The Latin Pseudo-Aristotle and Medieval Occult ScienceAuthor(s): Lynn ThorndikeSource: The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr., 1922), pp. 229-258Published by: University of Illinois PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27702640 .Accessed: 09/10/2014 12:23Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. .University of Illinois Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journalof English and Germanic Philology.http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTHELATINPSEUDO-ARISTOTLEANDMEDIEVAL OCCULTSCIENCE TheimmenseinfluenceofAristotle upon medieval learning has long been recognized, andsometimes undulyemphasized. The tendency to speak ofitin sweepinggeneralities hasbeen largely duetoalackofdetailedresearchonthe subject based upon themedieval manuscripts themselves. Take, for example, themedievalLatintranslationsoftheworksofAristotle gener ally receivedas genuine. The onlyinvestigation ofthe problem asawholeisthatof Jourdain madea centuryago and now quite inadequate.1 Sincethenthetranslationsoftwoorthreeindivid ualworkshavebeen separatelyinvestigated,2 buttherecent workof Grabmann,3 whilemore general in scope, omitsthe twelfth centuryentirely andisinthemaina disappointing compilation. Ifso littlerealattentionhasbeen given totrans lationsofthe genuine worksof Aristotle, stilllesshavethe writings ofthePseudo-Aristotlebeen satisfactorilyinvestigated and surveyed.4 InthisarticleI propose to give someaccount? based chiefly upon themedieval manuscriptsthemselves, although insomecasestheworkshavebeen printed in early editions?ofthoseworksofthePseudo-Aristotlewhichdeal withnaturalandmore especially occultscience.Itisthesethat aremost closely connectedwiththeAlexander legend andfrom whichthevernacularliterature on Alexanderdoubtlessborrowed 1 Amable Jourdain, Recherches critiques sur Vage et Vorigine destraductions latines d'Aristote,Paris,1819; 2nd edition, 1843. 2 SuchasP. Duhem, "Du temps o?la scolastique latineaconnula physi qued'Aristote," in Revuede philosophie,(1909)pp.163-78; andC.H. Haskins, ''MedievalVersionsofthePosterior Analytics," in HarvardStudiesinClassical Philology, XXV (1914) pp. 87-105. 3 Martin Grabmann,Forschungen ?berdielateinischenAristoteles-Ueher set' zungen desXIII Jahrhunderts,M?nster, 1916.He gives butthree pages tothe Pseudo-Aristotle. 4 TheworksofV. Rose, Aristoteles Psendepigraphus andDeor dineetaue toritatelibrorum Aristotelis; Munk's article, "Aristote"inLaFrance litt?raire; Schwab,Bibliographied'Aristote,Paris,1896; R. Shute,Historyof theAris totelian Writings,Oxford,1888; are largely limitedto antiquity andinsofar as they dealwiththePseudo-Aristotleat all,scarcely reachthemiddle ages. 229 This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions230Thorndike someofitsstories.5Itisindeed very difficultto distinguish worksofoccultscienceascribedtoAlexanderfromthoseattrib utedtoAristotle orto distinguish thestoriestoldof Alexander intheworksofthePseudo-Aristotlefromthosefoundelsewhere. Ishallthereforeincludesomeofbothofthese.Ido not, however, intendtoincludeherethe early medievalstoriesof AlexanderandNectanebusinthe Pseudo-Callisthenes,Julius Valeriusandhis epitomes, theLetterofAlexandertoAristotle onthemarvelsof India, andsoon.These early medieval GreekandLatinbasesofthemedievalAlexander legend have beenmuchstudiedanddiscussed. Mystudy isratheroftwelfth andthirteenth century Latintreatisesascribedto Aristotleand Alexanderwhichhavebeen largelyneglected.6 Itis not surprising that manyspurious workswere attributed toAristotleinthemiddle ages, whenwerememberthathis writings cametothemforthemost partindirectlythrough corrupttranslations, andthatsome writing fromso great a masterwas eagerly lookedfor uponeverysubject in which they wereinterested.Itseemedtothemthatso encyclopedic a genius musthavetouched onallfieldsof knowledge and they oftenfailedtorealizethatin Aristotle'stimethe departments of learning hadbeensomewhatdifferentfromtheirownandthat newinterestsanddoctrinehad developed sincethen.There wasalsoa tendency toascribeto Aristotle any workofunknown oruncertain authorship. Atthecloseofthetwelfth century AlexanderNeckam7lists among historicinstancesof envy Aristotle's holding backfrom posterity certainofhismost subtle writings, whichheorderedshouldbeburiedwithhim. Atthesametimeheso guarded the place ofhis sepulcher, whether by someforceofnatureor power ofartor prodigy of 6 Ch. Gidel, ''La L?gende d'Aristoteau moyen?ge," inAssoc.des?tudes grecques,(1874)pp.285-332,except forthePseudo-Callisthenesuses only the Frenchvernacularliteratureor popularlegendsconcerning Aristotle.Similar in scope isW. Hertz, "Aristotelesin den Alexanderdichtungen des Mittelalters," inAbhandl.d. philos.-philol. Classed.k. bayr. Akad.d. Wiss., XIX (1892) pp.1-103; revisedinW. Hertz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen,1905,pp. 1-155. 6 G.H. Luquet, whowroteon"Aristoteetl'universit?deParis pendant le XHIesi?cle"in Bibl.hautes ?tudes, Sciences relig.,XVI,2,1904, announced a general workonthe knowledge ofAristotle's writings and teachings inthe middle ages, butitdoesnotseemtohave appeared. 7 Denaturis rerum,II, 189. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPs eudo-Aristotle231 magic is uncertain, that noonehas yet beenableto approachit, although somethinkthatAntichristwillbeableto inspect these bookswhenhecomes. Roger Baconinthethirteenth century believedthatAristotlehadwrittenoverathousandworksand complainedbitterly becausecertain treatises, whichwere prob ablyreallyapocryphal, hadnotbeentranslatedintoLatin.8 Indeed, someoftheworksascribedtoAristotleintheOriental andMohammedanworlds werenevertranslatedinto Latin, suchasthe astrological De impressionibus coelestibuswhich Bacon mentions, orthe Syriac textwhichK.Ahrenseditedin 1892withaGermantranslation as"DasBuchder Naturgegen st?nde," or first appeared in Latin guise aftertheinventionof printing, as wasthecasewiththeso-called Theology of Aristotle,9 aworkwhichwaslittle morethanaseriesofextractsfromthe EnneadsofPlotinus.10Someofthetreatisesattributedto AristotlewhichwerecurrentinmedievalLatindonotbear especiallyupon our investigation, suchastheGrammarwhich RobertGrossetesteissaidtohavetranslatedfromtheGreek.11 Forour purposes thePseudo-Aristotelian writingsmay be sub-dividedundersevenheads: experiment,alchemy,astrology, spirits, occultvirtuesofstonesand herbs,chiromancy and physiognomy, andlastthefamous"SecretsofSecrets."Under thefirstoftheseheads may be put atreatiseontheconductof waters, whichconsistsofaseriesof experiments in syphoning andthelikeillustratedinthe manuscriptby letteredandcolored figures and diagrams.12 InaVatican manuscript itis perhaps more correctly ascribedtoPhilo?f Byzantium. 8 Compendium Studii Philosophiae, ed. Brewer,(1859)p. 473. ItwastranslatedintoArabicabout840 A.D.; an interpolated Latin paraphrase ofit was published atRomein 1519,by PietroNiccolode'Castel lani,?Sapientissimi Aristotelis StagiritaeTheologia sivemistica philosophia, secundum Aegyptios noviter reperta etinlatinam castigatissimeredacta; a Frenchversion appeared atParisin1572 (Carra de Vaux,Avicenne,p.74). F.DietericitranslateditfromArabicintoGermanin 1883, after publishing the Arabictextforthefirsttimein1882.For divergences betweenthisArabic textandtheLatinoneof 1519, andcitationof Baumgartner thatthe Theology wasknowninLatintranslationas early as 1200, seeGrabmann (1916),pp. 245-7. 10 IndeedCarrade Vaux,Avicenne,p. 73 says, "Toutunlivre qui ne contientenr?alit? que desextraitsdesEnneadesIV? VIdePlotin." 11 SeeArundelMS. 165, 14th century. "SloaneMS. 2039, fols.110-13. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions232Thorndike From experiment to alchemy isan easystep, forthealche mists experimented a good dealinthe period whichwearenow considering. Thefourthbookofthe Meteorology of Aristotle, which, if nota genuineportion ofthat work, atleast goes back tothethird century before Christ,13 hasbeencalledamanual of chemistry,14 and apparently istheoldestsuchextant.Its doctrinesarealso-believedtohavebeeninfluentialinthe development of alchemy; andtherewere passages inthisfourth bookwhichled menlaterto regard Aristotle as favorabletothe doctrineofthetransmutationofmetals.GerardofCremona hadtranslated only thefirstthreebooksofthe Meteorology; thefourthwas supplied froma translationfromtheGreekmade by Henricus Aristippus whodiedin 1162; tothisfourthbook wereaddedthree chapters translated by Alfredof England or ofSarchelfromthe Arabic,15apparently ofAvicenna.16These additionsofAlfredfromAvicennadiscussedtheformationof 11 Hammer-Jensen, "Das sogennante IVBuchder Meteorologie desAristote les," in Hermes, vol.50 (1915)pp.113-36,argues thatits teachings differfrom thoseofAristotleand assigns itto Strato, his youngercontemporary. Not contentwiththis thesis, whichiseasierto suggest thanto prove, Hammer Jensen contendsthatitwasaworkofStrato's youth andthatit profoundly influencedAristotlehimselfinhislastworks."TheconvenientStrato!" asheiscalled byLoveday andForsterinthe preface totheirtrans lationofDecoloribus (1913) vol.VIofTheWorksofAristotletranslatedinto English underthe editorship of W.D.Ross. 14 So Hammer-Jensen,p. 113andearlierHeller (1882)1, 61. 