From Polysemy to Semantic change: Towards a Typology of Lexical Semantic Associations, Studies in Language Companion Series 106, Amsterdam, New York: Benjamins, pp. 163–215.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b Furley, D.J. (1999). From Aristotle to Augustine. History of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-06002-8. LCCN 98008543.

4. Jump up^ Silvia Benso, "The Breathing of the Air: Presocratic Echoes in Levinas," in Levinas and the Ancients (Indiana University Press, 2008), p. 13.

5. Jump up^ Benso, "The Breathing of the Air," p. 14.6. Jump up^ Philip J. van der Eijk, "The Heart, the Brain, the Blood and

the pneuma: Hippocrates, Diocles and Aristotle on the Location of Cognitive Processes," in Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease (Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 131–132 et passim. ISBN 0-521-81800-1

7. Jump up^   One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: R.D. (1911). "Hicks, Stoics". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press

8. Jump up^ "Stoicism," Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Taylor & Francis, 1998), p. 145.

9. Jump up^ David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics," The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 388.

10.Jump up^ John Sellars, Stoicism (University of California Press, 2006), pp. 98-104.

External links[edit]  The dictionary definition of pneuma at Wiktionary

Psyche (psychology)

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In psychology, the psyche /ˈsaɪki/ is the totality of the human mind, conscious, and unconscious. Psychology is the scientific or objective study of the psyche. The word has a long history of use in psychologyand philosophy, dating back to ancient times, and has been one of the fundamental concepts for understanding human nature from a scientific point of view. The English word soul is sometimes used synonymously, especially in older texts.[1]

Contents  [hide] 

1 Etymology 2 Ancient psychology 3 Medieval psychology 4 Phenomenology 5 Psychoanalysis

o 5.1 Freudian schoolo 5.2 Jungian school

6 Cognitive psychology 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading

Etymology[edit]The basic meaning of the Greek word ψυχή (psūkhē) was "life" in the sense of "breath", formed from the verb ψύχω (psukhō, "to blow"). Derived meanings included "spirit", "soul", "ghost", and ultimately "self" in the sense of "conscious personality" or "psyche".[2][3]

Ancient psychology[edit]This section requires expansion. (June 2011)

The idea of the Psyche is central to the philosophy of Plato. In his Phaedo, Plato has Socrates give four arguments for the immortality of the soul and life after death following the separation of the soul from the body.[4] Plato's Socrates also states that after death the Psyche is better able to achieve wisdom and experience the Platonic forms since it is unhindered by the body.[5]

The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote an influential treatise on the psyche, called in Greek Περὶ Ψυχῆς (Perì Psūchês), in Latin De Anima and in English On the Soul. Aristotle's theory of the "three souls (psyches)" (vegetal, animal, and rational) would rule the field of psychology until the 19th century. Prior to Aristotle, a number of Greek writings used the term psyche in a less precise sense.[6] In late antiquity, Galenic medicine developed the idea of three "spirits" (pneuma) corresponding to Aristotle's three souls. The pneuma psychikon corresponded to the

rational soul. The other two pneuma were the pneuma physicon and the pneuma zoticon.Medieval psychology[edit]

This section requires expansion. (June 2011)

The term psyche was Latinized to anima, which became one of the basic terms used in medieval psychology. Anima would have traditionally been rendered in English as "soul" but in modern usage the term "psyche" is preferable.[7]

Phenomenology[edit]This section requires expansion. (June 2011)

19th century psychologists such as Franz Brentano developed the concept of the psyche in a more subjective direction.Psychoanalysis[edit]In psychoanalysis and other forms of depth psychology, the psyche refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, behavior and personality.[8]

Freudian school[edit]Main article: Id, ego, and super-egoSigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, believed that the psyche --- he used the word Seele throughout his writings --- was composed of three components:[9]

The id, which represents the instinctual drives of an individual and remains largely unconscious.

The super-ego, which represents a person's conscience and their internalization of societal norms and morality.

The ego, which is conscious and serves to integrate the drives of the id with the prohibitions of the super-ego. Freud believed this conflict to be at the heart of neurosis.