15 N?rnberg Stadtbibliothek (centur.V,59, membr.13th century)?cited byRose, Hermes 1,385?"Completus estlibermetheororumcuiustres primos librostranstulit magister GerardusLumbardussummus philosophus dear?bico inlatinum. Quartum autemtranstulitHenricus Aristippus de greco inlati num.Triaultima capitula transtulitAluredus Anglicus sarelensisdear?bico inlatinum." Steinschneider (1893)pp. 59and 84;(1905)p.7; and others,including Hammer-Jensen,give thenameofthetranslatorofthefourthbookfromthe GreekasHermannandofthelastthree chapters as Aurelius, whomStein schneideris morecorrectin describing as"otherwiseunknown."Ontheother hand, weknowthat Aristippus andAlfredtranslatedotherAristoteliantrea tises. Evidently SteinschneiderandtheothershavefollowedMSSwherethe copyist has corrupted the proper names. 16 Steinschneiderand Hammer-Jensenquote from MSS, "triaveroultima Avicennae capitula transtulitAureliusdear?bicoinlatinum."Albertus Magnus, Mineral. Ill,i,9, alsoascribedthe passage to Avicenna; othershave suggested thatitis bydisciples ofAvicenna.See J. WoodBrown (1897) pp.72-3, forasimilar passage fromAvicenna'sSermode generationelapidum. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPs eudo-Aristotle233 metalsbutattackedthealchemists.17VincentofBeauvais18 andAlbertus Magnus19 wereboth aware,however, thatthis attack upon thealchemistswas probably not by Aristotle.The shorttreatiseOncolorswhichisincludedinso many medieval manuscript collectionsoftheworksofAristotlein Latin,21by its very titlewould suggest to medievalreadersthathehadbeen interestedintheartof alchemy,although itsactualcontents deal only insmall part with dyes andtinctures.Itsformand contentsarenot regarded asAristotle'sbutit was perhapsby someoneofthe Peripatetic school.Thusworks which, ifnot by Aristotle himself, atleasthadbeenwritteninGreek long beforethemedieval period,gave medievalreadersthe impres sionthatAristotlewasfavorableto alchemy. Itisthereforenot surprising thatworksof alchemyappeared in medievalLatinunderAristotle'sname.ThenamesofPlato andAristotlehadheadedthelistsofalchemistsinGreek manuscriptsalthough noworksascribedtoAristotlehavebeen preserved inthesame. Berthelot,however,speaks ofa pseudo Aristotlein Arabic,23 andinanOxford manuscript ofthethir teeth century underthenameofAristotle appears a treatise Onthetwelvewaters of thesecretriversaidtobe"translated 17 They were printed at Bologna,1501, asLiberdemineralibusAristotelis andalso published, sometimesasGeber'ssometimes as Avicenna's, underthe title, Liberde congelatione. BN16142contains a Latintranslationofthefourbooksofthe Meteorology withanaddition dealing withmineralsand geology whichisbrieferthanthe printed Liberdemineralibus Aristotelis,omitting the passageagainst thealche mists: publishedby F.de M?ly, Rev.desEludes grecques,(1894)p. 185et seq.(citedHammer-Jensen,131). 18 Speculumnaturale,VIII, 85. 19 Seenote16above. 20 Greektext byPrantl,Teubner,1881;English translation byLoveday and Forster, 1913.Seealso Prantl, Aristoteles?berdie Farben, 1849. 21 Just afew examples are:Mazarine3458and 2459, 13th century; 3460 and 3461, 14th century; Arsenal 748A, 15th century, fol. 185; BN 6325, 14th century, No. 1; BN 14719, 14-15th century, fol. 38-; BN 14717, end13th century; BN 16633, 13th century, fol. 102-; S. Marco, 13th century,beautifully illuminated, fols. 312-17; Assisi 283, 14th century, fol. 289-; Volterra 19, 14th century, fol.196-. 22 Berthelot (1885)p.143, "PlatonetAristotesontmisent?tedelalistedes alchimistes cum?niques sans qu'aucunouvrage leursoit assign?." 23 Berthelot (1888)I,76;citingManget, Bibl. Chemica,I, 622. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions234Thorndike fromArabicintoLatin."24Inthe preface theauthor promises thatwhoeverbecomes skilled,adept, and expert inthese twelvewaterswillneverlose hope nor be depressedby want. He regards thistreatiseasthechief among his works, since hehaslearnedthesewaters byexperiment.They areall chemicalratherthan medical; abrief "chapter" or paragraph isdevoted toeach.Inanother manuscript attheBodleian twobrieftractsareascribedto Aristotle; one describesthe seven metals, theotherdealswithtransmutation.25Ina single manuscript atMunichbothatheoreticaltreatisein medicine and alchemy andaPracticaareattributedto Aristotle, and intwoother manuscripts heiscreditedwiththeBook of SeventyPrecepts whichsometimesisascribedtoGeber.26 Thomasof Cantimpr? citesAristotleintheLumenlumi numas saying thatthebest gold is madefrom yellowcopper oreandtheurineofa boy, butThomashastenstoaddthat such gold isbestincolorratherthaninsubstance.27The translationoftheLumenluminumisascribedbothto Michael ScotandbrotherElias.28Aristotleis quoted severaltimes inDe alchimia, ascribedtoAlbertus Magnus, but only in MDigby162, 13th century, fols. lOv-llv,"Incipit liberAristotelisde aquis secretifluministranslatusabar?bicoinlatinum."Inthe margin the twelvewatersare brieflydesignated: 1 rubicunda, 2 penetrativa, 3 mollificativa, et ingrediente, 4de aqua eiusdem ponderis et magnitudinis, 5 ignita, 6sul phurea, 7 aquacineris, 8 aurea, etc.Inoneortwo cases,however, theseheads donot quiteapply tothe correspondingchapters. 25 Ashmole 1448, 15th century,pp.200-202, de "altitudinibus,profundis, lateribusque," metallorumsecundumAristotelem (name, inthe margin). It opens, "Plumbumestinaltitudinesuaar. nigrum." Ittakes up inturn thealtitudoofeachmetalandthendiscussesthenext quality inthesame way. Ibid.,pp.239-44,opens,"Arestotilus, Cumstudiietc.Scias preterea quodpropterlongitudines"; at p. 241ittreats"de purificatione solisetlune" (i. e. gold and silver), at p.243, "de separatione solisetlune."Itendswitha paragraph aboutthe composition ofa golden seal. 26 CLM 12026, 15th century, fol. 46-,"Alchymia estarsdocens. ..... Explicit dictolibri {sic) Aristotelisdetheoricainrebus naturalibus; fol. 78, LiberAristotelisde practica summae philosophiae, "Primode separatione salis communis. .. ." CLM 25110, 15th century, fols. 211-45, LiberAristotelisde70 preceptis. CLM 25113, 16th century, fols. 10-28, A.dealchimia?ber qui diciturde 70 preceptis. 27 Egerton1984, fol.141 v; inthe Denaturarerum. 28 RiccardianMS. 119, fols.35vand166r. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPs eudo-Aristotle235 thelater"Additions"to it, where Roger Baconalsois cited, isthe specific titleLiberde perfectomagisteriogiven asAri stotle's.29Sometimesworksof alchemy were very carelessly ascribedto Aristotle, whenitis perfectly evidentfromthe works themselvesthat they couldnothavebeenwritten by him.30 Thealchemicaldiscoveriesand writings ascribedto Aristotle areoftenassociatedinsome way withAlexandertheGreatas well.Inone manuscriptJohn of Spain's translationofthe Secret of Secretsisfollowed by a description ofthevirtuesand compositions offourstones"whichAristotlesenttoAlexander theGreat."31Itseemsobviousthattheseare philosopher's stonesandnotnatural gems. TheLiber ignium ofMarcus Grecus,composed inthethirteenth or early fourteenth century, ascribesto Aristotlethe discovery oftwo marvelouskindsof fires. One, whichhediscoveredwhile traveling withAlexanderthe king, willburnfora year withoutcessation.The other, inthe compo sitionof whichobservanceofthe dog-days is requisite, "Aristotle assertswilllastfornine years."32 Acollectionofchemical experimentsby a Nicholas,perhaps de Bodlys andofPoland and Montpellier,gives "afirewhichAristotlediscoveredwith Alexanderforobscure places."33 AletterofAristotletoAlex anderin acollectionofalchemicaltractsis hardly worth noting, asitis only sevenlines long, butitis interesting toobservethat itcitesAristotle's Meteorology.Perhapsby a mistakeoneor 29 Caps. 22and57.Itwas printed withfurther"Additions"ofitsown in1561inVeraealchemiae artisque metallicaecitra aenigmata,Basel,1561, 11, 188-225. 30 Thusin Auriferae artis quam chemiamvocant antiquissimi author es, Basel,1572,pp.387-99, atreatisewhichcites Morienus,Rasis, andAvicenna is printed asTractatulusAristotelisdePractica lapidisphilosophici.Appar ently the only reasonfor ascribing itto Aristotleisthatitcites"the philosopher" inits openingsentence, "Cumomne corpus secundum philosophum autest elementumautabdementis generatum." 31 LaudMisc. 708, 15th century, fol.54. 32 Berthelot (1893)1,105 and107. 33 Ashmole 1448, 15th century,p. 123. 34 Ashmole 1450, 15th century, fol. 8,"Epistola adAlexandrum.OAlex anderrectorhominum.etaudientesnon intelligant." Harleian 3703, 14th century, fols. 41r-42r, Aristotelesadalexandrum. "In primo o elaxandortraderetibivolosecretorummaximumsecretum. . .," isasimilartreatise. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions236Thorndike twoalchemicaltreatisesareascribedtoAlexanderratherthan Aristotle.35 Aristotle's genuine works give evenmore encouragement to the pretensions of astrology thantothoseof alchemy. His opinion thatthefourelementswere insufficientto explain natural phenomena andhis theory ofafifthessencewere favorabletothebeliefinoccultvirtueandtheinfluenceofthe stars upon inferior objects. Inhisworkon generation36 heheld thattheelementsaloneweremere toolswithouta workman; the missingagent is suppliedby therevolutionoftheheavens. Inthetwelfthbookofthe Metaphysics hedescribesthestars and planets aseternaland acting as intermediariesbetweenth? prime Moverandinferior beings. Thus they arethedirect causesofalllifeandactioninourworld.Charles Jourdain regarded theintroductionofthe Metaphysics intowestern Europe atthe opening ofthethirteenth century asa prin cipal causeforthe greatprevalence of astrology fromthat time on, theothermaincause being thetranslationofArabian 36 Ashmole 1384, mid14th century, fols. 91v-93r,"IncipitEpistola Allex andri.Dicunt philosophiquod arsdirivatasitexcreationehominiscuiomnia insunt .../... exomni specie etcolorenomine. Explicitepistola Alexan dra"Inthetext itself, whichis writteninthemannerofa mastertoadis ciple, thereis nothing toshowthattheworkis by Alexanderratherthan Aristotle. The following is apparently thesametreatisebutthe closing wordsaredif ferent. Riccard. 1165, 15th century, fols. 161-3, LiberAlexandriinscientiasecre torumnature."Dicitur quod hecarsderivatasitexcreacionehominiscui omniainsunt .../... etdeoannuentead optatum finem pervenies." Thenextwouldseemtobeanothertreatisethanthe foregoing. Arezzo 232, 15th century, fols. 1-14, "LibertransmissusabAlexandro rege ex libro Hermogenis." Hermogenes, whoiscitedonthe subject ofthe philosopher's stoneinat leastoneMSoftheSecretofSecrets (Bodleian67, fol. 33v, "Et pater noster Hermogenesquitriplex estin philosophiaoptimephilosophandodixit"), is apparently noneotherthanHermes Trismegistus. Heisalsomentionedina briefworkofAristotleto Alexander; Harleian 3703, 14th century, fols. 41r-42r, "... hermogenesquod(sic)egypti multumcommenduntetlaudantetsibi attribuantomnemscientiamsecretametcelerem (?)." Theuseofthere flexive pronoun inthissentencetoreferto Hermogenes Iwouldhavethe reader note, asit appears toillustratea fairly commonmedieval usage. 36II, 9. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle237 astrological treatises.37 Jourdain didnot dulyappreciate the great holdwhich astrologyalready hadinthetwelfth century, butitisneverthelesstruethatinthenew Aristotle astrology foundfurther support. Astrologycrops outhereandtherein mostofthe spurious worksextantunderAristotle's name, just asitdoesinthe medieval learningeverywhere. Onesectionofadozen pages in the Theology discussestheinfluenceofthestars upon nature andthe working of magicbymaking useofthesecelestialforces andthenaturalattractionwhich things haveforone another.It regards artificial magic asa fraud, butnaturaland astrological magic asa reality.However, itis only theanimalsoulwhichis affected bymagic andthe manof impulse whois moved thereby; the thinking mancanfreehimselffromitsinfluence by useof therationalsoul.Inthe treatise, De pomo,*8 whichseemsnotto havebeentranslatedintoLatinuntilthethirteeth century under Manfred,39 Aristotle onhisdeath bed,holding in hishand an apple fromwhichthetreatisetakesits title, is represented as telling his discipleswhy a philosopher neednotfeardeathand repudiating thedoctrinesofthe mortality ofthesoulandeter nity oftheuniverse.HealsotellshowtheCreatormadethe spheres and placed lucidstarsineachand gave themthevirtue of ruling over thisinferiorworldand causinggood andeviland lifeor death. They do not,however, dothisof themselves, but menatfirst thought soand erroneouslyworshiped thestars untilthetimeof Noahwhowasthefirstto recognize theCreator ofthe spheres.40 37 Excursions historiques,etc.,p. 562. 381havereaditinan incunabulumeditionnumberedIA.49867inthe BritishMuseum. 39 Ibid., fols. 21v-23r, "NosManfredusdivi augustiimperatoris frederici filiusdei gratiaprinceps tharentinushonorismontissancti angeli dominuset illustris r?gis conradiserviin regno siciliebaiulus ... quern librumcum non invenireturinter cristianos,quoniam eumin ebraycolegimus translatumde ar?bicoin hebreum, sanitaterehabitaaderuditionemmultorumetdehebrea lingua transtulimusinlatinamin quo a compilatorequedam recitabiliainser untur.Namdictumlibrumaristotilesnonnotavitsednotatusabaliisextitit qui causam hylaritatis seumortisdiscerevolueruntsicutinlibriseriecontine tur." 40 EditionNo.IA.49867intheBritish Museum, fols.25v-26r. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions238Thorndike TherearealsoattributedtoAristotletreatises primarily astrological. A"Bookonthe Properties oftheElementsandof thePlanets"iscitedunderhisname by PeterofAbanoatthe endofthethirteenth century inhisworkon poisons,41by Peter d'Ailly in his Vigintiloquium42 writtenin 1414, and by Picodella Mir?ndola, whodeclaresit spurious, inhiswork against astrol ogy writtenatthecloseofthefifteenth century.D'Ailly and Picociteitin regard tothe theory of greatconjunctions;Abano, forataleofSocratesandtwo dragons whichweshall repeat later.Itis probable thatallthesecitationswerefromthe para phrase ofand commentary onthework by Albertus Magnus43 who accepted itasa genuinewriting ofAristotle. Ina manuscript oftheCottoncollectionintheBritish Museumisaworkofsome lengthupon astrology ascribedto Aristotle.44Afteradiscussionof generalprinciples in whichthe planets,signs, andhousesare treated, thereare separate books upon the subjects of nativities,45 andofelectionsand interroga tions.46InaParis manuscript atreatiseon interrogations is ascribedina marginalheading to"Aristoteles Milesius, a Peripateticphysician."47 IntheCotton Manuscript incommen tarieswhichthen follow, andwhicharelabelledascommentaries "upon the preceding treatise" Ptolemy ismentionedrather thanAristotle.48Inan astrologicalmanuscript ofthefifteenth century atGrenoblewrittenin French, worksofMessahalaand 41 Cap. 4. 42 Verbum4. 43 Decausiset proprietatibiiselementorum,IX, 585-653in Borgnet's editionofAlbert's works; AlberthimselfinhistreatiseonMineralscitesthe titleas"Liberdecausis proprietatum elementorumet planetarum." 44 Cotton AppendixVI, fol. 8r, "liberisteestaristotelisinscientia ipsius astronomic" 45 fol. llv, "Aliusliberde nativitatibus";opens,"Superiusproutpotuimus promissorumpartemexplevimus." 48 fol. 13r, "Deelectionibusalius liber;"opens, "Undeconstellationibus egyptios imitantesnativitatessatisdilucidedixerimus."Thisbookintermin gles the subjects of interrogations and elections, andendsatfol. 20v, "Finit liberde interrogationibus." 47 BN 16208, fol. 76r?, "liber arystotelis milesiimedici perypathetici in principiis iudiciorumastronomorumin interrogationibus." 48 Cotton AppendixVI, fol. 20v,"Incipit commentum superpraemissa scilicet praedictum librum"fol. 23v,"Expositio adlitteram superioris tractatus. Ptolomaeus summus philosophus etexcellentissimus egyptiorum rex... ." This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle239 Za?translatedfor CharlesVofFranceare precededby "abook of judicialastrologyaccording to Aristotle," which opens with "the preface ofthelast translator," andisinfour parts.49 Perhaps boththeabove-mentioned manuscriptscontain, likea third manuscript at Munich, "Thebookof judgments whichis said by Albertinhis Speculum tobeAristotle's."50Thiswork alsooccursina manuscript atErfurt.51 Roger Baconwasmuch impressedby an astrological treatiseascribedtoAristotle entitledDe impressionibuscoelestibus, andtold Pope ClementIV thatit was "superior totheentire philosophy oftheLatinsand canbetranslated byyour order."52 Atreatisefoundintwo manuscripts oftheBodleian Library bearsthe titles,Commentaryof Aristotleon Astrology andThe book of Aristotle from twohundredand fifty-five volumes of the Indians,containing a digestof all problems, whether pertaining to the sphere orto genethlialogy. Fromthetextitselfandthe preface of HughSanctellensis, thetwelfth century translator fromArabicinto Latin, addressedtohis lord,Michael,bishop of Tarazona, weseethatthe workis neither entirelyby Aristotle norfromthebooksoftheIndiansbutis a compilationby some onewhodraws or pretends todrawfromsome250or255books54 ofthe philosophers,including inadditiontotreatises by both Aristotleandthe Indians, 13books byHermes, 13 by Doronius (Dorotheus?), 4 byPtolemy, one byDemocritus, two byPlato, 44 by the Babylonians, 7 byAntiochus, andothers by authors whosenamesareunfamiliarto meand probablymisspelled in 49 Grenoble 814, fols.1-24. "Cy commencelelivrede jugemens d'astrolo gie selonAristote.Le prologue duderreniertranslateur.Aristotefistun livrede jugemens. .. ." 60 CLM 25010, 15-16th century, fols. 1-12, "liberdeiudiciis qui abAlberto in Speculo suodicituresseAristotelis." 61 Amplon.Quarto377, 14th century, fols. 25-36, deiudiciisastrorum. Schumidentifiesit withtheworkascribedtoAristotle by Albertinthe Specu lumastronomiae. 62 Bridges(1897) I,381, 389-90; Brewer (1859) p. 473. 63 Digby,159, 14th century, fols. 87, mutilatedattheend."LiberAristo tilisdeducentis lvque Indorum voluminibus, universalium questionum tam genecialiumquam circulariumsummamcontinens."Atfol. 5v,"Explicit prologus.Incipit Aristoteliscommentumin astrologiam." ThisistheMS whichIhave chiefly followed. SavileLatin15 (Bernard6561), 15th century, fols. 185-204v, issimilar. 64 Inthetextthenumberis given as ccl; see Digby159, fol.2r. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions240 Thorndike the manuscripts. In one oftheworksofAristotleofwhichthe present workis supposed to make use, therearesaidtohave beendescribed thenativitiesoftwelvethousand men, collected inaneffort toestablishan experimental basisfor astrology.55 Itisnot so surprising thatthe present workbearsAristotle's name, since Hugh had promised his patronMichael, inthe pro logue tohistranslationofthe Geometry of Hanusben Hanne,56 thatiflifeenduredand opportunity was given hewouldnext settoworkasordered by his patron, not onlyuponHaly's commentaries onthe Quadripartite and Almagest of Ptolemy, butalso upon acertain generalcommentaryby Aristotleonthe entireartof astrology. TheSecret of Secretsofthe pseudo-Aristotle is immediately followedinone manuscriptbychapters or treatisesaddressedto Alexanderand entitled,Of ideasand forms,Of the impressionof forms, and Ofimages and ringst The theory,very likethatof Alkindi, ismaintainedthat"allformsareruled bysupercelestial forms through the spirits ofthe spheres" andthatincantations and images receivetheirforcefromthe spheres. Theseven planets pass onthese supercelestial ideasandformstoour inferiorworld. Byselectingproper timesfor operating one canwork good orill by meansofthe rays and impressions ofthe planets. Thescientific investigator who properly concentrates andfixes intent,desire, and appetite upon thedesired goal can penetrate hiddensecretsofsecretsandoccultscienceboth universal and particular. Thewriter goes onto emphasize the importance of understanding allthedifferent positions andrela tionships ofthe heavenly bodiesandalsothedistributionof terrestrial objects underthe planets. Hethendescribesan astrologicalimage whichwillcausementoreverenceand obey you, will repelyour enemiesin terror, afflictthe envious, send visions, and perform othermarvelousand stupefying featstoo numeroustomention. ? Digby159, fol.2r. M Savile 15, fol.205r. 67 Bodleian67 (Bernard2136), 14th century, fol. 54r, De ydeis et formis; fol. 54v, De impressioneformarum; fol. 56v, De ymaginibus etannulis.This last item,though notedin Bernard, isorwasomittedinthe proof sheetsofthe new SummaryCatalogue ofBodleianMSS nowin preparation. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPs eudo-Aristotle241 Asthe Speculum astronomiaeofAlbertus Magnus listeda Book ofJudgmentsby Aristotle amongdeserving worksof astronomy and astrology, soinitslistofevilbooks dealing with necromantic imagesappear atreatise by Hermesaddressedto Aristotleand opening, "Aristotle said, 'Youhaveseen me, O Hermes,' " anda treatiseascribedto Aristotlewiththesinister title, Death of the Soul,opening, "SaidAristotleto King Alex ander, 'If you wantto perceive.' " Thistreatisethe Speculum calls"theworstofall"theevilbookson images.RogerBacon, too, alludestoit by titleasfilledwith figments ofthe Magicians, butdoesnotnameAristotleasauthor.58PeterofAbanoin his Lucidatorfollowsthe Speculum astronomiaein listing it among depraved,obscene, anddetestableworks.59 Alexander himself, aswellas Aristotle, hadsomemedieval reputation asan astrologer. Inthetenthandeleventh century manuscripts oftheMathematicaof Alhandreus,supreme astrolo ger, "AlexanderofMaced?n"wasmorethanoncecitedasan authority, andtherewere also given"Excerpts fromthebooks of Alexander,astrologer,king," anda"Letterof Argafalan to Alexander."Differentfrom this,moreover, wastheMathe maticaof Alexander,supreme astrologer, foundinathirteenth centurymanuscript, inwhichfromthemovementsofthe planetsthrough the signs oneisinstructedhowtoforetell pros perous andadverse journeys, abundanceand poverty, misfor tuneordeathofa friend, orto discoverstolen articles,sorceries, buriedtreasureandsoforth.60Atreatiseonsevenherbs relatedtotheseven planets issometimesascribedto Alexander,61 68 Brewer (1859)p.532, De secretis,cap. 3. 69 BN 2598, fol. lOlr, "liber quern AristotelesattribuitAlexandreet quern nonnullimortisintitulentanime." 80 Ashmole 369, late13th century, fols. 77-84v, "MathematicaAlexandri summi astrologi. Inexordioomniscreatureherushuranicusintercuneta sideraxii maluit signa fore / nam quod lineam d?sign?t eandemstellam occup?t Explicit."Cap. x, deinveniendode prospero autadverso itinere;xi, de copia et paupertate;xiv, deneceautcasu amici;xvi, delatrocinio inveniendo;xxiv, de pecunia interra defossa;xxxviii, denoscendismaleficiis. 61 Inthe preface totheKir anides; in Montpellier277, 15 th century; andin Ashmole 1448, 15th century,pp.44-45, "Virtutes7herbaruma septem planetis secundumAlexandrum Imperatorem." Itisalsoembodiedinsome editionsandMSSoftheLiber aggregationis or Experimenta attributedto Albertus Magnus, whereitis entitled, "Virtutesherbarum septem secundum Alexandrum Imperatorem." This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions242Thorndike but perhaps moreoftentoFlaccus Africanus, andatleastonce toAristotle.62 Theassociationof astrologicalimages with spirits ofthe spheres inoneoftheabove-mentioned worksascribedtoAri stotlehas alreadybrought ustotheborder-lineofournext topic, Aristotleand spirits. Underthis captionmay be placed a workfoundin a fifteenth century manuscript.63 Italsoisin part astrological andisassociatedwiththenameofHermesaswell asofAristotle.Itstitle runs, Thebook of the spiritual works of Aristotle, orthebook Anttmaquis, whichisthebook of thesecrets of Hermes: wonderfulthings canbe accomplishedby means of this bookand'tistheancientbook of theseven planets. Thetreatise opens, "To everypeople andclime pertains a group of spirits." I.t then maps outthese regions ofdifferent spirits in accordance withthe planets and signs ofthezodiac. Apparently thisisthe sameworkasthatwhichHunainibnIshaktranslatedinto Arabicandofwhichhe says,"Among theworksofAristotle whichwehavefoundandtranslatedfromGreekintoArabicwas Thebook of theCauses ofSpirituals whichhasHermesfor author. ... ItisthebookinwhichAristotletreatsofthe causesof spirituals,talismans, theartoftheir operation, and howtohinder it, orderedafterthesevenclimates."64Itwas probably somesuch spurious workthat Williamof Auvergne had in mindwhenhe spoke ofAristotle'sboastthata spirit had descendeduntohimfromthe sphere ofVenus.65 No genuine workofAristotleon vegetables or mineralshas comedowntousto accompany hiscelebrated Historyof Ani mais, but supposititiouswritings weresoonfound by theArabsto fillthis gap. On plants abrieftreatise by NicolausDamascenus passed forAristotle's.AlfredofSarcheltranslateditfrom Arabicinto Latin,66presumably beforethecloseofthetwelfth 82 Ashmole,1741, late14th century, fol. 143,"Incipiunt virtutes septem herbarumAristotilis.Ethas quidam virtuteshabent ipseseptem herbeab abinfluentia7 planetarum. Nam contingitunamquamquerecipere virtutem suama superioribus naturaliter.NamdicitAristotelis quodcorpora inferiora regunturpersuperiora. 63 Sloane 3854, 15th century, fols.105v-110. M E. Blochet, "?tudessurle Gnosticisme musulman," in Rivista degli studi orientali,IV, 76. 65 De universo,II,ii, 39and 98;II,iii, 6. M OneMSis Harleian 3487, 14th century, No.11 This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle243 century, sincehededicateditto Roger of Hereford, andAlbertus Magnusexpanded itstwoshortbooksintoseven long onesin hisDe vegetabilibus et plantis. TherealsoexistedinArabica Lapidary ascribedto Aristotle,67 whichwascitedas early as theninth centuryby CostabenLuca.Ruskabelievesthework tobeof Syrian andPersian origin,68although oneLatintext professes tohavebeen originally translatedfromGreekinto Syriac.69 ValentinRose regarded itasthebasisofallsubse quent Arabic mineralogy, butfound only twoLatin manuscripts ofit.70Albertus Magnus in his Mineralsconfesses that,although hehad soughtdiligently indivers regions ofthe world, hehad seen onlyexcerpts fromAristotle'swork.Butanotherwriter ofthethirteenth century, Arnoldof Saxony, citestranslations ofAristotleonstonesboth by"Diascorides," whichwouldseem sheer nonsense, and byGerard,presumably .ofCremona. Gerard'stranslationoccursinoneofRose's manuscripts; the otherseemsto give aversiontranslatedfromtheHebrew. InGerard's translation, aworkmarked bypuerile Latin style, the Lapidary ofAristotleisabout equally devotedto marvelous properties ofstonesandtalesofAlexanderthe Great.After some general discussionofstonesandtheirwon derful properties,particulargems aretaken up. The gesha brings misfortune.Itswearer sleepspoorly, has manyworries, many altercationsandlaw-suits.Ifitis hung abouta boy's 67 V. Rose, "Aristotelesde lapidibus undArnoldus Saxo," in Zeitschriftf?r deutsches Alterthum, XVIII (1875) 321et seq. More recently the Lapidary ofAristotlehasbeenedited byJ.Ruska, DasSteinbuchdes Aristoteles, nach derarabische Handschrift,Heidelberg,1912, who gives boththeLatinofthe Li?ge MSandthetextofthetranslationintoArabic by Lucaben Serapion fromBN 2772, witha Germantranslationofit. 68 Ruska (1912)p. 43. 69 Ibid. p.183, "Et ego transfero ipsum ex greco sermonein ydyomasu(r) orumvel Syrorum." 