Jungian school [edit]Carl Jung wrote much of his work in German. Difficulties for translation arise because the German word Seele means both psyche and soul. Jung was careful to define what he meant by psyche and by soul.I have been compelled, in my investigations into the structure of the unconscious, to make a conceptual distinction between soul and psyche. By psyche, I understand the totality of all psychic processes, conscious as well as unconscious. By soul, on the other hand, I understand a clearly demarcated functional complex that can best be described as a "personality". (Jung, 1971: Def. 48 par. 797)[The translation of the German word Seele presents almost insuperable difficulties on account of the lack of a single English equivalent and because it combines the two words "psyche" and "soul" in a way not altogether familiar to the English reader. For this reason some comment by the Editors will not be out of place.][In previous translations, and in this one as well, psyche– for which Jung in the German original uses either Psyche or Seele– has been used with reference to the totality of all psychic processes (cf. Jung, Psychological Types, Def. 48); i.e., it is a comprehensive term. Soul, on the other hand, as used in the technical terminology of analytical psychology, is more restricted in meaning and refers to a "function complex" or partial personality and never to the whole psyche. It is often applied specifically to "anima" and "animus"; e.g., in this connection it is used in the

composite word "soul-image" (Seelenbild). This conception of the soul is more primitive than the Christian one with which the reader is likely to be more familiar. In its Christian context it refers to "the transcendental energy in man" and "the spiritual part of man considered in its moral aspect or in relation to God." . . . –Editors.] (Jung, 1968: note 2 par. 9)Cognitive psychology[edit]

This section requires expansion. (June 2011)

In recent decades cognitive psychology has replaced psychoanalysis as the dominant school of psychology in academic centres. The word "mind" is preferred by cognitive scientists to "psyche".See also[edit]

Consciousness Ego death Human spirit Inscape (art) Mind Motivation Nafs Persona Persona (psychology) Reincarnation Soul Psychosis

Notes[edit]1. Jump up^ Hillman J (T Moore, Ed.) (1989). A blue fire: Selected

writings by James Hillman. New York, NY, USA: HarperPerennial. p. 20.2. Jump up^ Henry George Liddell and Ridley Scott, A Greek-English

Lexicon entry "psyche".3. Jump up^ See p.187-197, 204 of François, Alexandre

(2008), "Semantic maps and the typology of colexification: Intertwining polysemous networks across languages", in Vanhove, Martine, From Polysemy to Semantic change: Towards a Typology of Lexical Semantic Associations, Studies in Language Companion Series 106, Amsterdam, New York: Benjamins, pp. 163–215.

4. Jump up^ Plato, Phaedo 69e-84b.5. Jump up^ Plato, Phaedo 59c-69e6. Jump up^ Cf. Rohde, Psyche, Chapters I and VII. Also see the myth

of Eros and Psyche, where Psyche was the embodiment of the soul.7. Jump up^ Simon Kemp, Medieval Psychology; Simon Kemp, Cognitive

Psychology in the Middle Ages; Anthony Kenny Aquinas on Mind.8. Jump up^ Cf. Reed, Edward S., on the narrowing of the study of the

psyche into the study of the mind.9. Jump up^ Reber, Arthur S.; Reber, Emily S. (2001). Dictionary of

Psychology. New York: Penguin Reference. ISBN 0-14-051451-1.References[edit]

Jung, C.G. (1968). Psychology and Alchemy, Collected Works, Volume 12, Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01831-6 OCLC 219856.

Jung, C.G. (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.

Reed, Edward S., From Soul to Mind: The Emergence of Psychology, from Erasmus Darwin to William James, Yale University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-300-07581-2

Rohde, Erwin, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-22563-9

Further reading[edit] Valsiner, Jaan; Rosa, Alberto, The Cambridge Handbook of Sociocultural

Psychology, Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-85410-5. Cf. Chapter 1, p. 23, "The Myth and Beyond: Ontology of Psyche and Epistemology of Psychology".

Wilson, Robert Andrew; Keil, Frank C., The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences, MIT Press, 2001. ISBN 0-262-73144-4

Snow, P.J., The Human Psyche In Love War and Enlightenment [1] December 2009 ISBN 978-1-921555-42-8