70 Li?ge77, 14th century;printedby Rose (1875)pp. 349-82. Montpellier277,15thcentury, fol. 127-;printedby Rose (1875)pp. 384-97. The followingtreatises, alsoascribedto Aristotle, Ihavenotexamined: Sloane 2459, 15th century, fols. 9v-16, de proprietatibus herbarumet lapidum; Vienna 2301, 15th century, fols. 81-2, "Istisunt lapides quorum virtutesmisit Aristotilesin scriptis m?ximo imperatori Alexandra." Perhaps thelast may havereferenceto philosopher'sstones, likethesimilartreatiseofAristotleto Alexandernotedaboveinourdiscussionofthe pseudo-Aristotelian alchemical treatises. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions244Thorndike neck, it makeshimdrivel."Thereis great occultforce"inthe magnet, andinstructionsare given howtosetwateronfirewith it.Severalstones possess the property of neutralizingspells and counteracting theworkofdemons.Withanotherstonethe Indiansmake many incantations.Vultureswerethefirstto discoverthevirtueofthestone filcrum coartonin hastening delivery. Whenafemalevulturewasneardeathfromthe eggs hardening inher body, themaleflewofftoIndiaand brought backthisstonewhichaffordedinstantrelief.Anotherstoneis so soporific that suspended abouttheneckitinducesasleen lasting three days and nights, andtheeffectsofwhichare thrownoffwith difficulty evenonthefourth day, whenthe sleeper willawakebutactasifintoxicatedandstillseem sleepier than anyone else.Anotherstone prevents a horsefrom whinny ing, if suspended fromhisneck. Other gemssuggest storiesofAlexander.Nearthefrontier ofIndiaina valleyguardedbydeadlyserpents whosemere glance wasfatalwere many preciousgems. Alexander disposed ofthe serpentsbyerecting mirrorsinwhich theymight stare themselvesto death, andhethensecuredthe gemsbyemploying thecarcassesof sheep inamanner already described byEpi phanius. AsomewhatsimilartaleistoldofSocrates by Albertus Magnus in his commentary onthe pseudo-Aristotelian workon the properties oftheelementsand planets.71 Inthe reign of Philip of Maced?n, whoishimselfdescribedasa philosopher and astronomer, theroadbetweentwomountainsinArmenia becameso poisoned thatnoonecould pass.Philipvainly inquired thecausefromhis sages untilSocratescametothe rescue and,byerecting atoweras high asthe mountainswitha steelmirroron top of it, sawtwo dragonspolluting theair.The mere glance ofthese dragons was apparently not deadly, for menin air-tight armorwentin andkilledthem.Thesame story istold by WilliamofSt. Cloud, who composed astronomical tablesbased upon hisownobservationsfromabout1285to 1321, in whichhedetectederrorsintheearliertablesof Thebit, Toulouse, andToledo.72InPeterofAbano'streatise on poi 71 Decausis elementorum,etc.,II,ii, 1 (Borgnet,IX,643). 72 HistoireLitt?rairedela France,XXV, 65. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPs eudo-Aristotle245 sons,73however,although hetoocitesthe pseudo-Aristotle on the causesofthe elements, the mirrorhasbecomea glass cavein whichSocratesensconceshimselftoobservethe serpents. A Lapidary dedicatedto King WenzelIIofBohemiatellsof Socrates' killing a dragonby useof quicksilver.74 ThatSocrates alsosharedthemedieval reputation ofAristotleandPlatofor astrology anddivinationisseenfromthePrenosticaSocratis Basilei, a modeofdivinationfoundinthe manuscripts. SimilartoAbano'staleofSocratesinthe glass caveisthe story tolda century earlier by AlexanderNeckamofAlexander himself.Sosedulousan investigator ofnaturewastheMace donian,saysNeckam, thathewentdownina glass vesselto observethenaturesandcustomsofthefishes.Hewouldseem tohaveremained submerged forsome time, sinceNeckam informsus thathetookacockwithhiminordertotellwhenit wasdawn by thebird's crowing. This primitive submarinehad atleasta suggestion ofwarabout it, sinceNeckam goes onto say thatAlexanderlearnedhowto lay ambushes against the foe byobserving one army offishesattackanother.Unfor tunately,however, Alexanderfailedtocommitto writing his observations, whether military or scientific, of deep-sealife; andNeckam grieves that very fewdataonthenaturesoffishes havecometohisattention.75 Neckam'saccountdiffersa good dealfromthe story as told by theArabian historian,Mas'?d?, inthetenth century. Thereweread that, whenAlexanderwas building the city of Alexandria, monsterscamefromthesea everynight andover threwthewallsthathadbeenbuilt during the day.Night watchmen proved ofno avail, so Alexanderhadaboxmadeten 73 De venenis, ca. 5;probably writtenin1316. 74 Aristotle,Lapidarius et Liberde physionomia,Merszborg,1473,p. 8. 75 Denaturis rerum,II, 21.Inan illustrated13th century MSofthe vernacularRomanceofAlexanderthree pictures aredevotedtohissubmarine. CU Trinity1446, 1250A. D., fol. 27r, "CommentAlisandre vesqui suzles ewes; acovered ship withwindowsunder greenwater, Alexanderandthree menin it; fol. 27v, Desnefskesont apeleescolifas; asimilar ship inthe water, noonevisiblein it; CornentAlisandreencerchalanaturede pessons; Alexan derandtwomeninthe ship, fishandmermaidbelow."Ihave quotedJames' description ofthe MS (III,4$8). SeealsothevolumeofLacroixonScience andLiteratureintheMiddle Ages,fig.87, foraviewofAlexander descending tothebottomoftheseaina glasscask, froma13th century MS. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions246Thorndike cubits long andfive wide, with glass sidesfastenedintothe framework by meansof pitch andresin.Hethenenteredthe boxwithtwo draughtsmen,who, afterithadbeenletdownto thebottomofthe sea, madeexact drawings ofthe monsters, who hadhumanbodiesbuttheheadsofbeasts.Fromthesesketches Alexanderhad images constructedand placed on pillars, and these magicfigur?s servedto keep offthe monstersuntilthe city was completed. Buttheeffect apparentlybegan towearoff andtalismanshadtobeaddedonthe pillars to prevent the mon stersfrom coming and devouring the inhabitants, as they had begun todo again.76 Another Arab,Abu-Shaker, ofthethir teenth century,repeats acurrenttraditionthatAristotle gave Alexanderaboxof wax soldierswhichwere nailed, withinverted spears andswordsandsevered bow-strings, face-downwardsin the box, whichinitsturnwasfastened by achain.As long as theboxremainedin Alexander's possession andhe repeated the formulaewhichAristotle taught himwheneverhetookthebox up or put it down, hewould triumph overhisfoesin war.77 Thisremindsoneofthe methodsofwarfare employedby Alex ander'sfablednatural father, Nectanebus. Whileweare speaking of militarymatters, it may benoted thatina manuscript ofthethirteenth century whichonce belonged toan AlbertusBohemusor Beham, deanofthechurch atPaduaandseemstohavebeenhis note-book, we findbetween theSecret of Secretsofthe pseudo-Aristotle andatreatiseonthe significations ofthe mooninthe signs "adelineationofabrazen hornmadewithmarvelousart by whichAlexanderintimeof war summonedhis army fromadistanceof sixty miles."78 ButtoreturntoothertalesofAlexanderinthe Lapidary. Oncehesawafarenchantersandenchantresseswhoslewand woundedthemenofhis armyby theirdiabolical power until Alexander prayed toGodwhorevealedtwostoneswhichcoun ter-actedthe sorcery. Onanotheroccasionwhen by Alexander's orderhisbaronshadcarriedoffcertain gems,during the night followingthey sufferedmuchinsultfromdemonsandweresore afraid, sincesticksandstoneswerethrownaboutthe campby 76 Budge,EgyptianMagic,1899,pp.152-6;Mas'?d?, LesPrairies d'Or, ed. B.de Maynard andPavetde Courteille,1861,II, 425ff. 77 Budge(1899)pp. 95-6. 78 CLM 2574b,bombyc. 13th century, fol.69v. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle247 unseenhandsand menwerebeatenwithout knowing whence theblowscame.Itthusbecame apparent thatthedemons cherishedthose gems astheir especialproperty andwereaccus tomedto perform occult operations withthemof which they did notwishmentolearnthesecret.Alexanderfoundthatthese gems would protect himfrom anybeast,serpent, or demon, although thenocturnal experience ofhisbaronswould scarcely seemto support thislast point. Onathirdoccasionhis army wereheldmotionlessand gazedopen-mouthed atcertain stones, untilabirdfluttereddownandcoveredthe gems withitsout stretched wings. ThenAlexanderhadhisfollowersclosetheir eyes and carry thestones away undercoverand place themon top ofthewallofoneofhiscitiessothatnoone might scalethe wallto spyupon thetown. Yetanothercurious story ofAlexanderandastoneis repeatedby Peterof Abanoin hisworkon poisons fromatreatise "OntheNatureof Serpents" whichheascribestoAristotle. Alexander always woreacertainstoneinhisbeltto give him good luckinhis battles, butonhisreturnfrom India, while bathing inthe Euphrates, heremovedthe belt,whereupon a serpentsuddenlyappeared, bitthestoneoutofthe belt, and vomiteditintotheriver. Deprived ofhis talisman, Alexander presently methisdeath.79 Another Lapidary,printed as Aristotle's at Merseburg in 1473, is really a compilation of previous medievalworksonthe subject withtheadditionofsomeitemsderivedfromthe per sonal knowledge or experience oftheauthor.Itwas composed "tothehonorof almighty Godandthe glory and perpetual memory ofthatvirtuousandmost gloriousprince, Wenzel II, King ofBohemia" (1278-1305). Asthetreatiseitself states, 79 Very similaristhe story inthe Gilgameshepic, a work"farmoreancient than Genesis," ofa serpentstealing a life-givingplant from Gilgamesh whilehe was bathing inawellorbrook.The plant, whichhadbeenrevealedto Gilga mesh by thedeified Ut-napishtim, "hadthe miraculous power of renewingyouth andborethename'theoldmanbecomes young.' " Sir James Frazer (Folk-Lore inthe Old Testament,1918,I,50-51) followsRabbi JulianMorgenstern("On Gilgamesh-Epic,XI,274-320," in Zeitschriftf.Assyriologie,XXIX,1915,p. 284 ff.) in connecting thisincidentwiththe serpent andtreeoflifeinthe Biblicalaccountofthefallof man, and gives further examples fromthefolk loreof primitivepeoples ofother jealousanimals, suchasthe dog,frog,duck, and lizard,perverting divine goodtidings or gifts to mantotheirown profit. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions248Thorndike "the Lapidary ofAristotleintherecenttranslationfrom theGreek"is only oneofitssources along with Avicenna, Constantinus Africanus, Albertus Magnus, andothers. AnotherworkwhichclaimsAristotelian authorshiponly in itstitleisthe Chiromancyof Aristotle,printed atUlmin 1490, which quotesfreely fromAlbertus Magnus andAvicenna. Therearealsobrieftractson chiromancy ascribedtoAristotle in manuscripts ofthethirteenthorfourteenth century,80 ForsterhasidentifiedPolemonastheauthoroftheGreektreatise on physiognomy ascribedto Aristotle.81Theartof physignomy ofcourse professed toreadcharacterfromthefaceorother parts ofthe body, and chiromancy whichwe have just mentioned is really abranchofit.InLatintranslationthetreatisewas accepted asAristotle's by suchmedievalschoolmenasAlbertus Magnus andDunsScotus.Thereare manymanuscripts ofit intheBritish Museum,including onewhich perhaps dates backtothetwelfth century.82 Its popularity continued long aftertheinventionof printing, asisshown byseparate editions ofit brought outatParisin1535andat Wittenberg in 1538, and by commentaries upon it83 published atParisin 1611, at Bologna in 1621, andat Toulousein1636.Besidessuch separate manuscripts andeditionsof it, itwasalso regularly embodied inthenumerous copies ofthe pseudo-Aristotelian workto whichwenextturn. Most widely influential upon themedievalmindofallthe spurious worksattributedtoAristotlewastheSecret of Secrets. F?rsterenumeratedtwohundredandsevenLatin manuscripts ofitandhislistis probably farfrom complete.84 Gastercallsit 80 Sloane 2030, fols. 125-26; Additional 15236, fols.154-60: BN, 7420A (14thcentury) No.16. 81 Richard F?rster, DeAristotelis quaeferunturphysiognomonicis recen cendis,Kiliae,1882; Detranslat.latin, physiognom.,Kiliae,1884;Scriptores PhysiognomiciLipsiae, 1893-1894. 82 Cotton JuliusD-viii, fol.126 ff.; Harleian 3969;Egerton847; Sloane 2030, fol. 95-103; Additional 15236, fol.160 (in abbreviated form); Sloane 3281, fols. 19-23; Sloane 3584;Egerton2852, fol.115v.et seq. 83 Thereis a manuscriptcopy ofa commentary onitofthefourteenth cen tury at Erfurt,Amplon.Quarto 186.SeeSchum's catalog forMSS.ofthe Physiognomia itselfinthe Amplonian collection. 84 R. F?rster, DeAristotelis quaeferuntur secretasecretorum Commentatio, Kiliae,1888; Handschriftenund Ausgaben des pseudo-Aristotelischen Secre tum secretorum, inCentralblatt f.Bibliothekswesen, VI (1889)1-22, 57-76. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle249 "Themost popular bookofthemiddle ages.85 Thisisnot surprising sinceit purports tosum up inconciseformwhatthe greatest ofancient philosophers deemeditessentialforthe greatest ofancientrulersto know, andsinceunderthe alluring pretense of revealinggreat secretsin parable andriddleit really masses together anumberofthebest-testedandmostoften repeated maximsof personalhygiene and practicalphilosophy, and someofthe superstitious towhichmenhaveshownthem selvesmostinclined. EveryEuropeanlibrary of consequence containsanumberof copies ofit.Itwastranslatedintoalmost everyEuropeanlanguage andwasoften versified, asin Lyd gate's and Burgh's Seerees of old Philis offres.86 Albertus Magnus citeditas Aristotle's;87Roger Baconwrotearather jejune commentaryupon it.88Itwas printed anumberoftimesbefore 1500.89 86 M. Gaster, inhisIntroductiontoaHebrewversionoftheSecretof Secrets, intheJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society,(1908,part2),pp. 1065 84; fortheHebrewtextandan Englishtranslation, Ibid. (1907)pp. 879-913 and (1908,part1)pp. 111-62. 86 Ed.Robert Steele, EETS LXVI,London, 1894.VolumeLXXIVcon tainsthreeearlier English versions.TherearenumerousMSSofitinItalian intheRiccardianandPalatinicollectionsatFlorence. 87 Desomnoet vigilia,1,ii, 7. 88 Tanner 116, 13th century;Corpus Christi 149, 15th century.Recently edited,together withBacon's peculiararrangement ofthe text,by Robert Steele, 1902, asFase.Vofhis Opera hactenusin?dita Rogeri Baconi. 89 Thereareconsiderable discrepancies betweenthedifferent earlyprinted editions, whichdifferin length, orderof arrangement, tablesof contents, and numberof chapters. Andinthesameeditionthe chapterheadingsgiven inthe courseofthetext may not agree withthoseinthetableof contents, whichasa rule, eveninthe MSS, doesnot fully coverthe subject-matter ofthetext. Thedifferent printers have probably useddifferent manuscripts fortheiredi tionsratherthanmade any newadditionsoftheirown.The following editionsarethoseto whichreferenceswillbe madeinthe followingpages. Anedition printed at Cologne about 1480, whichIexaminedattheHar vard UniversityLibrary, dividesthetextinto onlythirtychapters andseems imperfect. Aneditionofabout 1485, whichIexaminedattheBritish Museum, where itwasnumberedIA. 10756, has74 chapters, andthe headings ofits25thand 30th chapters, for instance,agree withthoseofthe11thand13th chapters in theHarvard copy. Athirdeditionof Paris, 1520hasnonumbered chapters andcontains passages notfoundinthetwoearliereditions. Asacheck upon these printed textsIhaveexaminedthethree following MSS, twoofthe 13th, andoneofthe14th century. Ofthese Egerton 2676 This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions250Thorndike TheSecret of Secretsisbelievedtobetheoutcomeofa gradual process of compilation from very varied sources, andto havereached something likeits present form by theseventhor eighthcentury ofourera.Butits chapters on physiognomy, aswehave seen,go backtoPolemon's treatise, and part ofits medicaldiscussionissaidtobeborrowedfromDiodesCaristes whowroteabout320b.c. SomeGraeco-Persiantreatiseis thought tobethebasisofitsdiscussionof kingship. Itisalso believedtohave appropriated bitsfrom popular literatureto itsownuses.InArabicthereisextantbotha longer anda shorter version, andGasterhasediteda Hebrewtextwhichis apparently derivedfromadifferentArabic original than any Latintext.The process ofsuccessive compilation, orat least, re-editing and repeated translationwhichtheworkunderwent is suggestedby aseriesof prologues whichoccuratthe begin ning.Following the preface oftheLatintranslatorandthe tableofcontentscomeswhatiscalled"the prologue ofacertain doctorincommendationof Aristotle,"90 inwhich omnipotent Godis prayed to guard the king andsome anonymous editor statesthathehasexecutedthemandate enjoinedupon himto procure themoralwork on royal conductcalledTheSecret of Secrets, which Aristotle, chiefof philosophers,composed. After sometalkaboutAristotleandAlexanderasecond prologue begins withthe sentence,"John whotranslatedthis book, son ofa patrician, mostskilfulandfaithful interpreter of languages, says." This Johnappears tohavebeenYuhannaibnel Batriq andwhathe says isthathesearchedtheworldover untilhecametoanoracleofthe sun which Esculapides hadcon structed.Therehefounda solitary abstemious sage who correspondsfairlycloselythroughout totheeditionnumberedIA.10756inthe BritishMuseum. Egerton2676, 13th century, fols.3-52 BN 6584, 13th century, fols.lr-32v Bodleian 67, 14th century, fols. l-53v, is muchlikethe preceding MS. 90 BN 6584, fol. lv, "De prologo cuiusdamdoctorisincommendatione aristotelis."Seealso Digby228, 14th century, fol. 27, whereascribehas writteninthe uppermargin, "Inistolibello primoponiturprologus, deinde tabulacontentorumin libro, deinde prologus cuiusdamdoctorisincommenda cionem Aristotilis, deinde prologus Iohannis qui transtulitlibrumistum. .. ." In Egerton2676, fol. 6r, "Deus omnipotens custodiat regem. .. ." This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle251 presented himwiththisbookwhichhetranslatedfromGreek intoChaldaicandthenceintoArabic.This passage reminds oneof Harpocration'sprefatory remarkstohis daughter inthe Kir anides;indeed, itis quite intheusual style of apocryphal writings. InthematteroftheLatintranslationweareon somewhat morecertain ground.John of Spain inthefirsthalfofthe twelfth century seemstohavetranslated only themedical portion.91Manuscripts ofthis partial translationare relatively few,92 andit was presentlysupersededby the complete transla tionmadeeitherinthetwelfthor early thirteenth century93 byPhilip, "theleastofhisclerics"for"hismostexcellent lord, moststrenuousinthecultoftheChristian religion, Guidoof Valencia,gloriouspontiff ofthe city of Tripoli."Philipgoes onto say in his dedicatorypreface thatit waswhenhewaswith Guidoin Antiochthat they found"this pearl of philosophy, ... thisbookwhichcontains something usefulaboutalmost every science," andwhichit pleased Guidotohavetranslatedfrom ArabicintoLatin. Although thevarious printed editionsand manuscripts oftheSecret of Secretsin Latin varyconsiderably, theyregularly are precededby this ascription oftheLatin translationto Philip, and usuallyby theother prologues afore mentioned.Whothis Philip was, otherthanaclericof Tripoli, isstillundetermined.Ifhewasthesameasthe papalphysician whomAlexanderIIIin1177 proposed tosendona missionto Pr?ster John, hehad probably madehistranslationbeforethat date. J. WoodBrownwould identify himwith Philip of Salerno, 91 Steinschneider (1905)p.42, itis true,says, "Ob Joh. selbstdas ganze Secretum?bersetzt habe, istnochnicht ermittelt;" butthe followingpassage, cited by Giacosa (1901)p. 386fromBibl. AngelicaRome, Cod. 1481, 12th century, fols. 144-146v, indicatesthathetranslated only themedical part. "Cumdeutilitate corporis olimtractarimetame quasi essemmedi?is vestranobilitas quereret utbrevemlibellumetdeobservationedi?teetde continentiacordisin qualibus sedebentcontineri qui sanitatem corporis cupiunt servareacciditutdum cogitarem vestreiussioniobedirehuiusreiexem pliar aristotelis philosophi Alexandrodictum repente inmenteoccurreret quodexcerpi delibro qui arabicevocaturciralaceraridestsecretumsecre torum que fecitfieri predictus Aristotelis philosophus Alexandro regimagno de dispositioneregni in quo continenturmulta regibus utilia. .. ." 92 Ed.H. Souchier, Denkm?ler provenzalLit.,Halle,1883,1, 473et seq. 93 Thirteenth century MSSof Philip's translationarenumerous:Ihave notnoteda12th century one. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions252Thorndike a royalnotary whosename appears in1200ondeedsinthe kingdom of Sicily.94 Returning to Philip'spreface to Guido, it may benotedthat hestatesthatLatinsdonothavetheworkanditisrare among theArabs.95Histranslationis afreeonesincetheArabicidiom is differentfromtheLatin.Aristotlewrotethisbookin response tothe petition of King Alexanderhis disciple whodemanded thatAristotleshouldeithercometohimor faithfully revealthe secretsofcertain arts,namely, the motion,operation, and power ofthestarsin astronomy, theartof alchemy, theartof knowing naturesand workingenchantments, andtheartof geomancy. Aristotle wastoooldtocomein person, and although ithad beenhisintentiontoconcealin everyway thesecretsofthe said sciences,yet hedidnotventuretocontradictthewilland commandof so great alord.Hehidsome matters,however, under enigmas and figurative locutions.ForAlexander's conveniencehedividedtheworkintoten books, eachofwhich isdividedinto chapters and headings.Philip addsthatforhis readers'conveniencehehascollectedthese headings atthe beginning oftheworkandatableofcontentsfollows.95aThen comethetwoolder prologues whichwe have alreadydescribed, nextaletterof Aristotleto Alexanderontheextrinsicandintrin 94 Brown (1897)pp.19-20, 36-7.Butnotmuchreliancecanbe placed on theinclusionofthisname"Master Philip of Tripoli" inatitlewhichBrown (p.20)quotes fromaDeRossi MS, "TheBookofthe Inspections ofUrine according tothe opinion ofthe Masters, Peterof Berenico, ConstantineDamas cenus, and Julius of Salerno; whichwas composedby commandofthe Emperor Frederick, AnnoDomini 1212, inthemonthof February, andwasrevised by Master Philip of Tripoli andMasterGerardofCremonaattheordersofthe King of Spain"etc., sinceGerardofCremonaatleasthaddiedin1187and therewasno "king of Spain" unt?1479. Browndoesnot give theLatinforthe passage, butifthedate1212could be regarded as Spanish eraandturnedinto1174 A.D., GerardofCremona wouldstillbe living, the emperor wouldbeFrederickBarbarossainsteadof Frederick II, andMaster Philip of Tripolimight bethesame Philip whom Pope AlexanderIII proposed tosendtoPr?ster John in1177. 95 BN 6584, fol. Ir, "Hunclibrum quo carebantlatinieo quodapudpaucis simosarabies reperitur transtulicum magno labore...."Aconsiderable portion of Philip'spreface isomittedintheHarvardedition. 960 The preliminary tableof contents,however,givesonlychapter headings, whichinBN6584are82in number, butthe beginnings ofthetenbooksare indicatedinthetextinBN6584asfollows.Thenumbersin parentheses This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle253 siccausesofhis work,96 andthenwitha chapter whichis usually headedDistinctio regum or Reges sunt quatuorbegins thedis cussionof kingship whichisthebackboneofthework. Itisevidentfrom Philip'spreface thatoccultsciencealso formsa leading featureintheworkaslrnowntohim. Gaster, whocontendedthattheHebrewtranslationfromtheArabic whichheeditedwasasoldaseither John of Spain's or Philip's Latin translations,although theoldestofthefour manuscripts whichhecollatedforhistextisdated only in1382 A.D., madea rather misleading statementwhenhe affirmed, "Ofthe astrology looming so largely inthelater European recensionsthe Hebrew has only afainttrace."97Asa matteroffactsomeofthe printed editionscontainless astrology thanthethirteenth century manuscripts, whileGaster'sHebrewversionhasmuchmore than"afainttrace"of astrology. Butmoreofthislater. Ontheother hand, Icannot fully subscribetoSteinschnei derncharacterizationofTheSecret of Secretsas"awretched compilation of philosophicalmysticism andvaried supersti tion."98Of superstition thereisa greatdeal, butof philosophi cal mysticism thereis practically none. Despite thetitleand the promise in Philip'spreface of enigmatic and figurative language, thetoneofthetextisseldom mystical, andits philoso phy isofa verypractical sort. arethe corresponding leavesinBodleian67 which,however, omitsmentionof thebookanditsnumber except inthecaseofthefourthbook, fol. 3v(5r),Incipit liber primus.Epistola adAlexandrum fol. 6r, Secundusliberde dispositioneRegali etreverenda Regis Fol.12r (18v),Incipit libertertius.Cumhoc corpuscorruptible sit eique accidit corruptio. ... fol.22r (36r),Incipit liber quartus. transtulit magisterphilippustripo iitanusdeformaiusticie fol.28r (44v), Liber Quintus describiset scriptoribus secretorum fol.28r (45r), LiberSextusdenuntiisetinformationibus ipsorum fol.28v (46v), Liber Septimus dehiis qui sr'intenduntethabentcuram subditorum fol.29r (47r), LiberOctavusde dispositione ductorissuietdeelectionebel atoriumet procerum inferiores. fol.29v (48r), LiberNonusde regimine bellatorumetforma aggrediendi bellumet pronatationibus eorundem fol.30v (50v), Sermode phisionomia cuiuslibethominis. 96 Itisomittedinsome printed editionsbutoccursinboth13th century MSSwhichIexamined. 97 Gaster (1908)p. 1076. 95 Steinschneider (1905)p. 60. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions254Thorndike NorcanTheSecret of Secretsbedismissedas merely "a wretched compilation." Those portions whichdealwith king craftand governmentdisplay shrewdnessandcommon sense, worldly wisdomand knowledge ofhuman nature, arenot restricted bybeing writtenfrom any one premise or view-point, andoftenevincereal enlightenment. Thosehistorianswhohave declaredtheloveoffameanew product oftheItalianRenais sanceshouldhavereadthe chapter onfameinthis most popular bookofthemiddle ages, wherewefindsuchstatementsasthat royalpowerought nottobedesiredforitsownsakebutforthe sole purpose of achieving fame.Other noteworthy utterances indicativeofthetoneand thought ofthebookarethat"the intellect ... istherootofall thingspraiseworthy"; that kings shouldcultivatethe sciences; that liberality involves respect forother's property; that"war destroys orderanddevastates thelandsandturns everything to chaos"; thatno earthly ruler shouldshed blood, whichisreservedforGod alone, butlimit his punishments to imprisonment,flogging, and torture; that the king, asChief Justice Cokelatertold JamesI, isunderthe law; thattaxes upon merchantsshouldbe light sothat they willremaininthe country andcontributetoits prosperity; that his people area king's true treasury andthatheshould acquaint himselfwiththeirneedsandwatchovertheirinterests. Fromthemedical passages ofthebookonewouldinferthat theartof healing atfirst developed more slowly thanthe artof ruling intheworld's history. Themedical theory ofthe Secret of Secretsisnotofanadvancedor complexsort, butisa combinationofcuriousnotionssuchasthat vomiting oncea monthis beneficialandsensibleideassuchasthatlifeconsistsof naturalheatandthatitis veryimportant to keep theabdomen warmandthebowels movingregularly. Thewell-known apothegm of Hippocrates is quoted, "Iwouldrathereattolive thanlivetoeat." MuchoftheadviceofferedtoAlexander by Aristotlein The Secret of Secretsis astrological.Among thosestudieswhichthe king should promote the only one specifically mentionedis astrology, whichconsidered"thecourseofthe year andofthe stars, the coming festivalsandsolemnitiesofthe month, the courseofthe planets, thecauseofthe shortening and lengthening of days and nights, the signs ofthestarswhichdeterminethe futureand many other things which pertain to prediction of This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatin-PseudoAristotle255 thefuture.99Alexanderis adjured "notto rise up orsitdownor eatordrink ordo anything without consulting a man skilledin theartof astronomy."100 Laterthetwo parts of astronomy are distinguished, thatis astronomy and astrology inoursense ofthewords.Alexanderisfurtherwarnedto put nofaithinthe utterancesofthose stupidpersons whodeclarethatthescience ofthestarsistoodifficultto master.Noless stupid isthe argu mentofotherswhoaffirmthatGodhasforeseenandforeor dained everything from eternity andthat consequently all thingshappen of necessity anditisthereforeofno advantage to predict eventswhichcannotbeavoided.Forevenif things happened of necessity, itwouldbeeasiertobearthem by foreknowing and preparing forthem beforehand,just asmen make preparationsagainst the coming ofacoldwinter?the familiarcontentionof Ptolemy. ButTheSecret of Secretsalso believesthatoneshould pray Godinhis mercy toavertfuture evilsandordain otherwise, "ForHehasnotsoordained things thattoordainotherwise derogates in anyrespect fromhis Providence"Butthisis notso approved an astrological doctrine. LaterintheworkAlexanderisoncemore urged nevertotake medicineor open avein except withthe approval ofhisastrono mers,101 anddirectionsare given astotheconstellationsunder which bleeding shouldbe performed andalso concerning the taking oflaxativeswithreferencetothe position ofthemoon inthe signs ofthezodiac.102Latertheworkdiscussestherela tionsofthefourelementsandofvariousherbstotheseven planets,103 andinthenexttolast chapter Alexanderisadvised toconducthiswarsunderthe guidance of astrology.104 99 Cap. 11 (Harvardcopy); cap. 25 (BM.IA.10756);Egerton2676, fol. 12r; BN 6584, fol.9v. 100 Cap. 13 (Harvardcopy);cap. 30 (BM.IA.10756);Egerton2676, fol. 13r; BN 6584, fol. lOr; alsoin Gaster'sHebrewtext. 101 Egerton2676, fol. 32r.;cap. 62 (BM.IA.10756); fol.xxxiiir. (Paris, 1520). BN 6584, fol.19v. 102 The Paris, 1520editionthen goes onto explain theeffectsofincantations and imagesuponastrologicalgrounds, butthis passage seemestobe missing from theearlier printed editionsandthethirteenth centurymanuscripts.Roger Bacon,however,implies thatincantationswere present in Ph?ip'soriginal translation:Steele (1920) 258-9. 103 This passage isfoundbothin Egerton MS.2676andinBM.IA.10756. BN 6584, fol.21r-v.Bodl. 67, fol.32v-35v. 104 Cap. 73 (BM.IA.10756); fols.44v-45r. (Paris,1520). BN 6584, fol.30v. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions256Thorndike Thereis much indulging in astrologicaltheory inthemidst ofthe chapter on Justice, andtheconstitutionoftheuniverse issetforthfromthefirstand highestsimplespiritual substance down through thenineheavensand spheres tothelowest inferiors.Toillustratethe power ofthestarsthe story is presently toldoftwo boys,105 onea weaver's son, theothera royalprince ofIndia. Sages whowerechance guests inthe weaver'shouseatthetimeofthechild'sbirthnotedthathis horoscope wasthatofacourtier high in royal councilsbut kept their discovery tothemselves.The boy'sparentsvainly tried tomakeaweaverof him, buteven beatings werein vain; he was finally allowedtofollowhisnatural inclination, securedan education, andbecameintimea royalgovernor. The king's son, onthe contrary,despite his royal birthandthefactthat hisfathersenthim through allhis provinces tolearnthe sciences, wouldtakenointerestin anythingexcept mechanicscomforma bly tohis horoscope. InTheSecret of Secretsthe pseudo-Aristotle refersAlexander forthevirtuesof gems andherbstohistreatisesonstonesand plants,presumably thosewhichwe have already described. Hedoesnot entirely refrainfromdiscussionofsuchmarvelous properties inthe presentwork,however,mentioning theuseof thevirtuesofstonesinconnectionwithincantations.Wealso again hearofstoneswhichwill preventanyarmy fromwith standing Alexanderor whichwillcausehorsesto whinny or keep themfrom doing so; andofherbswhich bring trueorfalse dreams orcause joy,love,hate,honor,reverence,courage, and inertia.106One recipereads, "If you takeinthenameofsomeone seven grains oftheseedsoftheherbcalled androsimon, andhold theminhisnamewhenLuciferandVenusare rising sothat their rays touchhim (orthem?), andif yougive himthose seven grains toeator pulverized in drink, fearof you willever abidein hisheartandhewill obeyyou fortherestofhislife."107 Astrologicalimages arediscussedatleastinsomeversions.108 Theextreme powers attributedtoherbsandstonesinThe Secret of Secretsarousedsome skepticismamong itsLatinreaders 106 BN 6584, fol. 21r; alsoinGaster'sHebrew version;cap. 26inthe Harvard copy. 106 Gaster,pp.116,160-62;Egerton2676, fols. 34r-35r;cap. 66 (BM. IA.10756); fol.37v. (Paris,1520). BN 6584, fol.20r-22r. 107 Egerton2676, fol. 36v; BN 6584, fol.22r. 108 Paris (1520) fol. 37; Steele (1920)lxii,157-63,252-61;Gaster,p. 159. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTheLatinPseudo-Aristotle257 ofthethirteenth century.109Geoffrey of Waterford, a Domini canfromIrelandwhodiedabout 1300, translatedTheSecret of SecretsintoFrench.He criticized,however, itsassertions concerning thevirtuesofstonesandherbsasmoreakinto fablesthanto philosophy, afactof which, he adds, allclerks whoknowLatinwellareaware.Hewonders why Alexander hadto winhisbattles by hard fighting whenAristotleis supposed toinformhiminthisbookofastonewhichwill always routthe enemy.Geoffrey decidesthatsuchfalsestatementsarethe workofthetranslatorsandthatAristotleistheauthor only of whatis wellsaidor reasonableinthework. Something issaidin TheSecret of Secretsoftheoccult prop ertiesandrelative perfection of numbers, andasusualthe preference isforthe numbers,three,four,seven, andten.110 TheHebrewversionaddsa puerile methodof divining whowill bevictorinabattle by anumericalcalculationbased upon the lettersinthenamesofthe generals. Thetreatmentof alchemy is rather,confusing andinconsistent.A recipe forthePhiloso pher's stoneis given, butinsomeversionsAlexanderis warned thatChimiaor Kimiais notatruescience.111 We may conclude our picture ofthework'scontentswith twoofits stories,namely,concerning the poisonous maidenand the Jew andthe Magus. Abeautifulmaidenwassentfrom Indiato Alexanderwithotherrich gifts. Butshehadbeenfed upon poison from infancy "untilshewasofthenatureofa snake.AndhadInot perceivedit," continuesAristotleinthe Hebrew version, "forI suspected theclevermenofthosecoun triesandtheir craft, andhadI notfound by teststhatshewould killthee by herembraceand by her perspiration, she surely wouldhavekilledthee."112Thisvenomousmaidenis alsoalluded 109 HL. XXI, 216ff. 110 Caps. 68and72 (BM.IA.10756);cap. 68 appears in Egerton2676; cap. 72inGaster'stextandintheParis (1520) edition.Icouldnotfindthe passage inBN6584. 111 BN 6584, fol. 20r-v;Egerton2676, fol. 33v.-34r.;cap. 65 (BM. IA. 10756); fols. 36v.-37r., andfol.38r. (Paris,1520);Gaster, 159-60.The warning againstalchemy doesnot appear inthetwo13th century MSSbut only the printed editionof1520andGaster'sHebrewversion. 112 Gaster,p.127;cap. 12 (Harvardcopy); alsoin BM. IA.10756, andBN 6584, fol. lOr, whereAristotleseemstodetectthevenomousnatureofthe maiden bymagic art?"Etnisi ego illahora sagaciterinspexissem in ipsam et arte m?gica iudicassem. . ."; whileitis hermerebitethatkillsmen.as Alexander afterwards provedexperimentally. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions258Thorndike toinvariousmedievaldiscussionsof poisons. PeterofAbano mentionsherin hisDevenenis.113Gilbertof England,following nodoubtGerardofCremona'stranslationof Avicenna, cites RuffusratherthanthePseudo-Aristotle concerning herand saysnothing ofherrelationsto Alexander, butadds thatanimalswho approached her spittle werekilled by it.114In"LeSecretaux philosophes," aFrenchworkofthe closing thirteenth century, wherethe story istoldatconsiderable length, SocratesratherthanAristotlesavesAlexanderfromthe poisonous maid.115 Intheother story a Magus is represented inamuchmore favorable light than magiciansgenerally were; heseemsto represent ratheroneofthePersian sages. Hewas traveling on a mulewith provisions andmeta Jewtraveling onfoot.Their talksoonturnedtotheir respectivereligions andmoralstand ards.The Magusprofessedaltruism; the Jew wasinclinedto get thebetterofall men exceptJews. Whenthese principles hadbeen stated, the Jewrequested the Magus, sincehe pro fessedtoobservethelawof love, todismountandlethimride themule.Nosoonerhadthisbeendonethanthe Jew, trueto hislawofselfishnessand hate, madeoffwithbothmuleand provisions. Thismisfortunedidnotleadthe Magus tolosehis faithin God,however, and ashe ploddedalong he by and by came againupon the Jew whohadfallenoffthe muleandbroken hisneck.The Magus then mercifullybrought the Jew tothe nearesttownwherehe died, whilethe king ofthe country made the Magus oneofhistrustedministersofstate.115 LynnThorndike WesternReserve University 113 Cap. 3. 114 Gilbertus Anglicus,Compendiummedicinae,Lyons,1510, foi.348v. 116 HL. XXX, 569ff.uDie Sage vom Giftm?dchen" isthethemeofa long monographby W. Hertz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen(1905)pp. 156-277. 116 BN 6584, fol. 27; IA. 10756,cap.68; alsoin Paris, 1520 edition, etc. Thevariouswritersofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturieswhohavebeencited inthis article, andthewhole subject of medievaloccult science, willbetreatedof more fully in myHistoryof Magic and Experimental ScienceandtheirRelation to Christian Thoughtduring the first thirteencenturies of our era, whichisnowin press. This content downloaded from 158.251.134.134 on Thu, 9 Oct 2014 12:23:47 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions